Flow of Fluids Metric Edition Technical Paper No. 410MTHROUGH VALVES, FITTINGS, AND PIPE METRIC EDITION — SI UNITS CRANE All rights reserved. This publication ie fully protected ty copyright and nothing that appears in it may be re. printed, either wholly or in part, without special per maission Crane Co. specifically excludes warranties, express or implied, as to the accuracy of the data and other information set forth in this publication and does not assume liability for any Josses or damage resulting frog the use of the materisis or application of the data discussed in this pablication, CRANE CO. 4300 Park Avenue ew York, N.¥, 10022 8 7982—-CRANE C} Eee 33.00 Price Outside U.S.A, $10.00 ‘Fechnieat Paper No. a10N ate"R.A. Dodee & M. 3. Thompson, “Find Mechert Megat Beae Company, tas, 1957; paoe 99,338, Hh Rou, “Plameatany Mecnamis of Fats" Jn Wisp Soon ie, New Fore, 806 ALF. Goce, “Simpliation of Gas Flow Caleulatons by Meine of a New Sgusai Sige Ruse’; Petclowr brgeios! September, 985. "V4 Kircoueh, “Love of Enegy in Mabe: Mand; Prom Scions of the Bani Hgeeeae Inaba, Balti Noe 3, Srna Soty"oF Mechanical Engace, New Sock, *sDowthee, Haxdoook” tiga, 194, page 10 “1. S, Pape, “Prasupo Losoy in Tubing, Pipe, and teas Iranetons of the Amertoes Soviet) of Messe] Hrgincere, Vbame ia L9SU; panes BPS to 60%. * Natonal Baginseing Labortony, "Stam Tables 1364" MSO Lainbarph Uk ™ “R. FStenros R. M. Jason, RR, Fons, ant CA. {ieson, “Flow Mevauenet With Oilice Never. Vari oatand Compeay fe, New Vox, 1551 ‘aFted Morey"; Acta Soviets of Mechanical Einacs, Part Lbs Baiton, New Vorks 1991 RG. Cominghum, “Orifie Nets with Supetcritial Compress Flow ASME Paper Ne. SDeAS "*Ae Confer Rehigeg Det Bak-Deven* Actes Socks of Refigorting Engtnaar, Oth Base, few York, 1553 *W. 1. Nelson, “Poretaan Kafinery Rrgtranng”) Met iv ook Ce New vere, 1929 Dow Chama Co. Mand, "Lionel S, sluts, Wechaneal aginee Harabook Medtowetht wack ce, New Vere, 2951 CRANE 1, Mayhew & ©. F.C. Roget, “Thcmodynansc #54 Hanger Proper of Fal? Era! ches Onto ME 9, Maxell, “Duta Book on Hydeacnbare’: 1D. San Noston Coman nen New York (930 MG 1, Comp and 0, Rutie, “Low of lead ig Vals ut Sipe of Dao ta Teche tase Diameter" Vivre af conan Exot Sion buts, Vola 9. 0,1. Tove ana K# spranvi,“Uibine Onur Cott Sent for Winsor Ligele'sfasonaonts, Novem, eh, pase 20 "La Moody, “Friston Factors for Pipe Flow": Tara Scions of the Aruican Socety of Mechanica! Prnccers ohare 66, Novembes, 1944: paaes 671 (oe A HL Snape, “zme nyamice aad thermody tums Coopers Bia Hat's The Konale tes Cony bs chapter’ ASME Steam Tables 1967, Prowse Lotes for Fut Flow te 0 tnpiee dowrsl of Renereh of ihe atone! trot oF Sandards, ous 2 Sul. 1938 ovr Standard Hundnoote fat Mechonica! Lira Seventh Raison 1966, Marne fll Eoor Ca, New Noh ingham, EC. and Hakan, Rf, Buco 0 Sader Beabetin 14: pages SH to 66 TS INE. Auman TK i919) 1B, Weymoum, Demuntont of tee Amenican Severs ‘Metin! retoer Votes, WES spe Ta) "RL. S. Pgott “The How of Fue Clos Conds, ‘Beteacal Engineering, Value ss) Se. mae paca! “mony Kemer, “A Study of Data on he Flow of Fide In Bey" Pangycitonee) tae drmeroan Soviet 9f Mecha tel Besincer, Val $8, 1935, INOS *thetecok of Chemutey and Physics” 44th Ean, 19821065. Ghose" Rabbse Publntang Con, Cleedana 1, Stsetes, “Find Moshanlee™ foi Edition, 1981, *-Standants of HyduaulieInsnee™, Eighuh Elo, 1987 lnerntional Gas Uston, Appendls 1 of eport “Tobie: usive (fom Srcchanscabiley cf Scand Tals see NevisFOREWORD ‘The more ccrmplex indusizy becomes, the more vital becomes the role played by fuids in the fnaustriat machine, One hundred years ago Water wat th? only Hrmpertent fluid which was conveyed from sve point to another in pips. ‘Today, elmo! every concensble uid s handled in pipe during its production, processing, tracs- portation, or uldication The age of atomic fenengy an osket power his added fluids such ar guid metaly 4, sovtum, potassiam, fang bismuth, a: well at guid oxygen nitrogen 6, «0 the list of more common fluids such 4s oll, ater, ges, aids, and liquors that are being’ transported ie. pipe today. Nor Js the portation of Gus the only pha of luydrauliss which warrants sttention now. Hydrauke ane pneumaiie mecharisins ace wed exiensively To the controls of modern aera, seagoing vesels, automorse equipment, ‘machine tools, earthmonna and road-dullding machines, aad even in scientific laboratory cquipmest whore precise control of fluid flow isrequicee So extensive are the applications of hydraulics fand fluié mectanics that almost every engineer has found it necessary to fimibiarize humselt ‘with at ast she elementary Bat of Tuié fon To satisty 2 demand for a siple and pe: lusatracnt of the subject of Mow in pine, Crane Co, published in 1935, « boodlet entitled Flow of Fhuids and Heat Trausmission. A revised tition on the subject of Flow of Plus "Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe wat put lished in 1942. Techneal Poper No. 410, com: pletely new elton with an all-new Format wes intsoduced ja 1957. In TP. 410, Crane hes ndesvoured to prosent the Tstest_avallable Information on flow of fuigs, in summarized form with all auniary deta necessary t0 the solution of all bat che most unusual fluid Flow problems, From 1987 until the present, there have been numerens printings of Tesanizal Paper No. 410. Fach successive printing is updsted. as neces sary, to reflec the latoct Hew mosmation aval Able, This ceasinwal upcating. we believe. sesves fhe bese inevess of the users i publication. ‘The fifteenth printing (1975 edition) presented 4 conooatual change regarding the vslues of Equwslert Length "LjD and Resistance Co- efficient °A™ for vales ard fitings relative 10 the frietion factor in pipes. This change hed teletWaly minor effect on miox: problems dealing with flow conditions that result is Reynolds robes Fling inthe turbulent zone. However. for flew ithe laminar 2ope, the change avorced {significant overstatement of pressure drop Consistent with the conceptual revision, che resistance 10 flow through valves and {tings svar eapresnd in terms of resistance coefficient “A iesteal of equivalent length “Z/D", snd the coverage of valve and ftting tse vas oxpandes, Parsher important revisions inched the up: ating of steam viscosity. data, orifice costh lant, and nozzle coe'ctents LP. 410M was introduced in early 1977 as 4 etre version of the ileenth printing of TP 419, Teonpeal daca, vita cera exception. ace Dresenicd in eam of St ctr units. Exceptions ‘Scour in eatances where present unis cut the SI sytem (ea, noni! pipe sizes in inches) fare expecied to continue in ose for an indefinite period, o> where aprcemsnt has aot yet Been Feached on the epeciie mete units to be used (Ge tor flow evettciens) Successive printings of T.P. 410M, tke 1. 410, are upcsted as necossary to elect latest, flow ‘information availble, Arrangement of toateria| m alike in 0th editions. Theory is presensed im Chapters | and 2. practical 2p Plisaton to ow probes in Chapter 3 ane 4 physical properties of Nuids end flow charace letistos of valves tings, aed pipet» Appendix ‘A... ad convertion units and other usefial fenginecting data sn Appendix B. Mow of rhe data on Maw avough valves aud fitnings were obtained by carefully conducted expermenis tne Crane Engineering Lave ratories. Liberal ose fas beew made, boneve:, ‘of other reliable sources of data on this sabies fand due e1ecit has been given these sources in the tex!, The bibliography of references wil plovide + source for farther study of the su ject presen. CRANE Co./ Table of Contents = euapren 2 CHAPTER T Theory of Flow in Pipe Introdvetion Nature of Flow in Pipe Lamirar end Turbulent ones Mean ‘elocity of flow i Reynelds number. Fydewulte radius General Energy Equation — Bernoulli's Theorem... Measurement of Pressure Darey’s Formula — General Equation for Flow of Fluids . ton factor . : ect of age und ase on pi Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe namennen Complete Kothezmal equation 1 Sanplified compressible {B88 pipe fine Formal sneered BS ‘Other commenly usee formulas for ccorapressibje low in long pipe lines Comparison of formulas fot ‘compressible flow in pipe lines Limiting flow af goses and vapors 1 Discuss sanunssnsnimenansn AO CHAPTER 3 ————— Formulas and Nomographs for Flow Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Tniroduction, mee ‘Summary of Formulas ue Formulas and Nomographs for Liquid Flow . Veloaiy on 8-6 Reynolds umber. fletion factor ean steel pipe sn 38 Pressure crop for turbulent flow 3o19 Pressure ¢rop for Iaminar flow 3-12 Flow through aozzles and orifices. Bola Formulss and Nomoarophe for Comprassioe Bh Velocity gegen RTS Reynolds number; (rietisn factor lean steel pipe a. drop. ‘i od Flow formala haseses ond oth Flow of Fluids ‘Through Valves and Fittings ‘Types af Valves and Fittings Used in Pipe Syscems Pressure Diop Chargeable 4p Vaives ana Fitting Crane Flow Tests Description of apparetus used Water love vest = om Steam flow tests = 2s Relstionship of Prescure Drop 10 Velocity of Flow 7 wal Resistence Coefficient Equivalent Leagtht TD. and Fiow Cos Laminar Flow Conditions . Contrzction and Enlagement n wl Valves with Reduced Seuts Resistance of Bends Resistance of Mitre Bens Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices GeReral dO19 eran igus Flow Ges and vapor flow Meximum Now of compn fluids in a nozae.. . love through shor tubes > Discharge of Fide Taroush aloes, Picings, and Pipe Taguid Mow Comprossibte fie CHAPTER 4 Examples of Flow Proisiems Introduction . 2: Reynokis Number ard Friction Factos for Pipe Other than Steal Determinatiog of Vaive Resistenee in L, £/D.K, and Flow Coeff Check Valves ~ Deseri R Port Valves — of Diseherge: Laminar Flow in Valves, Pree op an Velo Pipe Line Flow Probien Discharge of Fluids tre Flo Applicailon of HyciuAPPENDIX 6 Physical Propertios of Fluids and Flow Characteristios of Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Introduction. Physical Properties of Fluils ‘Viscosity of steam . $ OF WOES rar : Viscosity of iquid pairoleum products Viscority of various lignidis = Viscosity of gases anc hydrocarbon sapars, \Viscouty of refrigerant vapors Physical properties of watei Specific gravity ~ temperature relationship (or petroieura ofl .. Density and specific ‘guEvity of vacious liquids Physical propertios of gases Steam — values of 7 Density and specific ‘vollime of gases and vapors Volumetzie composition and spocifie gravity 9F gasecs Fusts Properties; saturated sear Properties: superheated steam Flow Characteristics of ‘Nozzles and Oritices Flow coeificien! C for nozzles .. Flow coefficient Cor ‘square edged orifices Net expansion factor Y or gemprossidle OW wn. Critical pressure ratio, 7. for compressible flow . Flow Characterisies of Pipe, Valees, and Fittings Net expansion facr0" ¥ for compressible ‘lov? through pipe 10 s larger Flow area [Relative toughness of pipe materials ane. friction Factor for complete turbulence . Freon facioes oo ‘any iype of carumesctal pipe Friction factors for clean ‘commercial £20] PIpE sn Representative Resistan Tor Valves and Fittings ~ Pipe friction factors Formulas, contisccios at enlargement Formas: redveed por Sheek valves Stop-check nd to: Ball ond butterfly vetves Plug valves and cocks Betis and fitsngs Pipe entrance and ex Equivalent Lengths and L/D and Resistance Coefficient X Nemozteph re M8 a9 An10 Ant? A-1S ats Ao oo 520 Az A-21 APPENDIX 8 ae Engineering Data Introduction Equivalent