Name - Arshdeep Singh Virdi

Class - F (Core)
Reg no. - RA2211003030155

Q1.Differentiate between addition polymerization and

condensation polymerization with relevant examples.
Ans.

Addition Polymerization Condensation

Polymerization

1.Monomers must have Monomers must have two

either a double bond or similar or different
triple bond. functional groups.

2.It results in no by- It results in by-products

products. such as ammonia, water
and HCl.

3.The addition of The condensation reaction

monomers results in the between monomers results
formation of the polymer. in the formation of the
polymer.

4.The molecular weight of The molecular weight of

the resultant polymers is a the resultant polymer is not
multiple of the monomer’s a multiple of the
molecular weight. monomer’s molecular
weight.

5.Lewis acids or bases, Different molecules are

radical initiators are used as catalysts in the
catalysts, in addition process of condensation
polymerisation. polymerisation.

Common examples of Common examples of

addition polymerisation are condensation
PVC, polyethene, Teflon polymerisation are nylon,
etc. bakelite, silicon, etc.
Q2.Discuss about conducting polymers and their types.
Ans.
As the name suggests organic polymers that conduct electricity are
known as conducting polymers. They are also known as intrinsically
conducting polymers (ICPs) and they have alternating single and
double bonds along the polymer backbone (conjugated bonds) or that
are composed of aromatic rings such as Phenylene, naphthalene,
anthracene, pyrrole, and thiophene which are connected through
carbon-carbon single bonds.

Examples: Polyacetylene, Polypyrrole, Polyaniline, etc.Conducting

polymers comes in two forms that are doped conducting polymers
and non-doped conducting polymers. The conductivity of non-doped
conjugated polymers is due to the existence of a conductivity band
similar to a metal. In a conjugated polymer, three of the four valence
electrons form strong sigma bonds through sp² hybridization where
electrons are strongly localized.
Types are:
1. Polyacetylene or Polyethyne having a repeating unit (C₂H₂)ₙ , is
a rigid, rod-like polymer that consists of long carbon chains with
alternating single and double bonds between the carbon atoms. It
is a conducting polymer whose electrical conductivity was
dissolved by Hideki Shirakawa, Alan Heeger, and Alan
MacDiarmid who received Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2000 for
their work.
Structure of Polyacetylene:
There are two types of structure of Polyacetylene that is cis- and
trans-polyacetylenes.
Properties of Polyacetylene:
Films of cis-polyacetylene are flexible and can be readily stretched
while trans-polyacetylene is much more brittle.Both cis and trans-
polyacetylene show high thermal stability.They are insoluble in
common solvents.
Applications of Polyacetylene:
Doped polyacetylene offers a particularly high electrical
conductivity therefore it can be used in electric wiring or electrode
material in lightweight rechargeable batteries.Tri-iodide oxidized
polyacetylene can be used as a sensor to measure glucose
concentration.
2.Polyaniline
Polyaniline (PANI) is a conducting polymer of the semi-flexible rod
polymer family which was discovered in the early 1860s by
lightfoot through oxidation of aniline. It behaves like an organic
semiconductor that has good electrical conductivity measured in
the units s/cm.
Structure of Polyaniline:

Properties of Polyaniline:
It has great electrical conductivity in the range of 10⁻ ¹⁰ to 10²
s/cm.It has band gapes of 4.3 and 2.7 ev in its reduced and
oxidized forms respectively.It has high chemical
stability.Polyaniline-based composition can withstand high
temperatures like 230-240 ℃ without significant change in
electrical properties.
Applications of Polyaniline:
It is used in the manufacturing of printed circuit boards.Polyaniline
and its derivatives are used as the base element for the production
of N-doped carbon materials.The color change of polyaniline in
different oxidation states can be used in sensors and
electrochromic devices.Printed emeraldine polyaniline-based
sensors have wide application in the electronic sector.
3.Polypyrrole
Polypyrrole (PPy) is an organic polymer having the chemical
formula H(C₄H₂NH)ₙ H which is obtained by oxidative
polymerization of pyrrole. It is an intrinsically conducting polymer
that is used in electronics, optical, biological, and medical fields.
Structure of Polypyrrole:

Properties of Polypyrrole:
It is an insulator but its oxidized derivatives are good electrical
conductors having conductivity in the range of 2 to 1000 s/cm.It
attains good thermal stability if treated with an acid or base like
sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide.It is corrosion resistant and
also chemically stable due to cross-linking.Its glass transition
temperature is 160-170 ℃.
Applications of Polypyrrole:
Polypyrrole and its related polymers are used in electronic devices
and chemical sensors.It can be used as a potential vehicle for drug
delivery.It can be used as catalyst support for fuel cells.It is used to
coat silica and reverse-phase silica to yield a material capable of
anion exchange.
5.Polythiophene
Polythiophene (PT) having the general formula (C₄H₂S)ₙ , is a
conductivity polymer whose conductivity exceeds 100 s/cm. The
electrical conductivity of polythiophene is due to the delocalization
of electrons along the polymer backbone.
Structure of Polythiophene:
Properties of Polythiophene:
It is an excellent intrinsic conducting polymer having conjugated
double bonds in the backbone.It has high environmental and
thermal stability.It is a colored solid but tends to be soluble in
organic solvents.It is transparent having good optical properties.
Applications of Polythiophene:
They are widely used in solar cells due to their ability to form better
contact with metal electrodes.They are also used in polymer
batteries and electrochromic devices.They can also work with
receptors for detecting metal ions or chiral molecules.They show
potential in the treatment of prion diseases.

