Unit 4

Humanist Theories
 Table of Contents
4. Humanist Theories..................................................................56
4.1 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs........................................................ 57

4.2 Carl Rogers - Client Centered Therapy......................................................... 64

Evaluate Your Learning........................................................................................ 72

 Psychological Counselling Theories

4. Humanist Theories

H umanist theories which emphasise the basic goodness of human beings, began to
grow in the 1950s.
Humanistic Psychology thus focused on each individual’s potential and stressed the
importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of Humanistic
Psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems
result from deviations from this natural tendency.
Each branch of Psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind
and behaviour. Humanistic Psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more
holistic view of the individual.
The humanist movement had an enormous influence on the course of Psychology and
contributed new ways of thinking about mental health. It offered a new approach to
understand human behaviour and motivation and led to the development of new tech-
niques and approaches to Psychotherapy.
Some of the major ideas and concepts that emerged as a result of the humanist move-
ment include an emphasis on aspects such as:
Ș Self-concept
Ș Hierarchy of needs
Ș Unconditional positive regard
Ș Free will
Ș Self-actualization
Ș Fully-functioning person
Ș Peak experiences
Ș Client-Centered therapy

Major Thinkers of Humanistic Psychology

The early development of Humanistic Psychology was heavily influenced by the works
of a few key theorists namely Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and Erich
Fromme, specially Maslow and Rogers.

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 Humanist Theories

Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology

Ș One of the major strengths of Humanistic Psychology is that it emphasizes the
role of the individual. This school of Psychology gives people more credit in con-
trolling and determining their state of mental health.
Ș It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather than focusing solely
on our internal thoughts and desires, Humanistic Psychology credits the environ-
ment’s influence on our experiences.
Ș Humanistic Psychology continues to influence therapy, education, careers, health-
care and other areas.
Ș Humanistic Psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy
and made it more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abili-
ties and potential through therapy.

Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology

Ș Humanistic Psychology is often seen as too subjective; the importance of individ-
ual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phe-
nomena. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of
course, is that we cannot. We can only rely upon the individual’s own assessment
of their experience.
Ș Another major criticism is that observations are unverifiable; there is no accurate
way to measure or quantify these qualities.

Ș Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Ș Carl Rogers - Client Centered Therapy

4.1 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

According to Humanist Psychologist Abraham Maslow, our actions are motivated in
order to achieve certain needs. Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of
needs in his paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” (1943) and his subsequent book
“Motivation and Personality”.
This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving
on to other, more advanced needs.
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As a humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actual-

ized, to be all they can be.
In order to achieve this ultimate goal, however, a number of more basic needs must be
met first such as the need for food, safety, love, and self-esteem.

From Basic to More Complex Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyr-
amid are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located
at the top of the pyramid.

Self-Fulfillment
Needs

Psychological
Needs

Basic
Needs

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 Humanist Theories

The needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the
need for food, water, sleep and warmth. Once these basic needs have been met, peo-
ple can move on to the next level of needs which are for safety and security.
As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and so-
cial. Soon, the need for love, friendship and intimacy become important. Further up the
pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority.
Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a
process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.
The deficiency of basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also,
the need to fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are de-
nied. For example, the longer a person goes without food the more hungry he/she will
become.
One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level
growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to
reach the highest level called self-actualization.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level
of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower
level needs. Life experiences, including divorce and loss of employment may cause an
individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy.
Maslow noted less than two percent of the population achieves self-actualization be-
cause our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social
needs.

Types of Needs
Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in mo-
tivating behaviour. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency
needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation.
Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or
consequences.

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Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid i.e. self-actualisation as growth needs
/ being needs (also known as B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of
something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Five Levels of the Hierarchy of Needs

There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
1. Physiological Needs: These include the most basic needs that are vital to surviv-
al, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these
needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs
become secondary until these physiological needs are met.
2. Security Needs: These include the needs for safety and security. Security needs
are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological
needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health
care, safe neighbourhoods, and shelter from the environment.
The needs become a bit more complex at this point in the hierarchy. Now that the
more basic survival needs have been fulfilled, people begin to feel that they need
more control and order in their lives. A safe place to live, financial security, physical
safety and staying healthy are all concerns that might come into play at this stage.
3. Social Needs: These include needs for belonging, love and affection. Maslow
described these needs as less basic than physiological and security needs. Re-
lationships such as friendships, romantic attachments and families help fulfill this
need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, commu-
nity, or religious groups.
4. Esteem Needs: After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs
become increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on
self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.
At this point, it becomes increasingly important to gain the respect and apprecia-
tion of others. People have a need to accomplish things and then have their efforts
recognized. People often engage in activities such as playing a sport, enjoying a
hobby or participating in professional activities in order to fulfill this need.
Satisfying this need and gaining acceptance and esteem helps people become
more confident. Failing to gain recognition for accomplishments, however, can
lead to feelings of failure or inferiority.