Volume and Mass Flow Rates of Compressible Fluids Equivalents of Viscosity ‘Absolute (Dynamic) Kinematte Kinematic and Sayboit Universal Kinematic and Saybolt Furol nematic, Saybolt Universal, ‘Saybol? Foro), and Absolute Suybolt Universal Viscosity Chart a Equivalents of Degiees APL, Degrees Baumé, Specifie Gravity, and Density Incernational Systern of Units (S1) ue Conversion Equivalents Length, Nel sneumrcan Vola sovnn seen Liquid Measure Velocity Mars ccna Mast Flow Rate Voiumetsie Rate oi Force Prostuté and Liguid Hisad --rcrcrsecmensns BHI Energy, Wark, Heat. eae Power Bo loge Through Schedule <0 Steel Pipe ‘Waser wus BAB, BAS A Boia BS Conapersil Stee! Pipe Data Schedules 10:10 160 B16 Standard, extia strong, 3d duble extra stiong B17 Stainless Steel Pipe Data a surannennnnenens Bet Commercial Stee! Pipe Data TSO 336 and BS 3600 - B19 Power required for Pumping B21 Fahrenheit Colsius Temperature Conversion .... B22 —-~ MISCELLANEOUS —— tustrations of Typica! Valves ee Giabe, angle, ane stoprcheck ere Lt and swing check ind Ae Tating dice check and foot ans Gate, ball, and buttentiy as Cocks "Anis Bibliography see second page of book Foreword page of book Nomencit ee sons S08 ERE BEBE—-— APPENDIXA Physical Properties of Fivids ‘and Flow Characteristics of Valves, Fittings, and Pipe rtr0dvetion encase Physical Properties of Fluids Viscosity of steam « Viscosity of water... ¢ Viscosity of liquid petroleum products Viscosity of various liquids zs Viscosity of gases ené hydrocarbon vaposs ‘Viseauly of tefsigerant vapors .. Plysical properties of water «= Specific gravity ~ temperature ‘elationghip fox pettoleum oils specific ravity of various Liquids Phynieat properties of gases Steam — values of ose Density and specific volkime of gases and vapors Votumetnc composition and specifi gravity of gaseous fucks ou ‘Prapertics; saturated Steam .. Properties; superheated steam Flow Characteristics of ‘Nouzles and Orifices Plow coefficient Cor nozzles Flow coefficient Cfo: square edged orifices « Nel expansion factor Y for compressibte flow Cuitical pressare ratio, 7. for compressible f10¥ . Flow Characteristics of Pipe. Valves, and Fittings NS axparson fear ¥ for someyensle ‘Tow through pipe tp a larger flow atea Relative roughness of pipe materials and friction factor for gormplete turbulence Fristion factors for ‘ny type of commorcial pipe .~ Fristion factors for clean. ‘commercial steel pipe Representative Resistarice Coefficients (&) for Valves and F ttings — °K” Factor Table Pipe friction fuctors ie Formulas; co ‘enlergernent Forms reduce port valves and fittings Gate, globe and angie valves Cheek valves Stop-check and foo! valves Ball and Succerfty valves it hug valves and vocks sao Tends and fittings... " Pipe entrance and 2xit action aad Equivalent Lengths L and £/D ‘and Resistance Coe(Mieient K Nemograph AR, rE oe peer > ped Aad us A a ‘A & s s al 23 24 25 6 26 Aa? s A na TA. 28 38 29 APPENDIX B — Engineering Data pate Invoduction Ba Equivslent Volume and Mass Flow Rétes of Compressible Fluids Equivalents of Viseostt ‘Absolute (Dynamic} Be Kinematic a es a3 Rineratic and Saybolt Universal... Bo Kinematic and Saybolt Fucol Kinematic, Saybolt Universal, ‘Savbolt Furol, and ABSOIUEE soe ene Bod Scybolt Universal Viseosity Chart Equivalents of Degrees APL, Degrees Bauimé, Specific Gravity, and Density’... B-7 International System of Units (SI) coon BS Conversion Equivalents Length, Aired Volume Lignid Messuce Vetocity Mass Moss Plow Rate Yetumetsie Rete of ow Pressure and Liguid Head Energy, Work, Heat. Power " Fiow Through Schedule 40 Stee! Pipe Water B13, BS Air TN BO B-15 Commercial Steel Pipe Data Schedules 10 to 160 B16 | Standard, extra strong, | ‘and double extra shiong. BAT Stainless Stee] Pipe Data s Bs Commercial Stee} Pipe Data 180 336 and BS B19 Power required for Pamping + Fakrenbeit — Celsius Temperature Conversion [|_..___. MISCELLANEOUS ——-——~ hustrations of Typical Valves = 1, aigle, ANE MOPHECK pon Al ad swing check TP Faad 4-18 Tiling dise che and [Ot een inemsamoe ADD Gate, ball, and butterfly 19 Cocks Hinge S19 Bibliogrep! _ x89 second page of book Foreword _.- see third page of book 1 Nomensiature .. 1. see next pageNomenclature Unless otherwise stated, all symbole used in this book are defined es foliows: A = cross sectional area of plp= 07 orifice, in square metres a = cross sectional area of pipe or orifice, or flow ‘area in valve, fa square millimetres rate of flow in bartels (42 US gallons) per hour flow coefficient for orifices and nozzies = dis. Charge coefTickent corrected for velocity of approach = Ca / sf Cy = discharge coefficient for oriees and nozzles C= fox coefficient for valves = internal diameter of pipe, in metres internal diameter of pipe in milimettes base of natura logarithm = 2.318 friction factor in formula ky =fL22/D 26 y friction actor in tone of complete turbulence acceleration of gravity = 981 mettes per second ‘per second total head, in metres of Mid static prescure head existing ata point, in metres of ui _ ‘ny, = toss of static pressure head dve to fluid flow, in metres of Aid ssatic pressure head, in rifimetres of water resistance coaffisient or velocity head Toss Ta ‘the formals, hy, = Koz length of pipe, in metres ‘equivalent length ofa resistance to flow, in pipe ‘diameters Loy ® length of pipe in kilometres A = molecular weight (molecular mass] P= pressure, in newions per square motte (pascals) eae Pr = presuie, in newtons per square metre (pesca) cabsolite (seepage 15 for dag sowing relation (hip bruce gauge and asotute pretures = pressure, in bars gouge pressure, in bars absolute rate of flow, in litres per minute tate of flow, in cubie metres per second at flow. ing conditions = rate of flow, in cuble metres per second 3t matric standard conditions (MSC)=1.013 25, bat absolute and 15°C 4/4 * rate of flow, in millions of cubic metres per day at MSC gin * rate of flow, in cubic metres pet hour at MSC Gm = rate of flow, in cubic ruetree per minute 21 flowing consitions Ym = tete of flow, in-cubie metres per minute at MSC Ry = universal gas constant = 8314 Skg-—mol K R= individual gas constant = Ro/M Jkg K (wliese “M = molecular weight of the gas) Reynolds rumber Ahydrautic rasius, in. motres ciltcal pressure ratio for compressible How specific gravity of liquids at specified temper. ature relative to water at standard temper- ature (15°C) ~ (colative density) Sy = specific gravity of a gas relative to air = the ratio of the molecular weight of the ges to that of air (relative density) T= absolute temperature, in kelvins (273 + 9) = temperature, in dagrees Celsius P= specific volume of fluid, in cubic motres per kilogram ¥ = mean velocity of flow, in metzes per minute volume, in ewbic metres mean velocity of flow, in metres per second sonic (or critical) velocity of flow of a gas, in ‘metres per second W = rate of flow, in kilograms per hour w= rate of flow, in kilograms per second We = ms, in kilograms Y= net expansion factor for compressible flow ‘through orifices, nozzles, or pipe Z = potential head or elevation above reference evel, in metres Greek Letters Bou f= ratio of small to large diameter in orifices and nozzles, and contractions or enlargements ia pipes 7 = ratio of specific heat at constant pressure 19 specific heat at constant volume = ¢y/¢y 4. = differential between two points = absolute roughness or effective height of pipe ‘wall ieregutarities, in millimetres k= dynamio (absolute) viscostty, in centipoise i’ = dynamic viscosity, in newton seconds per square ‘etre (puseal seconds) Nw » = kinematic viscosity, in centistokes w= Iinematie viscosity, metzes squared per second ho = weight density of fui, Klograms per cubic motte p’ = density of fui¢, grams per cubic centimetre Sige = = summation Thay 9 = angle of convergence or divergence in enlarge ‘ents 0¢ contractions in pipes ‘Subseripts for Diameter (1) ...Gefines smaller diameter (2). -eefines larger diameter Subsericts for Fluld Property (2) «defines inlet (upstream) condition (2) .. defines outlet (downstream) conditionTheory of Flow In Pipe CHAPTER 1 The riost commonly employed method of transporting flute from one paint to another 1 to force the fluid to low Rhrough 2 piping system. Pipe of circular section is most Frequently used because that shape offers not ocly greater structural strength, but also greater cross sectional ates por nit of wall surface then any other shape, Unless otherwise Siated, the word “pipe” in this book will always refer to a Closed conduit of eireular section and constant internal Gigmeter. Only 1 few special probloms in uid mechanics ,.. jaunt flow in pipe, for example . . .. cam be entirely solved by: rational mathematical means; ail other problems require nethods of solution which rest, at least in part. on exceri- TRentally determined cvefficients. Many empirical formulas have been proposed for the problem of flow in pipe, but these are ofien exeremaly Hanited and can be applied only: lohen the conditions of the problem closely approach the Conditions of the experiments from which the formulas ‘were derived. Recause of the great variety of fluids being handled in modern industrial processes, 2 single equation which car Be used for the flow of any fluid in pipe offers obvious advantages. Such an equation is the Darcy* formula, The fiavey fermula can be derived ration ally by means of dimen Clone! analysis: however, one variable in the formula fie friction factor... must be dotsemined experimentally his formula hos 2 wide application in the fieid of fuid mechanics and is used extensively throughout this paper. tne Dacey forma 6 ive ksown 99 the Weisbach formula or he Dane Ti Dosey form ge, 1 the Faring forme, sometimes modified so chet Tere Ribs sue fouem the Duss triton Factor.cuaett \EORY OF FLOW INP CRANE Physical Properties of Fluids The solution of any flow problem requizes a knowledge of ‘the physical properties of the fluid being handled. Accurate values for the properties affecting the low of fluids ‘namely, viscosity and mas density .. . have been estab- lished by many authorities for all commonly used Muids and many of these data are presented in the various tables and charts in Appendix A. ‘Viscosity: Viscosity expresses the readiness with which 2 fluid flows when it i acted upon by an external force ‘The coefficient of ebsolute viscosity or, simply, the sbse- lute viscosity of a fluid, is a measure of its resistance to internal deformation or shear. Molasses is « highly viseous uid; water is comparatively much less viseous; and the viscosity of gases is quite small compared to that af water Although most fluids are predictable in their viscosity, in some, the viscosity depends upon the previous workiag of ‘the fluid. Printec’s ink, wood pulp slurries, and catsup are examples of fluids porssssing such thixotropic properties of viscoxy. Considerable confusion exists concerning the units used to express viscosity: therefore, proper units must be employed whenever substituting velues of viscosity into formulas, Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity: The coherent Si unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal second (Ps 5) which may also be expressed as the newton second per square metre (N s/m*), or as the kilogram per metre second kg/dn §). ‘This unit has also been called the poiseule (PI) in France but it should be noted that it is not the same as the poise (P) described below. ‘The poise is the corresponding unit