Q3.Write short notes on any two of the following: (i) Polystyrene

(ii) Nylon (iii) PET
Ans.
1. Polystyrene is a rigid, strong resin that is stunningly
transparent. It is the most extensively used plastic and is made
from the polymerization of styrene. The thermoplastic polymer
is a solid at ambient temperature, but it flows when heated
above 100 °C. Polystyrene is water-insoluble. With a few
exceptions, polystyrene is a non-biodegradable material. Many
aromatic hydrocarbon solvents and chlorinated solvents
dissolve it quickly. It's commonly utilized in the foodservice
business as rigid trays, containers, disposable eating plates,
and bowls, among other things.Polystyrene is a polymer of
styrene. It is a synthetic aromatic hydrocarbon. It is hydrophobic
in nature. Its IUPAC name is poly(1-phenylethane-1,2-diyl). Its
general formula is (C8H8)n.Expanded polystyrene (EPS) or
extruded polystyrene (XPS) is a foam material derived from
polystyrene that is appreciated for its insulating and cushioning
characteristics.
Properties of Polystyrene:
Polystyrene exists in an amorphous state because of the
presence of bulky phenyl groups, packing of polystyrene chains is
not efficient.
Polystyrene is non-polar in nature.
The polystyrene melting point is 240 degrees Celsius.
 Polystyrene density is 1.05 g/cm3
The polystyrene boiling point is 430 degrees Celsius.
Polystyrene thermal conductivity is 0.003 W/m.K.
Polystyrene-specific gravity is 1.054.
Polystyrene has a good optical property like it is a transparent
polymer allowing high transmission of all wavelengths. Moreover,
its high refractive index gives it a particularly high brilliance.
2. Nylon is the most useful synthetic material with applications
varying from daily life activities to industries. It is a plastic which
can be drawn into fibres or moulded into daily products for
making amenities. We can live our entire life with nylon on our
side. You hop across the nylon carpet to the kitchen, eat your
breakfast on a nylon bowl after cleaning your teeth with a
toothbrush whose bristles are made of nylon. A nylon umbrella
over your head is used to move out of the house in heavy
sunlight or to keep out of the rain.The term nylon points towards
a polymer family known as linear polyamides. There are two
approaches to making nylon for fibre applications. In the first
approach, the molecules that consist of an acidic group (COOH)
on every end react with molecules that contain amino (NH2)
groups at each end. The resulting nylon gets a name based on
the number of carbon atoms that separate two amines and two
acidic groups. Hence, nylon 6,6 is widely used as fibres made
from adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine.
Properties are: Lustrous,Elastic,Very strong,Damage resistant to
oil and many chemicals,Resilient,Does not absorb water dries
quickly.
3. “Polyethylene terephthalate is a condensation polymer of
ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid.” The by-product of the
reaction is water so it is an example of condensation or step-
growth polymerization.On the basis of mechanism, there are
two types of polymerization; step-growth and chain-growth
polymerization. Chain growth polymerization is also called
addition polymerization in which monomer units are bonded
with each other through their multiple bonds. For example
polymerization of ethylene leads to the formation of
polyethylene polymer which is also known as polythene.This
polymerization is a three-step process. The first step is initiation
which involves the formation of radicals followed by the radical’s
reaction with a monomer, the second step is propagation which
 is the rapid and progressive addition of monomers to the
growing polymer chain without a change of the active centre,
and the last step is termination which involves the destruction of
the growth active centre, usually by combination or coupling of
the radicals of two growing polymer chains or by
disproportionation. In addition to these three processes, chain
transfer might occur, which is the transfer of the growth active
site from the active chain to an inactive (dormant) one, a
monomer or a solvent molecule (transfer agent).
Polyethylene Terephthalate Properties:
*Crystal clear polymer – It is a crystal clear polymer with good
purity and health. You must have seen the sparkling PET bottles
with brilliant glass-clear presentation attract us.
*Purity – The products of PET taste good and comply with
international food contact regulations.
*Safe – The objects made from PET like bottles are tough and
virtually unbreakable therefore can be easily used for storage and
transportation. This polymer has a high impact and tensile strength
that makes it ideal for carbonated products.
*Good barrier – PET products have low permeability to oxygen,
carbon dioxide and water, therefore, it maintains the integrity of
products with good shelf life.
*Lightweight – The lightweight of PET products reduces the
shipping costs compared to glass products.
*No Leakage and damage – Due to the absence of a weld line in
the base, PET bottles are free from leakage and damage.
*Recyclable – PET polymer is recyclable and can be reshaped in
different shapes.
*Good resistance power – PET products have good resistance
against different chemicals such as acids, bases, etc.