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 Humanist Theories

5. Self-actualizing Needs: “What a man can be, he must be,” Maslow explained,
referring to the need people have to achieve their full potential as human beings.
According to Maslow’s definition of self-actualization:
This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are
self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of oth-
ers, and interested in fulfilling their potential.
“It may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capabilities, po-
tentialities, etc. Such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and to be doing the best
that they are capable of doing... they are people who have developed or are developing
to the full stature of which they capable.”
As he was developing his theory, Maslow studied the biographies of famous histori-
cal individuals who he believed were good examples of self-actualized people. These
figures included Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, and Frederick
Douglass.

Key characteristics of self-actualized people:

Ș Acceptance and Realism: Self-actualized people have realistic perceptions of
themselves, others and the world around them.
Ș Problem-centring: Self-actualized individuals are concerned with solving prob-
lems outside of themselves, including helping others and finding solutions to prob-
lems in the external world. These people are often motivated by a sense of per-
sonal responsibility and ethics.
Ș Spontaneity: Self-actualized people are spontaneous in their internal thoughts
and outward behaviour. While they can conform to rules and social expectations,
they also tend to be open and unconventional.
Ș Autonomy and Solitude: Another characteristic of self-actualized people is the
need for independence and privacy. While they enjoy the company of others, these
individuals need time to focus on developing their own individual potential.
Ș Continued Freshness of Appreciation: Self-actualized people tend to view the
world with a continual sense of appreciation, wonder and awe. Even simple expe-
riences continue to be a source of inspiration and pleasure.

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Ș Peak Experiences: Individuals who are self-actualized often have what Maslow
termed peak experiences, or moments of intense joy, wonder, awe and ecstasy.
After these experiences, people feel inspired, strengthened, renewed or trans-
formed.

Behaviour leading to self-actualization:

Ș Experiencing life like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
Ș Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths;
Ș Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of
tradition, authority or the majority;
Ș Avoiding pretense (‘game playing’) and being honest;
Ș Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the
majority;
Ș Taking responsibility and working hard;
Ș Trying to identify your defenses and having the courage to give them up.
Although people achieve self-actualization in their own unique way, they tend to share
certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree, there are no
‘perfect human beings’ (Maslow, 1970)
Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely in-
volves achieving ones potential. Thus, someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impo-
lite, and still self-actualize!

Does Maslow’s Hierarchy hold up?

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs continues to be widely popular and mostly well-accepted,
but the available evidence does not necessarily support Maslow’s theory.
According to Wahba and Bridwell, Maslow’s need hierarchy theory presents an inter-
esting paradox. The theory is widely accepted, but there is little evidence to support it.
In their review of the available research, Wahba and Bridwell found that there was little
empirical support that needs exist in a hierarchy at all.

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 Humanist Theories

Other critics have also observed that the original hierarchy does not account for the fact
that needs tend to change based on the situation.
Maslow’s theory also does not account for differences between individualist and collec-
tivist cultures.

Do People In Different Cultures Have Similar Needs?

Despite the popularity of the theory, there has been surprisingly little research support-
ing the hierarchy’s accuracy. For this reason, psychologist Ed Diener of the University
of Illinois led a study that put the famous hierarchy of needs to the test in different coun-
tries all over the world.
Researchers conducted surveys on food, shelter, safety, money, social support, re-
spect, and emotions in 155 different countries between 2005 and 2010. While some
aspects of their findings are consistent with Maslow’s theory, there were also some no-
table departures. The needs described in the theory appear to be universal. However,
the order in which these needs are met had little impact on people’s satisfaction with
life.
“Our findings suggest that Maslow’s theory is largely correct. In cultures all over the
world the fulfillment of his proposed needs correlates with happiness,” Diener explained
in a press release. “However, an important departure from Maslow’s theory is that we
found that a person can report having good social relationships and self-actualization
even if their basic needs and safety needs are not completely fulfilled.”
While the recent research seems to support the idea of universal human needs, sup-
port for Maslow’s ranked hierarchy remains elusive.

Reflection of Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs in today’s scenario

As more and more students today belonging to upwardly mobile middle class families
have their basic needs fulfilled, they increasingly express their desire to realize their
potential to the fullest. Thus there is a distinct transition from desiring a career which
will earn them “mega- bucks” to one that will give them “job satisfaction and happiness”
leading to an “abundant life of fulfillment”(Self-actualization).

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On the other hand, parents often exercise a strong influence on the career choices
of their children based on their own “esteem needs”. For example, whether their chil-
dren have the inclination towards careers like Medicine or Engineering etc. they are
“coerced” into taking up these fields. Later, their inability to succeed affects their own
self-esteem in a negative manner.