in the CGS system of | units and has the dimensions of dyne seconds per square centimetre or of grams per centimetre secand. The sub- multiple centipoise (eP), 10-* poise, ir the unit most com monly used at present io express dynaraic viscosity and this situation appears likely to continue for some time, For this reason, and since most handbooks and tables follow the same procedure, all viscosity data in this paper are expressed in centipoises. The relationship between pascal second and caatipoise ts: 1Pas Le 1 Nojm? = 1 ke{ms) = 10° cP = 107 Pas {In this paper the symbol g is used for viscosity measared in contipoise end u’ for viscosity measured in pascal second units. The viscosity of water at temperature of 20°C is very neatly } centipoise* or 0.001 pascal seconds, Kinematic Viscosity: This is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density. In the Si system the unit of kinematic viscosity is the metre squared per second (74/5), ‘The corresponding CGS nit is the stakes (St), dimensions. centimettes squared per second and the cantistoke {eS«), 10-* stokes, is the subraultiple commonly used, Lmijs= 10" oS 1eSt *10-+ mafs ceatipote) > (Cents) = ae per cube eR) Factors for conversion between the St and CGS units described shove and also for Imperial units of dynamic ‘and kinematic viscosity are given om page B-3 of Appen- xB. The measurement of the absolute viscosity of fluids (specially gases and vapous) requireselaborate equipment and considerable experimental skill. On the other ban 9 rather simple instrament in the form ofa tube viscometer or viseosimeter canbe used for meararing the Kinematic: viscosity of oils and other viscous liquids. With this type of instrument the time required for a small volume of liquid io flow through an orifice is determined zad the measurement of Kinematte viscosity expresed in. terms of seconds Various forms of tube viscosimeters are used resulting in empirical scales such as Saybolt Univercel, Seybott Furol (for very visoous Htquids), Redwood No I and No 2 and Engler. Information on the relationships between these empirical viscosities and Kinematic and dynamic viscosities in absolute units is included in Appendix B, ‘The ASTM standard viseoslty teraperatuse chart for liquid petroleum products, reproduced on page B-6 i used to determine the Sayboli Universal viscosity of 2 petroleum product at any temperature when the viscosities at rwo different temperatures are known. The viscosities of some ‘of the most common fluids are given on pages A-2 to AS Ht will be noted that, with a rise in temperature, the vs. cosity of Liquids decreases, whereas the viscosity of gases ‘ncreames, The effect of preseuré on the riscosity of fiquids ‘and perfect gases 1s :0 small that it is of no practice! interest in most flow problems. Conversely, the viscosity ‘of saturated, or only slightly superbeated,vapours appreciably altered by pressure changes, as indicates wi Page AD showing the viscosity of steam. Unformnasch, the data on vapours aze incomplete and, in some cores contradictory. Therefore, it is expedient when deafing with vapours other than steam to neglect the effect of pressure because of the lack of adequate data, “aerwally the vigosty of water 22 20°C Is 1002 sanipotee CHancbook of Ghetnsty and Pigaler” S4th Baition 2973-4 CRC ress)CRANE Density, specific volume and specific gravity: The density fof a substance is its mast per unit yolume, The cahereni $1 unit of density ts the kilogram por cubic metre (ieg/m*} and the symbol designation used in thls paper i ¢ (Rho). Other commoaly used metric units are ram per cubic centimetre (g/em?}| gfe or | orl gm gram por millitre (@/ml) } = 1000 kgin* The coherent SL unit of specific volume 7, whieh is reciprocal of density, is the cubie mete per kilogram Getke) pak aide Other commorily used metric units for specific volume are litre per kitogsam (litre/kg) 1 hitrefkg ot or | dempcg ‘euble decimete per kilogram (m'Zke}] = 0.008 m/e, ‘The variations in density and other propertics of water swith changes in temperature are shown on page A:6. The densities of other common liquids 2re shown on page A-7. ‘Unless very high pressures are being considered the effect of pressure on the density of liquids is of no practical importance i flow probtems. ‘The densities of gases and vapours, however, are greatly altered by pressure changes. For the so-called “perfec pases, the density can be computed ftom the formu pg, lou RE o” BF The individual gas constant & is equal to the universal x38 constant R, (8314 J/kg~mol K) divided by the moleculae ‘welght of the gas, Re , 8314 Weg K Values of R, a8 woll as other useful gas constants, are given on pige AS. The density of alr for various conditions of temperature and pressure oan be found on pane A. Specific volume is commonly used in steam flow com: tations and values are fisted in the steam cables shown ‘on pages AC13 to Acl7. A chart for determining the dansisy and specific volume of gases is yiven on page Acti _____ Physical Properties of Fluids ~ continued Specific gravity (or relative density) is a relative measure of density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon the density of liquids, temperature is the only condition teat must be considered 10 designating the bass for specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio OF its density at a specified ‘empersture to that of water at some siandard temperaiure. Usually the temperatures ‘are the tame and 60°F/60"F (15,6°C/15.6°C) is com monly usod, Rounding off to 15°C/1S°C does not crcate ‘any significant exter. any Uiquid at specified temperature gm 2 specilied wemperstore p water OF (ISOC) ‘A hydromotar can be sed 10 measure she specific gravity of a liquid directly. Two hydrometer scziee in common suse are: Baumé scales. There liquids heavier than water and one for liquids fighter than wate1, ‘The relationships between these hyydrometer scales and specific gravity arc: For oi, rans SHEED = Tag aT ‘Poe figuids Jehter than water, 40. SCOOFISTE) ~ T30 ieg. Baume For Uquics buaver shen water, 145 ‘deg. Baume S(GPFISOF) * iG For converting hydrometer readings to more useful units refer to table on page B-7 i pide ley as te Sei as eatin the ssctlar dant ote gato Gal of a anda there of the individual gas constant of six to that of gas, jy = Bia) Mw) e Rigas) Misi}CHAPTER 1 — THEORY Physical Properties of Fluids — continued Density, specific volume and specific gravity: The density ‘of e substance i its mass per unit volume, The coherent SI vnlt of density isthe iilogram per cubic metre (kg/m) ond the symbol designation used in this paper is » (Rho). ‘Other commonly used metric units axe: -kram per cubic contimetse (gle) 1 gjem® or on giml gram per mullite (gil) = 1000 kgiin® ‘The sohoront SI unit of specific volame 77, which is the esiprocel of denuity, is the cubic meize per kilogram fa) ‘Other soramonly used metric units for specific volume are: lite per Kilogram tel kg) Vitrefeg or onl deve cali dectmetre per kilogram (dn?/%g)| = 0.001 m*/k The variations ip density and other properties of water with changes in tamperatite are shown on page 86, The demsities of ativer common liquids are shawn on page A-7 Uniess very high pressures are being considered the offect cof pressute on the density of liquids is of no practical importance in flow problems. ‘The densities of gases and vapours, however, are areatly altered by pressure changes. For the so-called “perfect” gases, the density can te computed from the Forowla, Pe 105p RT “The individual ps constans R i ea to the versal gee Constant Ry (8314 Hkg-mol K)cvied by the molecular ‘weight M of the gas, Ry _ 4 Roe Jk K Values of R, as well as other useful gas constants, are ghen on page 4:8. The density of air for various conditions of temperature and pressure can be found on page AiO. Specific volume is commonly used in steam flow com putetions and values ate listed in ths steam tables shown fon peges Ad3 to AT, A chart for determining the deasity anal specific yolume of gases is given on page AAI] Specific gravity (or relative density) is & relative measure cof density. Since pressure has an insignificant effect upon the density of liquids, temperature is the only condition thar must be considered in designating the basis for specific gravity. The specific gravity of a liquid isthe ratio of its density at a specified temperature to that of water at some standard teraperature. Usually the iomperaturet are the sume and 60°F/60"F (15.6°C/15.6°C) 15 com: monly used. Rounding off to 15*C/1S°C does not create any significant ercor. eny lguid at j= Dompetiod nents water 31 60°F (50°C) A hycrometer can be used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid directly. Two hydrometer seales In common use ars: APE scale, used for oils. Baumé scales. There are two kinds im usec one for Ligaids heavier than water and one for Hiquids lignter than water ‘The relationships between these hydrometer scales ond specific gravity are: Fer i ao SCORSCE) = TT5 deg APT For liquids lighter than water, 130-4 des. Baumé S(COF/EOF) = a For igus heaviar than water, 145 SCO FOOE) = 5 eg, aud i For converting hydrometer readings to more usef units rofor 10 table on page BT ‘The specific gravity of gases is defined os the ratio of the rmolkeular weight of the gas to that of air, and as the ratio Of the individual gas constant of air to shat of x08. ss, Ria), Mies) * = Rigs) ~ MiaNature of Flow in Pipe ~ Figura 1-41 Lerner Flow ‘Actual photograph of coloured famont: feng ried woe ancaturoes Oy becoming turbulent AA simple experiment (illustrated above) will readily show there are two entirely different types Of flow in pipe. The experiment consists of injecting sill steams of acoloured uid into a liquid owing in a glass pipe and observing the behaviour of these coloured streams at different sections downstream fiom their points of injection, AF tho discharge or average velocity sinall, the streak of coloured fluid flow in straight lines, as shown in Figure 1-1 As the flow rate is gradually increased, these sizeaks will ‘continue to flow in straight lines untia velocity is reached when the streaks will waver and suddenly bresk into diffused pattems, xs shown in Figure 1.2. The velocity at whlch this occurs is called the “‘erltical velocity”. At vvelocitis higher than “critical”, dhe Mamentsare disperse at random throughout the miin body of the fluid, as shown in Figure 13 ‘The type of flow which exists at velocities lower than “entical” is known as laminar ow and, sometimes, as viscous oF streamline ‘low. Plow of thisnatuce ischaracter- ized by the gliding of concentric cylindrical layers pest ‘one another in ordesly fashion. Velocity of the fluid is at lis maximum at the pipe axis and decreases sharply to ze10 at the wall At velocities greater than “critical”, the low is turbulent. 