Q4.What do you mean by composites? Discuss various types

of composites with detailed account on metal-matrix
composites.
Ans. Composite material is defined as the material formed
by combining two or more different materials/ constituents
macroscopically that are distinct in the properties and they do
not dissolve into each other.The combination of different
constituents in the composites provides the composite
material with unique properties which are different from the
individual constituent. An example of composites is the mud
building bricks used since ancient times, which is formed by
combining mud bricks and straws. This allowed the
composite to have the strength and resistance of mud bricks
and the tensile strength of straw. In general, the composite
material comprises three main components (a) the matrix, the
continuous phase; (b) the reinforcements, the continuous or
discontinues phase used to strengthen the composite, and (c)
the fine interface region. For thousands of years, composite
materials have played crucial roles in human life, starting with
enabling early civilizations to build houses and continuing on
to making advances in modern technology possible. People
use composite materials in their day-to-day life, including the
ceramic tiling in our bathroom, which help keep us
dry.Composites can indeed be found in the majority of
common products, including building and engineering
projects, medical applications, energy and transportation,
sports, aircraft, automotive, and other fields.

Types are:

1.Polymer Matrix Composite (PMCs):

It consists of various short or continuous fibers which are

bound together by an organic polymer matrix. Polymer matrix
composite's main function is to transfer the loads between
fibers through the matrix. Lightweight, high stiffness, high
strength along the direction of their reinforcements, abrasion
resistance, and corrosion resistance are some properties of
polymer matrix composite.

2.Metal Matrix Composite (MMCs):

Metal matrix composites are usually made up of aluminum to

give it enough strength as it is less dense than iron, and
hence is preferred in the aerospace industry. It is a material
in which continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers
are embedded in a metallic matrix material. Most common
metal matrix composites are aluminum matrix composites.
Major advantages of aluminum matrix composites are
increased specific strength, specific stiffness, and elevated
temperature strength in addition to improved wear resistance,
lower density, and good corrosion resistance.

3.Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMCs):

These are materials consisting of a ceramic or carbon fiber

surrounded by a ceramic matrix such as silicon carbide.

*Metal-Matrix Composites :

Metal-matrix composites are either in use or prototyping for

the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners, electronic substrates,
bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, and a variety of other
applications. While the vast majority are aluminum matrix
composites, a growing number of applications require the
matrix properties of superalloys, titanium, copper, magnesium,
or iron. Like all composites, aluminum-matrix composites are
not a single material but a family of materials whose stiffness,
strength, density, and thermal and electrical properties can
be tailored. The matrix alloy, the reinforcement material, the
volume and shape of the reinforcement, the location of the
reinforcement, and the fabrication method can all be varied to
achieve required properties. Regardless of the variations,
however, aluminum composites offer the advantage of low
cost over most other MMCs. In addition, they offer excellent
thermal conductivity, high shear strength, excellent abrasion
resistance, high-temperature operation, nonflammability,
minimal attack by fuels and solvents, and the ability to be
formed and treated on conventional equipment. Aluminum
MMCs are produced by casting, powder metallurgy, in situ
development of reinforcements, and foil-and-fiber pressing
techniques. Consistently high-quality products are now
available in large quantities, with major producers scaling up
production and reducing prices. They are applied in brake
rotors, pistons, and other automotive components, as well as
golf clubs, bicycles, machinery components, electronic
substrates, extruded angles and channels, and a wide variety
of other structural and electronic applications. Superalloy
composites reinforced with tungsten alloy fibers are being
developed for components in jet turbine engines that operate
temperatures above 1,830 °F. Graphite/copper composites
have tailorable properties, are useful to high temperatures in
air, and provide excellent mechanical characteristics, as well
as high electrical and thermal conductivity. They offer easier
processing as compared with titanium, and lower density
compared with steel. Ductile superconductors have been
fabricated with a matrix of copper and superconducting
filaments of niobium-titanium. Copper reinforced with
tungsten particles or aluminum oxide particles is used in heat
sinks and electronic packaging.

Q5.What force is required to stretch a steel wire of 1 cm2 in

cross-section to double its length? Y = 21011 N/m2. Assume
Hook’s law.
Ans.
As we know,
Y=F/A / Δl/l
Y=Fl / AΔl
F=YAΔl / l where Δl=2l−l;as l1=l & l2=2l
F=2×10^11(1×10^−4)(l)
F=2×10^7N