Dream Job
What you love to
do

What you’re What will fetch

great at you a suitable sal-
ary

4.2 Carl Rogers - Client Centered Therapy

Client-centered therapy, also known as person-centered therapy, is a non-directive
form of talk therapy. It was developed by Humanist Psychologist Carl Rogers during
the 1960’s.
Along with Abraham Maslow, he focused on the growth potential of healthy individuals
and greatly contributed to our understanding of the self and personality. Both Rogers’

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 Humanist Theories

and Maslow’s theories focused on individual choices. They emphasized free will and
self-determination, with each individual desiring to become the best person they can
become.
Rogers advanced the field by stressing that the human person is an active, creative,
experiencing being who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current per-
ceptions, relationships and encounters. He coined the term actualizing tendency, which
refers to a person’s basic instinct to succeed at his or her highest possible capacity.
Through person-centered counselling and scientific therapy research, Rogers formed
his theory of personality development, which highlighted free will and the great reser-
voir of human potential for goodness.
Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-ac-
tualize - i.e. to fulfil one’s potential and achieve the highest level of ‘human-beingness’
we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, so
people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good and conducive.
Self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e. who they would like to be) is
congruent with their actual behaviour (self-image). Rogers describes an individual who
is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will
become self-actualized is largely based on the quality of our childhood experiences.
It is also important to note that Rogers was deliberate in his use of the term client rather
than patient. He believed that the term patient implied that the individual was sick and
seeking a cure from a therapist. By using the term client instead, Rogers emphasized
the importance of the individual in seeking assistance, controlling his/her destiny and
overcoming his/her difficulties.
Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:
1. Open to experience: Both positive and negative emotions are accepted. Neg-
ative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego
defence mechanisms).
2. Existential living: In touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoid-
ing prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the
present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e. living for
the moment).

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3. Trust feelings: Feeling, instincts and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trust-
ed. People’s own decisions are the right ones and we should trust ourselves to
make the right choices.
4. Creativity: Creative thinking and risk taking are features of a person’s life. A per-
son does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change
and seek new experiences.
5. Fulfilled life: The individual is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for
new challenges and experiences.
For Rogers, fully functioning people are well adjusted, well balanced and interesting to
know. Often such people are high achievers in society.

Personality Development and Self-Concept

Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is de-
fined as “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself”.
The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner
personality. The self is influenced by the experiences we have in our life, and our inter-
pretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept
are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.
Rogers believed that we exist in a constantly changing world of experiences that we are
at the centre of. We react to changes in our phenomenal field, which includes external
objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions.

Phenominal Field

Objects People

Individual Motivation Self Learning Environment

Behaviours Thoughts

Images

The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes external
objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions.

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 Humanist Theories

According to Rogers, we feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent
with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be, our ideal-self. The clos-
er our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we
are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongru-
ence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or
distorted in the self-image.

Ideal Self vs. Real Self

Sometimes a person might be undecided about his or her real self. As we discover our
real self, we may undergo some changes in our personality. Carl Rogers stated that his
Counselee’s often came up with the following questions:
Ș “How do I find myself?”
Ș “Why do I sometimes feel I don’t know myself?”
Ș “Why do I say or do things that aren’t really me?”
Rogers developed a clever answer to these relatively common and perplexing ques-
tions. He stated that there were two kinds of selves i.e.:
Ș The real self
Ș The ideal self
The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you
actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between
these two selves. We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self
and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. High
congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. Con-
versely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we
experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.

Self Worth and Positive Regard

How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance
both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambi-
tions in life and achieve self-actualization.

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Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed
from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, inter-
actions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.
He believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued,
respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other
people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between
unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.
Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist
therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is. Positive regard is not
withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake. The consequenc-
es of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and
make mistakes, even though this may lead to set backs at times. People who are able
to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from
others, especially their parents in childhood.
Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise and approval, depend
upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence the
child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves
only in ways approved by the parent(s). At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks
approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive re-
gard as a child.

Congruence
Incongruent Congruent

Self-Image Ideal-Self Self-Image Ideal-Self

Ș The self-image is different to the ideal self Ș The self-image is similar to the ideal self
Ș There is only a slight overlap Ș There is a greater overlap
Ș Here self-actualisation will be difficult Ș The person is self-actualised