4p turbulent flow, there is an irregular random motion of ‘laid particles in directions transverse to the dizection of the main flow. The velocity distribution in turbulent flow is more unifoum across the pipe Giameter shan in laminar flow. Even though a turbulent motion exists throughout the greater portion of the pipe diameter, there i always a thin layer of flaid at the pipe wall . . known as the “boundary layee” or “laminar sub layer". . .. which is ‘moving in laminar flow. Mean velocity of flow: The tor “velocity”, unless other- wise stated, refers to the mean, or average, velocity at 2 tivea cross section, as determined oy the continuity equa- ton for steady state flow: @ wi ae a Equation 132 Aap a (Wr nomenelaeate, soe pags pusceding Chapter 1) “Reasonsbie” velocities for use in design work are given on pages 36 and 3.46 oo OHAPTERDT = THEORY OF FLOW IN IEE = ‘ag the cits wolocity, the laments begin to break up, indieating flow is Laminer and Turbulent we ress Figo 13 “rarmaane Flow “This thustraion shone he turbance in The’ steam completsly dapersing the coloured flemantaa short datas dew ffrwam fromthe pobrt of nsetion. Reynolds number: The work of Osborne Reynolds has showa thet the nature of flow in pipa .... that's, whether it i laminar or turbulent . . . . depends on the pipe Giameter, the density and viscosity of the owing (uid, and the velocity of flow. The numerical value of a dimen- sionless combination of these four variables, known ss the Reynolds number, may be considered to be the ratio of the dynamte forces of mass flow (o the shear stress due to viscosity. Reynolds naraber is: ap ray (ether forme of thi equstion: page 3-2) For engineering purposes, ow in pipes is usually con sigered to be laminar if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, and turbulent if the Reynolds number is greater ‘han 4000, Between these two values lies the “critical zone” where the flow... being Jaminar, turbulent, or in the process of change, depending upon many possible varying conditions... is unpredictable. Careful experi mentation has shown that the laminat zone may be mace to terminate at a Reynolds mumber as low 25 1202 or extendad as high as 40,000, but these conditicns are not expected to be realized in ordinary practice. Re Equstion 1.2 Hydraulic radius: Occasionally a conduit of nom-cireular crows section is encountered. in calculating the Reynolds ‘number for this condition, the equivalent diameter (four limes the hydraulic radius) is substituted for the circular diameter. Use friction factors given on pages A24 and AS: Wetted perimeter ‘This epplies to any ordinary conduit (Gireular conduit not flowing fall, oval, square or rectangular) but noi 1 extremely narrow shapes such 28 annular o° elongated ‘openings, where wich is small relative co length Tx such ‘28508, the hydrautie radius és approximately equal tone bal the width of the passage “To datormine quantity of flow in fellowing fom ae vi the value of dis based upon an equtlent dinnetey vt actual flow area and 4p i substived fox D Q = 020872CRANE —eaSPTERT ScTHEORY OF FrOwIN RIPE“ General Energy Equation Bernoulli's Theorem ‘The Bernoulli theorem is 2 means of expressing the application of the law of conservation of energy to the flow of fluids in » conduit, The total energy at any par- ticular point, above some arbitray Rorizontal datum Acbirary Horizontal Datum Plane Fgura Energy Hatance for Two Points in Fluid ‘Adapted tomy Plaid btechantes™ by R.A. Dose Gnd Me J. Thompron, Capyrieht 1937: NeGraw IL Bok Company os plane, is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head, and the velocity head, as follows: peti Zen fee” 2m If friction Josces are nanlected and no. energy is added to, or taken from, 2 piping system (ie., pumps or turbines), the total head, Hf, in the above equation will be a constant for any point in the fiuid. However, in actual practice, losses or energy icteases or decreases are encountered and must be incluéed in the Bernoulli equation. Ths, an ‘energy balance may be written for two points in a fd, as shown in the example in Figure 14. Note the pipe ffictica loss from point 1 to point 2 (hy) may be zeferred to as the head loss in meties of fluid ‘The equetion may be weitren as follows: Equation 13. Aw Ps sfiezes Z,4 Pike 2B thew Pin 28m * ‘All practical formule for the flow of Muids are derived from) Bemoulli’s theorem, with modifications to account for losses due to friction. Measurement of Pressure | 3] & Hl i 3 3] Og i 5 cs rsnencaiaega ag Figure 18 Retaionship Beeyeen ‘saps an AnroWe Prosures Figure 1-5 graphically dlusteates the relationship between ‘gauge and absolute pressures, Perfect racutumn cannol exist (on the surface of the earth, but IC nevertheless makes 4 ‘convenieat detum for the measuremer of pressure Barometric pressures the Yevel of the atmospheric prossare above perfect vacuum, “Standard” atmospheric presaure 8 1.01325 bar (14.6959 ibt fin?) or 760 millimetres of mercury. Gauge pressure is measured above etmospherie pressure while sbsolute pressure always refers to perfect vacuum asa base acu is the depsession of prassure below the stm0- spheric level. Reference to vacuum conditions 38 often rade by expressing the absolute prossure in terms of the height of a column of morcury o7 of water. Millimewe of ‘mercury, micrometve (micron) of mercury, inch of water and inch of mescury, are some of the commonly used ‘conventional units “ali suveror figures uted es reference marks tejert0 the Bibliography16 CHAPTER 1 THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE CRANE Darcy's Formula General Equation for Flow of Fluids Flow in pipe is always eecompanied by friction of uid particles rubbing against one another, and consequently, by loss of energy available for work; in other words, there must be 2 pretsure drop in the directn of Row. If ‘ordinary Bourdon tube pressure gauges were connected to apipe containing lowing fluid, as shown in Figare 1.6, gauge P, would inckate p. @ Or a 2 higher statie pressuse Figure V8 than gauge P,. ‘The general equation for pressure drop, kao Dateys fomauls and expressed meter of fuld, © iu, = {LAD 2gq. This equation may be weitten to express plessine drop in aewtons per squase metse (pascals) by substitution of proper units, as follows: ofl a= 2D (sinos AP = hy * 0% 9) Equation 14 For other fommsaf this equation, s92 page 3-2 ‘The Darcy equation is valié for laminar or turbulent low of any liquid in a pipe. However, when extreme velocities occurring in a pipe cauee the dowastresmn pressure to fall to the vapour pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and eaculated flow rates will be inaccurate. With suitable restrictions, the Darey equation may be used when gases and vapours (compressible fluids) are being handled. These restrictions are defined on page 1-7. ‘Equation 1-4 gives the Joss in pressure due to fiteclon and applies 10 pipe of constant diameter canying Muids of reasonably constant density in straight pipe, whether horizontal, vertical, or loping. For inclined pipe, vertical pipe, of pipe of varying diameter, the change in pressure ‘due to changes in elevation, valocity, and density of the ‘uid must be made inaccordance with Bernoulll’s theocer (page 1-5), For an example using Unis theorem, see page 48. Friction factor: The Durey formula can be rationally derived by dimensions! analysis, wish the exception of the Fietion factor, f, which must be determined exper= mentally. The friction factor foramina flow conditions (Re < 2000) is function of Reynolds number onlys Witerezs, for turbulemt How (R_ > 4000), itis also 2 func” ton of the character of the pipe wal. 4 region known as the “critical zone” occurs between Reynolds number of approximately 2000 and 4000. in this region, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent Gepending upon several factors; these include changes in jon oF direction of flow and obstructions, such as valves, in the upstream piping, The friction factor in this region is indeterminate and has lower limits based on laminar low and upper limits based on turbulent flow conditions, At Reynolds numbers above approximately 4000, flow conditions again became more stable and definite friction factors can be established. This is important because it enables the engineer to determine the flow charscteristies Of any fukd Rowing [a a pipe, providing the wscosity and easily at Rowing conditions ae known. For this reason, Equation 1-4 Is recommended in preference 10 seme of the commonly known empirical equations for the flaw of water, oil, and other Tiguids, as well as for the flow of compressible fluids when restrictions previously mentioned are observed. If the New fs taminar (Ry < 2000), the fection factor may be determined feoun the equation Ae. SE po” dep If this queatity is substituted into Equation 14, the presture Grop in newtons per square metre is: ube ar = sz00%" Equation 15 ‘hich is Poiseuille's law for laminar flow, When the flow is turbulent (t, > 4000), the friction factor depends not only upon the Reynolds number but also upon the relative roughnass, e/d... the roughness of the pipe walls (c), a5 compared to the diameter of the pipe (@), For very smooth pipes such as drawa brass tubing and glass, the friction factor decreases more rapidly with Jnereasing Reynolds number than for pipe with compzra tively rough walls Since the charseier of the internal susface of commesciat pipe is practically independent of the diameter, the roughness of the walls has a greater effect on the friction factor in the small sizes, Consequeatly, pipe of small iamacer will approsch the very rough condition and, in general wl have higher rction factors chan age pe of the samme material ‘The most useful and widely accepted data of friction factors for use with the Darcy formula have been pre- sented by L. F, Moody” and are reproduced on pages A223 to A.28, Profexsos Moody improved upon the well- established Pigott and Kemler™* friction factor diagram, incorpociting more recent investigations and developments of many outstanding scientists ‘The friction factor, fis plotted on page A-24 on the basis of relative roughness obtained trom the chart on pare A-23 and the Reynolds number, The value of fs deter mined by horizontal projection from the intersection of the ¢/d curve under consideration with the celculated Reynolds number to the left and vertical scale of the chart on page Ald, Since most calculations invotCRANE CHAPTER i — THEORY OF FLOW IN PIPE Darey's Formula General Equation for Ftow of Fluids — continued ‘commercial steel or wrought iron pipe, the chart on page ‘A.25 is furnished for a more direct solution. It should be kept in mind that these figures apply to clean new pipe. Effect of age and use on pipe frletion: Friction los in pipe [s sensitive to changes in diameter and roughness of pipe. For 2 given rate of flow and 2 fixed friction factor, the pressuce drop per metre of pipe variesinversely with the fifth power of the diameter. Thesefore,a 2% reduction of diameter causes un 11% increace in pressure drop, 2 SP redaction of diameter inereases pressure drop 29%, In many services, the interior of pipe becomes encrusted ‘with scale, dirt, tubezcules or other foreign matter, thus, it is often prudent to make allowance for expected diameter changes. Authorities? point out thot roughness may be expected to inereese with use (due to corrosion or inenustation) at a rate determined by the pipe material and nature of the Fluid, Ippen"*, in discussing the effect of aging, cites © Alinch galvanized steel pipe which ad its roughness doubled and its frietion factor increased 20% after three years of moderate use. Principles of An accurate determination ofthe prassute drop of acom- yretsible uid flowing through a pipe requires 2 know. feoge of tne celationship betwen piessure and specific olume: this is not easly determined in cach particular problai, The sel extremes considered are allabatic How (PVT = coostont) and isotheroal-flow (P'¥, const). “Adisbatse flow fs usually assumed in skort povtctly insulated pipe, This would be consisent since no Tout is transferred o.0¢ from fhe pipe, except forthe fast thatthe munute amount of beat generated by frien is adéed to the flow. rotheral Now of ow st constant temperature is often assumed, partly for goavenienc: but more often because itis closer (o faet in piping practice. The most outstanding case of isothermal flow oceurs in natural ges pipe lines. Dodge and Thompson? show that gas flow in insulated pige 1 closely approximated by isothermal flow for reasonably high pressures, Since the relationship between pressure and volume may follow some other relationship (P’/2 = constant) called polytropic flow, specific informetion in each individual case is almost an impossibly ‘The density of gases and vapours changes considerably with changes in pressure; therefore, if the pressure drop between P, and F, in Figure 1-6 is great, the density and velocity will change appreciably. When dealing with eorapzestible fluids, such as ai, stem, cte., the following restrictions should be observed ia applying the Derey formula: 1. If the calculated pressure drop (Py ~ F,) is less than about 10% of the inlet pressure P,, reasonable accur- acy vill be obtained if the specific volume used in the formula 's based spon either the upstream or down stream conditions, whichever are known. If che calculated pressure drop (P, ~ P,) is greater ‘Han ybout 10%, but less than about 40% of inlet pressine P,, the Darcy equation may be used with reasonable accuracy by using a specific volume based apes the average of upstreast and downstream con- ditions: otherwise, the method given on page 1-9 may de used 3, For greater pressate drops, such as re often encoun- tered in long pipe Fines, the methods given on the next to pages should be used, (oontined on the nex 728)oe - “fi —THEORY.O€ FLOW INPIPE Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe ~ continued Complete isothermal equation: The flow of gases in long pipe lines closely apotoximates isothermal conditions. ‘The pressure drap in such lines is often large relative to the inlet pressure, and solution of this problem Talis out side the limitations of the Darcy equation. An accurate determination of the Now characteristics falling within this category can be made by using the complete iso ‘ermal e4) Equation 1 ‘The formula is developed on the basis of these assump- Hons: - Kothermai fox. 2. Mo mechanics wate done on oF by Steady flow or dgcharge anchanged Wit time, “tha gas obeys the perfect gas. ‘The velotity may be represented by the averare relosity aia ses ection 46. The frietion factor is constant along the pipe. 1. The pipe fine is straight and dosizontal between end points ‘Simplified Compressible Flow—Gas Pipe Line Formuls: Yn the practice of gas pipe line engineering, another assumption is added to the foregoing 8, Acceleration can be neplevted because the pipe kino selon. "Then, the formula for discharge in a horizontal pipe may be writen . | pas Fi Eqantion 17 [ex ‘This is equivalent to the complete isothermal equation if the pipe line is Tong and also For shocter lines if the ratio of pressure drop to initial pressure is smell Since gas flow problems are usually expressed in termes of cubie metres per hour at standard conditions, i i com venient to rewrite Equation 1-7 a5 follows: Equrtion 178 (ene @n = 5.361% 10" ae Other commonly used formulas for compressible flow in tong pipe lines: Weymouth formula Eavation 18 ey Pe ‘Se Lim rere ioranme / ta |? 288 Panhandle formala* for natural gst pipe lines 6 10 ‘Dsinch diameter, Reynolds mumbes 5 x 10" w 14x 10°, and Sy = 0.6: Equat eye Tm 19 ‘The flow efficiency factor £ is defined as an experience fector andis usually assumes to be 0.92 oF 92% for average ‘operating conditions. Suggested values for £ for other ‘operating conditions are given on page 33, Note: The pressures P; Pin all the foregoing equations are in terms of nowtons per square metre. For equations in terms of pressures in bars, pi p3 refer to page 3-5. Compatison of formulas for compressible flow in pipe fines: Equations 1-7, 1-8, and 1-9 are derived from the same basic formula, but differ in the selection of data used for the determination of the frietion factors. Friction factors in accordance with the Moody* dia gram are normally used with the Simplified Compressible Flow formula (Equation 1-7), However, if the same itis: thon factors employed in the Weymouth or Panhandle formulse are used iz the Simplified formula, identical answers will be obtained. ‘The Weymouth friction factor™ ts defined as: 0.094 ae fe This is identical w the Moody friction factor in the fully turbulent flow range for 20.inch LD. pipe only. Wey: mouth fiction factors are greater than Moody fictors for sizes less than 20cnch, and scnaller for sizes larger than 204nch ‘The Panhandle fiction factor? is defined as iH J = 008s G) In the Mow range to which the Panhandle fomiuly is limnfted, this resulis In friction Factors that ze lower than those obtained fom either the Moody dite or the Weysouth friction fosmula Ay a result, flow rates ebiained by solution of the Panhandle formal atc usually greater than those obtained by employing cithe the Simplified Compressible Flow formula with Moos) fFeedion Factors, or tke Weymouth formule ‘An example of tho variation in Slow rates which may be obiained for a specific condition by employing the Fonnulss is given on page 4-11 CRANECRANE Limiting flow of gases and vapours: The feature not evident in the preceding formulas (Equations 14 and 1-6 to 1-9 inclusive) isthat the weight rate of flow (e.g. kg/sec) cof @ compressible fiuid in pipe, with 2 given upstream pressure will approach s estan maxtrmum rate which 1 cannot exceed, no matter how much the downstzeam pressure is further reduced. ‘The maximum velccity of a compressible Mud in pipe is Limited by the velosity of propagation of a pressure wave which travels at the speed of sound in the fluid Smee pressure falls off and yeloctly increases as fluid proceeds downstream in pipe of uniform cross section, the meximum velovity occurs in the downstream end of ‘the pipe. Ifthe prassire drop is sufficiently high, the exit velocity will reach the velocity of sound. Pusther docicase in the outlet pressure will not be fell upstream because the pressure wave can only travel at sonic velocity, ang ‘tho “signal” wall never translate upstream. The “surplus” pressure crop obtained by lowering the outlet pressure after the raximum discharge has already been reached takes piace beyond che end of the pipe. This pressure 38 Jost ie shock waves and turbulence of the jettmg fluid. ‘The maumum possible velocity in the pipe is sonic velocity, which is expressed as: Equetton 119 vir v= VYRT = The value of 7 the retho of specific heats at constant pressure 10 corstant volume, i 14 for most diatomic ise, see pages AS an] A.9 for valos of 7 for gases and Seam respectively. This velocity will scut atthe outlet tnd. or iva consiricied area, whan the pressne drop i fuTTicintly high. The presse, temperetue, and specific volume aze those occuring atthe point in question. Whee Compressible lu scharge from the end of a reasonably Short pipe of unlfocm crom section into en arse of lager ross section, the flow is usually consicered to be itlinbesie. This assumption is sapported by experimental data on pipe having lengths of 220 and 139 pipe diameters Alasharging ais to amosphere. Investigation of the com: plete theoteticl analysis of ediabatc fiw hes led to 4 Eas for establishing correction factors, whieh may be applied to the Darcy cquation for this condition of ew “CHAPTER 1 = THEOR iples of Compressible Flow in Pipe ~ continued Since these correction Factors compensate for the changes in fluid properties due to expansion of the fluid, they 2re Identified as Y net expansion factors; see page A-22. ‘The Dasey formula, inclusing the ¥ factor, ist ‘Resistance coefficient K is defied ca pane 248) 1h showld be noted that the value of K in this equation 25 the ‘oral vesistance coefficient of the pipe line, including entrance and exit losses when they exist, and losses due t© valves and fituings ‘The pressure drop. AP, in the ratio A#/P; which Is used for the determination of ¥ from the shart on page A-22, is the measured difference between the inlet pressure and the pressute in the area of lager cross section. Jn 2 system ischarging compressible fluids to atmosphere, this AP is equal to the inlet gauge pressure, of the iifTerence botween absolute inlet pressure and atmosphere pressure ‘This value of AP is also usod in Equation 1.11, whenever the Y factor falls within the limits defined by the resi tance factor K cures in the charts on page A-22. When the mtio of AP/P;, using AP as defined above, falls bevond the kmits of the X curves in the charts, sonic yoloty occurs at the point of discharge or at some {estrction within the pipe, and the tmiting valucs for Y dnd AP, as determines (roe! the tabulations to the right of the charts on page A22, must be used in Equation 1-11. ‘Application of Equation 1.1) and the deiermination of ‘values fo: K, Y, and AP in the formula is demonstrated te example: on pages 4.13 and 414. “The charts on page A-22 are based upon the general gas laws for perfect gases and, at sonie velocity conditions at the outlet end, will yield accurate results for all gascs which approximately follow the perfect gas laws. An ox fample of this type of flosr problem is presented on page 413 This condition of flow is comparable to the flow though nozzles and venturi tubes, covered an pape 2-5, and the solutions of sch problems are similar ‘For quetion in toms of prseure drop in bam(2p) see page 34THEORY OF FLOWwIN PIPE Steam General Diecussion Water under normal atmospheric conditions exists in the form of liquid. When a body of water is heated by ‘means of some external medium, the temperature of the water rises and soon small bubbles, which break and form continuously, are noted on the surface, This phenomenon is deseribed 28 "boding’”. ‘There are three distinct stages in the process of converting water to superheated steam, The water must be boing before steam can be formed and superheated steam cannot the formed until the stearn has been completely disd ln slage one, heat is added to reise the temperature of the water to the boiling point corresponding to the pressure conditions under which the heat is added. The botling poini is usually referred to as the generation or saturation femperature, The amount of hest required to raise the lemperature of the water from 0°C to the saturation temperature ig knows as the enthalpy of the water or sensible heat {In the second stage heat is added to the boiling water and under constant pressuse conditions the water 1s changed to steam without any increase in temperature, This is the evaporation or Jateni heat stage. At this stage, with the sieam in contact with liquid water, the steam is ia the condition known as Satursied. 