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 Humanist Theories

A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and expe-
riences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and
actual experience. This is called incongruence.
Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state
of congruence exists.
The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl
Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization he/she must be in a
state of congruence.
According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are con-
sistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self.
The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or con-
gruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state
of incongruence if some of the totality of his/her experience is unacceptable to his/her
and is denied or distorted in the self-image.
Hence, the client –centered therapist tries to help by facilitating self-awareness in the
client and by nurturing a humane client-therapist relationship. Specifically, the relation-
ship must have the following qualities:
1. The therapist must have empathy for the client- that is, an ability to understand the
client’s views and feelings. The therapist must become immersed in the client’s
world and view things from the client’s point of view. In this way, the therapist can
understand how the client perceives things and can help clarify any distortions.
2. The therapist must give sensitive, unconditional positive regard, never criticizing,
always accepting; therapists do not judge, probe or disapprove. This accepting
attitude will create an atmosphere in which clients find the courage to perceive
and accept their denied experiences and to examine, re-evaluate and feel more
positive about themselves.
3. The therapist must be genuine – that is open, spontaneous and caring.
By exhibiting these three qualities, therapists can help clients grow psychologically,
become more self-aware and change their behaviour via self-direction. In this type of
environment, a client feels safe and free from judgment. Rogers believed that such an
atmosphere allows clients to develop a healthier view of the world and a less distorted
view of themselves.

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Critique
Rogers’ theory has been criticized as it provides little or no scientific evidence that an
inherent biological tendency of self actualization actually exists. The major assump-
tions of the theory like self actualization, positive regard and self worth have not been
experimentally demonstrated. Thus the critics argue that the theory provides us with
how people behave rather than the actual cause of their peculiar behaviour patterns.
Humanistic theories have had their greatest impact in counseling, clinical settings and
personal growth programmes, where ideas like self concept, self actualization and self
fulfillment have proven useful in the development of healthy personalities and interper-
sonal relationships (Ford,1991). They remain popular due to the view that people are
basically good, true to themselves and can develop own potentials as they are driven
by positive forces.

Ten Tips for Client-Centred Counsellors

1. Set clear boundaries. For example when and how long you want the session to
last. You may also want to rule out certain topics of conversation.
2. The client knows best. The client is the expert on his/her own difficulties. It’s
better to let the client explain what is wrong. Don’t fall into the trap of telling them
what their problem is or how they should solve it.
3. Act as a sounding board. One useful technique is to listen carefully to what the
client is saying and then try to explain to him/her what you think he/she is telling
you in your own words. This can not only help you clarify the client’s point of view
but can also help the client understand his/her feelings better and begin to look for
a constructive way forward.
4. Don’t be judgmental. Some clients may feel that their personal problems mean
that they fall short of the ‘ideal’. They may need to feel reassured that they will be
accepted for the person that they are and not face rejection or disapproval.
5. Don’t make decisions for them. Remember advice is a dangerous gift. Also
some clients will not want to take responsibility for making their own decisions.
They may need to be reminded that nobody else can or should be allowed to
choose for them. Of course you can still help them explore the consequences of
the options open to them.

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 Humanist Theories

6. Concentrate on what they are really saying. Sometimes this will not be clear at
the outset. Often a client will not tell you what is really bothering him/her until he/
she feels sure of you. Listen carefully – the problem you are initially presented with
may not be the real problem at all.
7. Be genuine. If you simply present yourself in your official role the client is unlikely
to want to reveal personal details about themselves. This may mean disclosing
things about yourself – not necessarily facts but feelings as well. Don’t be afraid
to do this – bearing in mind that you are under no obligation to disclose anything
you do not want to.
8. Accept negative emotions. Some clients may have negative feelings about
themselves, their family or even you. Try to work through their aggression without
taking offence but do not put up with personal abuse.
9. How you speak can be more important than what you say. It is possible to con-
vey a great deal through your tone of voice. Often it will be found helpful to slow
down the pace of conversation. Short pauses where the clients (and you) have
time to reflect on the direction of the session can also be useful.
10. I may not be the best person to help. Knowing yourself and your own limita-
tions can be just as important as understanding the client’s point of view. No per-
son centred counsellor succeeds all the time. Sometimes you will be able to help
but you will never know. Remember the purpose of a counselling session is not to
make you feel good about yourself.

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Evaluate Your Learning

I. Fill in the blanks
1. Which of the following are not the key characteristics of self-actualized people?
a. Spontaneity
b. Personal responsibility and ethics
c. Self -centeredness
d. Sense of appreciation
2. The Phenomenal field refers to a person’s____________ reality.
3. Rogers theory has been criticized because ____________.
4. Which of the following is not a deficiency need?
a. Self actualization
b. Sense of security
c. Self Esteem
d. Relationships
5. Two major thinkers of Humanistic Psychology are_______ and _________.
6. At the top of Maslow’s pyramid is __________.
a. Esteem Needs
b. Belongingness Needs
c. Physiological Needs
d. Self- actualization
7. One of the major strengths of Humanistic Psychology is that it emphasises
_________.
a. Importance of dreams
b. Psychosocial behaviour

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 Humanist Theories

c. The role of the individual

d. Behaviour abnormalities
8. The person you would like to be and the person you actually are were labelled by
Carl Rogers as _______________.
9. During which phase of our growth do the feelings of self worth devel-
op______________.
10. When there is a great discrepancy between our ideal self and real self we expe-
rience________________.

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