1t may be “dry” or “wer” depending on the generating conditions, “Dry” seiurated steam is steam fie fiom mechanically mixed water par ticles, “Wer” saturated steam com:aine water particles im suspension. Saturated steam at any pressure Tas a define teneperature If the water is heated in a closed vessel not completely filled, the pressure will rise after steam hegins t for accompanied by an inerease in temperature. Slage thiee commences when steam at any given pressuce Js heated to a temperature higher than the temperatuce of saturated steam at that pressuie, The steam is ten suid to be Supsrheated. Heat is one of the forms of energy sid the ST unkt for 3 forms is the joule (J). This is « very sma unit of energy dnd i 48 often more convenient to use the Kilojoule (3) ‘or even larger multipic, megajoule (MJ) ‘The Sl unit for energy per unit mass fs the joule per kil gram (J/kg) or some multiple of this unit and the steow tabies provided on pages A-13 to A-I7 give detailed inl ristion on the specific enthalpy of steam, in ters a! Kilojoules per Kilogram (ki/ke), over a wide rungs of pressure und temperature conditions. The datum i taken as 0°C, From the table om page &-13 the specific enthalpy (sensible heat) of water at 1 bar absoluie is seen to be 417.5 klfke and the specific enthalpy» vaporetion (latent heat) 2257.9 kJ/kg. Consequently. the total heat or energy of the vapour, foxmed when wate: boils at 1 bar pressure is the sum of these two quasttitien Le. 26754 kifkg. The relationship between the joule and the British thermal unit (Btu) s defined by tho equation 1 Beu/th = 2326 Jig = 2.326 Ki/kgFlow of Fluids Through Valves and Fittings CHAPTER 2 ‘The preceding chapter has beon devoted (0 the theory znd formulas used in the study of fluld ilow in pipes. Since industeial_installations usually contain a considerable number of valves and fittings, a knowledge of their resist: ance «the flow of Nuidy is necessary to determine the flow characterises of « complete piping system, Many texts on hydraulics contain ae information ea the resistance of valves and fittings to dow, while others preseot only a limited discussion of the subject. In realization of the need far more complete detailed infirm ation on the resistance of valves and finings to flow, Crane Co. hes conducted extensive tests in their Engineering Laboratories and has also sponsored investigations in other laboratories. These tesis have been supplemented by a thorough study of all published data on this subject Appendix A contains dats from these many separate tests and the findings have beon combined to furnish a hasis for caleulating the pressure drop through valves and fittings, Representative resistances 10 flow of various types of piping components are given in the “K” Factor Table; see pages A.26 they A.29, ‘The chart cn page 8-30 ilustrates the eelationship between equivalent length in pipe diameters end in metros of pipe for flow in the zone of complete turbulence, resistance coefficient &, and pipe size ‘A discussion of the equivalent length and resistance coefficient K, as wall as the flow coefficient Cy methods Of calculating prossare drop through valves and fittings is presented on pager 2-8 to 2-16.cnarrel FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS. CRANE ‘Types of Valves and Fittings used in Pipe Systems Valves: The great varlety of valve designs precludes any thorough classification. AE valves were classified according to the resistance Uwey offer te flow, those exhibiting a strzightaliw flow path such as gato, ball, plug, and Dotterly valves would fallin the love resistance clas, and those having a change in flow path direction such as globe snd angle valves ‘would fall in the hgh resistance cass. For photographie ilusttattons of some of die most ‘commonly used valve designs, refer :0 pages A-18 and Ac19, For line ilustrations of typical Autings and pipe bbends, a8 well as valves, see pages A.27 10 A.29. Fittings: Fittings may be classified as branching, seducing, expanding, or doffecting. Such fitings as fees, crosses, side outlet elbows, etc., may be called branching fittings Reducing or expanding fittings are those which change the area of the fluid pessegenay. In this class are reducers and bushings. Deflecting fittings.....bends, elbows, retura tends, ef. ...are those which change the dicection of flow. Some fittings, of course, may be combinations of any fof the foregoing general classifications. In eddition, here are types such as couplings and unions which offer no appreciable resistance to flow and, therefore, need not be considered here Pressure Drop Chargeable To Valves and Fittings When 2 fluid is flowing steadily in a long straight pips of uniform diameter, the flow pattern, af indicated by the velocity distribution across the pipe diameter, will assurne @ certain characteristic form. Any impediment in the pipe Which changes the direction of the whole stream, or even part of it, will aller the cheracteristic flow pattern and create turbulenee, causing an energy loss greater than that nonnally accompanying flow in straight pipe. Because valves and fittings in 9 pipeline isturb the {low pattern, they produce an additional pressure drop. The loss of pressuse produced by a valve [or fitting) consists of 1, The pressure drop within the valve itsett 2. The pressure drop in the upstream piping ia .ce85 of that which wouki normally occur if thete were no valve in the ine. This effect is small 3. The pressure drop in the downstream piping ia excess of that which would normally ovcur if thete were no valvo in tho line, This effect may be comparatively large. From the experimental point of vigw it i diffealt 9 measuie the three items seperetely. Theis combined ‘effect is the desired quantity, however, and this can be accurately mecenced By well known methods. Figure 24 Figure 2-1 shows evo sections ofa pipe tine of ie sv ameter und lengca, The upper section contains 1 ss valve. If the presture drops, AP, and easuted between the points indicated, it found that AP, is tester than AP, Actually, the Jose chargeable to valve of length ig AP, minus the Loss in a section of pipe ew “a+b”. The losses, expressed in terms 0 coefficient “KT of various valves and fittings w ee 29 include the loss dev 1cual CRANE Crane Crane Enginsering Laboratories have facilities fr conducting water, steams, and air flow tests for many sizes and’ types of valves and fittings, Although adeteited discussion. of all the various tests per Forned is beyond the scope Of this paper, 2 brief descrip. uoa of some of the apparatus wl be of interest ‘The test piping shown in Figute 23 is unique in that 150mm (inch) gete, globe. and anale valves or 90 degres ells and tees can be tested ‘with either water or stoam. The vertical leg of the angle test section permits testing of angle lift chook and stop check valves, Surareted steam at WO>ar is available at flow rats: ‘up to 50000 kilograms/houc, The steam is throttled :0 the desized pressure end iis sate io dotormined at the ameter as well ss upstream and ownstceam from the test, specimen. Fox tests on water, 9 steam-curbine driver pump supptics Wwaler af rates up 0 4.5 cubic metresirminote through the est piping Static pressure differential is measured by means of a ‘manometer connected to plezomotor rings upstream and dowrstrecm from test positicn 1 in the angle test section, ot tost position 2 in the straight Lest section. ‘The downstream plezometer for the angle test section. serves as the upstieam plezorseter for the slesight test Detemninaton af SF vecrogcan FLOW OF FLUIDS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS Flow Tests for Ranch coal ‘ong vee section, Measced pressure drop for the pipe alone Ddetween plezometor stations is subtrected from the pressure drop through the valve plus pipe to ascertain the pressure drop chargeable to the valve done. Results of some of the fow tests conducted in the Crane Engineering Laboratories are plotted in Figures: 24416 2.7 shown on the two pages folowing, Ogorination a By Fe stm “ a Turbine doh see) Fiasie 23 piting separa fr maturing ‘we phone crop ew wsiue 3 ‘Siege on eso or a es aE ‘Sis et Steam aow cu berated to ee teoun Winner or est2a _SHAPTER 2 — FLOW OF FLUIDE THROUGH VALVES AND FI crane Crane Water Flow Tests eo 6 sof 20 ao} 3 20 20 2 3 os z 3 a! gS 8) : > Es Ee 3 3 + ; 7g 7 Bet TS le Ts et = sa ee dete ym ae yaa wey aerate ee Water Flow Tests — Curves 1 to 18 ia | fee | Come | ie Boa [owe [ee [$5 vce | 1 2” hi | aa Clas 180 Cast ron ¥-Patcera Glo Vo. Fat Set 4 156 7 _ sre 24 | 6 | 40 ‘class 150 Brass Angle Nahe with Compostion Dist | Feweed | 5 6 lai Set | \ is 80 . veer | 140] {eee \ 50 | Clas 180 Brass Conventions Globe Vale wich | | | 6s Composition Dies Fit Seat | | 49 i 1 Cheek Vala TTunvepl for cnnak valves at lower veccitis whee curves (34 fo 17) bend all valves wore tested wit ds fv bitCHARE “ere ero on ruins THRO LEH MaLERAND TINGS. Crane Steam Flow Tests sof ae i | } 20 ws a é fF “Ne g 2 yy = sets 4 3 6? é ge! fp 5 135 i tal 2 5 t ee VY om 7 ° eT ase TES v ze a ee eS ‘team Velosiny, in Thousands of Meteor Mout Steom Vsleity, in Thousonds of Mattes per Minute Figure 28 “TkPa = 0.01 bar Fie 27 Steam Flow Tests — Curves 190 31 7 eT 7 ~~ | | Fa | ov | Hamp ies ‘Valve or Fitting Type b. eta | y 2 | ‘Class 300 Baus Conventional Globe Valve Pius Tre Seat 6 {lass 300 Steel Conventional Globe Valve 2s. Flug Type Seet | ‘ {ints 300 Steck Ample Valve seo TIN nig type Sex | ‘ Chas 300 Steed Anz Valve o-oo Ball ts Cone Sea “Pieore 2 s a — ait Ja j 6 Clas 600 Stel Angie Stop-Cne"k Vale | | stauee Rial Sane set tater Gide Sop Chack Vabe | a5 wf 6 hay 600 Stel Anas Valve | [4 See Steve | ie z ~ | so" shart RaaiasEsbow for Le with Schedule 40 Pe | a2 | 6 | Class 250 Cast ten Flanzed Conventions! 90° Elbe « | re (ess 600 Ste} Gae Valve | | | s (Gos 128 Catt som Gate Vatbe iCRANE CHAPTER 2 THROUGH VALYES AND FITFINGS Relationship of Pressure Drop to Velocity of Flow Many experiments have shown that the head loss due to valves and fittings is proportional to a constant power of the velocity. When pressure drop or head loss is plotted egsinst velocity on logarithmic co-ordinates, the resulting curve 8 therefore a streiebt fine. In the tur bulent flow range, the value of the exponent of 2 has been found to vary from about 1.8 t© 2.1 for different designs of valves and fittings, However, for all practical purposes, it can be assumed that the pressure drop or heed loss due to the flow of fluids in the turbulent range through valves and fittings vades a¢ the square of the velocity. ‘This relationship of pressure drop to volocity of flow is valid for check valves, only if there is sufficient flow to hhold tse diso in @ wide opan position. The point of eviation of the test curves from a straight line, 2s Mustated in Figures 2-3 and 2-5, defines the flow Conditions necessary to sopport a check valve disc in the wide open position, Most of the difficulties encountered with check valves, both lift end swing aypes, have baer found to be die (0 foversizing which ‘esulis bx noisy operation and pre- mature wear of the moving parts Referring again to Figure 246, it will be moted thet the velocity of 3.5 bar saiurated steam, at the point where the two curves devigie from a straight line, is about 4000 £2 4500 meties/minute, Lower velocities ace net sufficient 10 lift the dise dcough its fll steoke and hold it in 2 stable position against the stops, and ean actually result in an increase in pressure diop as indicated by the cneves. Under these conditions, the sis: Nuctuates with each mipor Now pulsation, causing noisy operation and Rowe 232 oth welae end dno fort ave candied on he op. Figures 211 Srang Crook Veta Litechecs ‘vaive rapid wear of the contacting moving parts. ‘The minirum velocity eequired to Hit the disc to the Fullopen sud stable position has been determined oy: tests for numerous types of check and foot valves, anid iven in the “A” Factor Table (see pages A26 thru 30). It is expressed in terms of a constant times the square root of the specific volume of the fuid being hhangled, making # appliable for use with any fluid Sizing of check valves in accordance ith the specified: minimum velocity for full dise lift will often result in valves smaller in size than the pipe in which they are installed; however, the actual pressare drop willbe little. if any, higher than that of full size valve whic is used in other than the wide-opea position. The advantages are Tonger valve life and quieter operation. The losses due to sudden or gradu contraction and enlargemeat which will occur in such installations with oushing reducing flanges, or tapered reducers can be readily calculated from the deta given in the “A” Factor Table. 42-8: Resistance Coefficient K, Eq RANE And Flow Coefficient Pressure loss test data for a wide variety of valves and Fittings ate availzble From the work of numerous investi« gators. Extensive studies in this field have been eon: ducted by Crane Laboratories. However, due to the time-consuming and costly nature of such testing, 3 is virtually impossible to obtain test dats for every size and (ype of vale and fitting. It Is therefore desirable to provide a means of reliably extrapolating available test information to envelope ‘hose items which have nor been or exnnot weadily be tested. Commonly used concepts for accomplishing this are the “equwalent length L/D","resistance co efficient K", and “low coefficient C, or K,” Pressure losses in s piping system result from 2 umber of system characteristics, which msy be categorized ns feltows: 1. Pipe friction, which is 4 function of the surface roughness of the intesior pipe wall, the inside diameter of the pige, and the fluid velocity, density and viscosity. Friction factors are dis- cussed on pages 1-6 anit 1:7, Por frietion data, soe pages A°23 thru Av Changes in direction of flow peth. Obstructions in flow path Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of flow path Velocity in a pips is obtained at the expenee of static hhead, and decrease an static head due to velocity 1s, Equation 2-4 which is defined os the “velocity head”. Flow through 2 valve or fitting in 2 pipe line also causes a recuction ia static head which may be expressed in terms of velocity head. The resistance coefficient K in the equation Equation 22 therefore, fs defined as the umber of velocity heads Jost due to a valve or fitting. It is always associated with the diameter in which the velocity oscuss, In most valves or Mivings, the losies due ta frieion (Category 1 abow) resulting from actual length of flow path are minor compare to those due t one or more of the ther three categories listed, ‘The sesistance coefficient K js therefore consideied as beeing independent of fiction factor ot Reynolds num. ber, and may be treated as a constant for ny given obstruction (Le, valve or ting) in a piping system under all conditions of flow, including laminar flow. ‘The same toss in straight pipe is expressed by the Liurey can 8 Te SD, ® teow ta @ £3, ‘The ratio L/D 3s the equivalent length, in pipe diameters cof straight pipe, that will cause the sume pressure drop as the abstruction under the sume flow conditions. Site the resistance coefficient A is constant for all conditions of flow, the value of Z/D for any given valve or fiting snust necessarily vary inversely with the change m friction factor for diferent low conditions. ‘The resistance coefficient K would theoretically be a constant for sll sizes of # given design or line a valves and Gittings if all sizes wore geometrivaliy snot However, geometric similarity is soldom, if ever achieved’ because the design of valves and fittings 26 Victaied by manufacturing economies, stanuands, structural strength, and other considerations 50 mm (2 inhi S125 [) 300 mim {12 ingh) SIZE Yescats or 150-m (2 seh) SIZE Geometrical dias ariy Geteaen 80 men (2 inch "200 mm (13 sy stad eat ee Hanged bows An example of geometsic disiilarity is down u Figure 2-13 where a 300 mm (12 inch) standard elbow has been drawn to 1/6 seale of a $0 mm (2 inch) stan Gard elbow, so that thelr port dlameiess are klemtical ‘Tae low paths chrough the two Nitings drawn 10. shese scales would also have to be Wentical to have goon ei similstity; in addition, the relative roughness of « sorfeces Would have 10 be similar, Figure 2-14 Is based on the analysis of extensive est datz from vacious sources. The K coefPeients (0) urmber of Woes of valves and Mitings have hees pore aguinsl size, will be noted thai the K curves shi a definite tendency to follow the same ope ss tsCRANE CuAPTEN 7 = FLOW OF FLUIOS THROUGH VALVES AND FITTINGS: 28 Resistance Coefficient K, Equivalent Length 1/0, And Flow Coefficient - continued r a a pc a ST SC sal ss mo t 2 8 + . - 200 TF a e ra Tor wel oo imu i I re = : e v / : . bof tle Ro i : 2 | | 2 i Bey co z : é | 2 5 z ' e Bob Fae | é Sa? 3? + {48 5 Ete ht | i | End! Bis i pote | | A ne i) z ‘ =o —: = { = gaits 4 cs -—— ae il weet me ahi I { = Bs Ll. m7 Ww a 8 6 7 £10 1s 20 28 3 1 — Resistance Cooficent Figur 2:14, Vvatons of Rasitance Coetficlrs = FD) with Sze (ia Prot Tse ‘uty 7 OL Bihedle WP, 30 Dawe Lng E20 Tisai ASME, Wane, Novia | Gans 24 ton Bods Wedge Gate Vien 1 Unie of Whe, Exp St, Bll, Va 9,NO1-15 1G — Crass 6009 Stee! Wedge Gele Valves Crane Tests, | 2 90 Dagrea Pipe Bends, R/D = 2 Pigott A'S MLE. Trans, 1950° 18 = s0Degee ripe tents 270 #7 Ppt ASME. Trane 1950 4 — — W Degree Pipe Bends, RL * Pigott A.S.M.E, Trans., 1950" & Claw ob) Steel Wedge Cate Va, Seat Rens Crane Tes |S Coan 300 Steet Vento Bal-Coe Cate Vales Chaneamour Tete Chats 25 ron Body Pater Globe Vales Canearmout Test Chas 126 Bier Angle Vokes, Comprsition Disc Grane Tet $e _ Cs 125 rae Globe Vanes, Composition Be Caae Tost “f= frtion Mtor for Mow is he sone of complete Carbuenee: we eonstmsecs from the erocele pace! J(LD) curve for straight clean commercial steel ploe at flow conditions resulting in « constant friction factor Ic is probably coincidence that the effect of geometric cissimiarity hetween different sizes cf the same line of valves of Fittings upon the resistance coefficient & is similar to that of gelative roughness, of size of pipe, pon fiction factor Ruxed on the evidence presented in Figure 2-14, it can be sid that the resistance coefficient K, for a given line of valves of fittings, tends to vary with size as Anes the Tietion factor. f, for straight clean commercial steel pipe at Row conditions resulumg in & coustant fiction factor, and that the equivalent length £/D page 46 tends toward a constant for the various sizes of a given. line oF velves or ttings st the same flow conditions On the basis of this seletionship, the resistance co: efficient K for each illustrated type of valve and Atting is presented on pages 4-26 thru A-29. These coe/ficlents ate gives as the product of the frletion factor for the esited size of clean commercial steel pipe with flow in the zone of complete turbulence, 2nd a constant, which represents the equivalent length L/D for the valve or fitting in pipe diameters for the same flow conditions, on is of test data. This equivalent Jengih, oF constant, is valid for all sizes of the valve or fiting type with which it i identified.eh 2=FLOWOF FLUIDS THROUGH vA Resistance Coefficient K, Equivatent Length 1/0, ‘And Flow Coefficient - continued ‘The friction fectors for clean commercial steel ipe with flow in the zone of complete turbulence (f,.), for nominal sizes from % 10 24-inch (15 to 600 rom), are tabubted at the beginning of the “A” Factor Tuble (page A.26) for convenience in conversing the algebraic expressions of K to arithmetic quantities ‘There are some sesistances to flow in piping, such =x sudden and gradual contractions and enlsrzements, and pipe entiances and exits, that have geometric inilarity between sizes, The tesistance coefTicien's (0) for these items ate therefore independent of size 8 indicated by the sbsence of a fiction factor in their values given in the “A” Factor Table. As previously slaled, the resistance coefficient Kis always associated with the diameter in which the velocity in the term 9/2, occurs. The valucs in the “K” Factor Table are associated with the internal diameter of the following pipe schedule numbers for the various ANSI Classes of valves and fittings lass 300 ana lower Sereduls 40 ‘lass 400 aod 600. ‘Schedule 86 Chass 900, ‘Schedule 120 Class 1500. ‘Schedule 160 lass 2500 (sess 410 6") xs (Cass 2500 (sees an up) ‘Sehedle 160 Wher the resistance coefficient K is used in flow equation 2-2, of any of its equivalent forms woven in Chapter 3 as Equetions 3-14, 3-16, 319 and 3-20, the velocity and internal diameter dimensions used in the equation must be bosed on the dimensions of these sehocle numbers regardless of the pipe with which the valve may be installed, An altemate proceduze which yields identical results for Equation 2.2 is to adjust X in proportion to the fourth power of the diameter ratio, and to base values of velocity or diameter on the internal diameter of the ‘connecting pipe. es) Subscript “a” defines X and gf with reference to the einal diameter of the connecting pipe Equation 25 Subscript “b" defines K and ¢ with reference 10 the internal diameter of the pipe for which the values of K wote established, as given in the foregoing list of pipe schedule number. ‘When 3 piping tystem contains more then one size of pipe, valves, or fittings, Equation 2:5 may be used 19 express all resistances in terms of one size, For this cease, subscript “a” relates to the size with reference Lo which all resistances are to be expressed, and subscript * relates (0 any other size In the system, For sample problem, see Example 4-14, 11 convenient in some beanches of she valve industry, particulaly in connection with control valves, to express the valve cupuctty and the valve How eharacterises 1b terms of a low eoeffiient. fn the USA and UK the flow coefficient at present in use it designated C, and is defined as: C,* Rate of flow of water, In either US or UK gallons per minute, at GOF, at a pressure diop Of one pound per squate ineh across the valve, (See Equation 3-16, page 3-4) Another coefficient, Ky, is used in some countries, particularly in Eucope, and this is defined as: K,= Rate of flow of water in cubic metres por hour (n/p) at a pressure dtop of one kilogram force per square centimetre (kgffem?) sscoss the valve One keffem? is equal to 0.980 665 bar (exactly) and in some continental countries the name kilopond (hp) is used in place of kilograra force, eT kplem® © Tiler? At the time of preparation of this peper there is ne agreed international definition for a low coefficient in terms of SI units, Liquid flow capacity ia metric units can be converted to Cy as defined above. For example: 10 0 ft us. ins 7 (999) where @ = rate of flow, ltres/min, a density of uid, kgim? ap = barCHAWTE RY FLOW OF FCUTDS THROUGH VALVES AND-FeFHINGS- Laminar Flow Conditions In the usual piping installation, the Now will change from laminar to tu:bulent in the ninge of Reynolds numbers from 2000 £0 4000, defined on pages A-24 and ‘A25 wi the critical zone. The lower critical Reynolds ‘umber of 2000 1s usually recognized as the upper Tirit for the application of Posseutlle’s law for feminar Now in straight pipes, - no(#2) ‘whet 18 Mentteal to Equation 23 when the value of the fraction faster for laminar flow, § = 64/R,, 8 Equation factored into it. Laminar flow at Reynolds numbers: above 2000 is unstable, and the critical zone and tower range of the transition zone, turbulent mixing and laminar motion may altemate unpredietebly. Equation 2-2 (ly, = Ke#/2e,) is valid for computing the head joss due to valves and fittings for all conditions of flow, including laminar flow, using resistance coefficient K as given in the “A” Factor Table. When this equation is used to determine the losses in straight pipe, 1 is necessary to compute the Reynolds number in order to establish the friction factor, f, to be used to determine the value of the resistance coefficient K for the pipe in accordance with Equation 2-4 (K'=/L/D), See examples on pages 44 and 45, Contraction and Enlargement The resistance to Mow due to sudden enlargements may be expressed by, - (2) and the resistance due to sudden contractions, by Equation 29) Ky ovation 2:40 Subscripts 4 and 2 define the internal diameters of the small and large pipes respectively It is convenient to identify the ratio of dlameters of the sail to large pipes by the Greek letter f (beta). Using: tis notation, these equations tay be wttien, Sudden Enlargement K=G-#F eauation 28.9 Suikien Contraction Ky = 0501-5) Equation 240.4 Equation 2.9 6 devived from the: momentum equation together with the Bernoulli equation. Equation 2-19 uses the derivaticw of Equation 29 together with the ‘continuity equation and 3 close approsumation of the coniriciinn — coeflicients determined by ulus Weisbach." The wake of the tesisance coefficient in terms of the larger pipe is deiermined by viding Equations 2-9 and 2-10 by pt K Equation 241 B The loves due 10 pradual enarenients in pipes were investigoged by AH, Gibson” and way be expressed 48 a coefficient, C,, applied to Equation 29, Approximate averages of Gibson's coefficients for different ineluded angles of divergence, 6. are defined by the equations ° For 9 2 as* C,=26sin, — Eaunion 242 For 4s" total oss, io metres of uid = excess loss in downstream tangent, in meltes of fluid A= loss due to curvature, in metres of Aid loss in bend due to length, in metres oF Mek hy th, Equation 2.77 then: hye big t hy However, the quantity li, can be expressed as 2 function of velocity head in the focumula: Equation 2518 ge 28 where: K,,* the bend coefficient s yelocity shrovgh pipe, metres por seed 1 moues per second por secondCRANE oCORAPTER "FLOP OF FLUIDS THROUGM VALUES AND.FATTINGS. Resistance of Bands — continued T fen GelidintK i a 4 uti ts. 172 Figure 216, Bend Cortticients Found by Various Investigator (8a) From "Presure Lomee for Fluid Flow in 90° Finn ends” by KH. Ba Tewrsy of Journal of Restarch of Nationel Gureau of Standucde [menor a nce | seine 3 Banos : | conn Hotei a ten in) | Noes Geuete a 2 “The relationship between K, and 1/d (uelative radius*) is not well defined, as cin Be observed hy reference to Figure 2-16 (taken from the work of Beij"), The curves in the chart indicate Unat X, bas 2 minimum value when rid is between 3 and $ Values of K for 90 degree bends with various bend tatis [7d are hsted. 09 page A29. The values (aso based of the work of Bef) represent average concitions af fon in 90 degree bends ‘The los due to continucur bends greater than 90 dows, fash a8 pipe coll or expansion bends, is fess than the summation ef foses in the total number of 90 dogice bends contained inthe col, consiieved separa because the loss Fi, in Equation 2-16 occurs only orcs in thecal The los due to length ia teers of Kis equal (0 the doveloped longth of the bend, in pipe diameter, malt piled by the trction factor f, 5 previously deseribed and «tuted on page A2S rey sh (2) my I the sheonce of expenimencel saa, i is assured shat Fw, in Equation 2-16, On this bass, the total value Sei for a tpe coll of expansion. bead made uy Of “the jeitve ras ofa bet ee imsrmat Sir Equation 219 erg er of the continuous 90 degree bends ean be determined by mt plying the number (n) of 90 degree bends less one Contained in the coll by the value of K cue to length, phus one-half of the value of K due to bend resistance, 1d adding the value of K for one 9U depres bend (page 29) é Esqation2.20 Ky= (os @assyr $7 OS KIA Ks Subscript 1 defines te value of K (See page A-29) for one 90 destee bend, Exumple’ A 2” Schedule 40 pipe coil conteins fire eompiete tua, Le, twenty (r) 90 degree bends. The relative radius (7/d) of the bends is 16, and the resistance co- efficient Ky of one 90 degree bend is 42/7 (42 x 019 = 80) per page A9, Find the tatal resistance eoefficiang (Ag) for the cal. Ky = (20-1) (0.25 x 0.0190 x 1640.5 x08)408 3 Resistance of mite bends: The equivatent length mitre bends, based on the work of H. Kirchbach*, i algo shown om page 29. ‘atig of the eave ofthe bord axie Roth dimensions must be ix theCHAPTER, Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices ‘Orifices and nozzles are used principally 10 meter raie of flow. A portion af che theory is covered here. For more compleie data, refer io BRbliogeaphy sources 4, 9, and 10. For installation oF operation of commercial meters, refer to in formation supplied by the meter manufacturer Orifices are also used to restrict flow or to reduce pressure. For liquid flow, ‘several orifices are sometimes used to reduce pressure in staps go as to avoid ‘centation, Overall resistance ceetticlent K for an orifice is given on page A-20. For a sampie problem, see pege 4-7. ‘The tate of flow of any fluid through an orifice oF noazle, neglecting the velocity of approach, may be expressed by 4 = GAVIA, Equation 221 Velocity of approsch may have considerable effect on the quantity discharges through a nozzle or orifice, ‘The Factor corcecting for velocity of approach, 1 vi-e may be incorporsted in Equation 221 as follows: Ecuntion 222 fs defined a8 the ow coefficient C. Values of C for nozzles and orifices ate shown on page A-20. Use of the flow coefficient C eliminates the necessity for calc lating the velocity of spproach, and Equation may now be written Equation 2.23 @ = CAVE, = CA > ‘Onifees and nozzles aze normally used in piping systems 4s metering devices and are installed with flange laps ot pipe taps in accordance with ASME or other standard specifications, The values of fz and Ap in Equation 22: ‘are the measured differential static head or pressure ‘actos: pipe taps located 1 diameter upsteeam sad 0.5 diameter downstream from the inlet faze of she orifice plate or nozzle, when velues of Care taken from page A- 20. The flow cotttieven: Ci plotted for Reynotds num- ‘bers based on the internat diameter of the upstream pipe. Flow of liquids: For nozzles ond onfices discharging incompressible fluids to atmosphere, C values may be taken from page A-20 if #y, or Ap in Equation 2-23 1s taken a5 the upstream hesd or gauge pressure Flow of gases ond vapors: The flow of compressible ‘Duds through nozzles and orifices can be expressed by the sume equation used for liquide except the net expansion factor Y must be ineluded. area f via ‘The expansion factor Y is function of: 1, The specific heat catio 7. 2. The ratio @®) of orifice or throat diameter to inlet diameter. 3. Ratio of downsleeam to upstream absolute pressures Equation 2-28 This factor**'® has been experimentally determined on the basis of air, which has a specific heat ratio of 14, and steam having specific heat ratios of approximately 1.3, The data is plotted on page A-21 Valves of 7 for some of the common vapors and gases are given on pages Af and AD. The specific hest ratio 7 may vary slighily for different pressures and temperatures bul for most practical problems the values given will provide reasonably accurate results, Equation 2:24 may be used for orifices discharging ‘compressible fluids to atmosphere by using: |, Flow coefficient C' given on page 4.20 in the Reynolds number range where C 3 a constant for the given diameter ratio, Expansion factor ¥ pe: page A Differential pressure Be. equal to the inlot gauge pressure This also applies to nozzles discharging compressible ukis to atmosphere only if the absolute inlet pressure is less than the absolute atmospheric pressure divided by the critical pressure ratio, this is discussed on the next page, When the absolute inlet pressure is greator than {this amount, flow through nozzles should be calcutated ae outlined on the fCHAPTER 2 - FLOW OF FLU:DS THROUGH VALVES ANO FITTINGS 2018 Flow Through Nozzles and Orifices — continued Maximum dow of compressible fluids in x nozzle: A smoothly convergent nowle has the property of being able to deliver a compressible fluid up to the velocity of sound in its minimum cross section or throat, providing the available pressure drop is sufficiently high. Sonic ‘velocity is the maximum velocity that may be attained fn the throat of @ ncazle (supersonic velocity is attained. in s gradually divergent section following the convergent nozzle, when sonie velocity exists in the throat), ‘The cttical pressuce ratio is the Jarpest ratio of down- stream pressure to upstream pressure capable of producing sonic velocity. Values of critical pressure zatio, 7, which epend upon the ratio of nozzle diameter to Upstream diameter as well asthe specific heat ratio y are siven on page AT Flow through nozles and venturi meters is limited by criti pressure ratio and minimum values of Y to be used In Equation 2:24 for this condition, atc indicated fon page A-21 by the termination of the curves at P's /P", Equation 2:24 may be used for dscharge of somprosible fluids through ¢ nozzle to atmosphere, orto adownstream_ pressure lover then indicated by the critical pressure ratio r, by Using values of: Yo. ccc. minimum per page A21 is page A20 AP PY. =¥e)ite per page A2L ? density 6 upstieam consition Flow through short tubes: Since complete experimental data for the discharge of fluids to atmosphere throvzh short tubes (L/D is less than, or equal to, 2 pipe dit retees)! are not avaiable, i s suggested that reasonably ccurete approximations may be obtained by using Equations 2-23 and 2-24, with values of € somewhere ‘between those for orifices and nozzies, depending upon entrance conditions. If the entrance is well rounded, C values would tend to approach those for nozzles, wherese chort tubes with ‘square entrance would have characteristics similar to ‘those for square edged orifices. Discharge of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe Liquid flow: To determine the flow of liquid through Pipe, the Darcy Fonraula is used, Equation [4 (page 1-6) fas been converted to more convenient ters in Chapter 3 and has been sewnitton as Equetion 3-14, Expresing this equation in terms of flow rete in ies per minute: 22-96 KO* Figure 2417, nove ot reteote pole echt simon din Solving for Q, the equation can be rewnitten, Q = o2087at /hy, K Equation 225 om be crployod for vahes, fittins, and pipe where K would de the sum of all the resistances ix the piping system, including entrance and exit loves when they exis:, Examples of problems of this type are shown on page 4.12, Equstion 226 Compressible flow: When a compzessivie fluid flows from a piping system into an atea of larger cross section that thot of the pips, 28 in the case of discharge to atmosphere, a modified form of the Darcy formala, Equation 1-11 developed on page 1.9, is used w= 1tiixto yd? VK ‘The detesmination of values of K, Y; and OP in this equation is described oa page L-9 and i illustrated inthe ‘examples on pages 4:13 and 4-14. This equatioa is also sven in Chapter 3, page 35, Equotion 3-22, in terms of pressare drop in bars (Gp).