CVL 299: Thermal and Energy

Science

Units, Temperature and

Pressure
1
 Importance of dimensions and units
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are selected as primary or
fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the various
units.
• English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various units in this system are
related to each other rather arbitrarily.
 SI and English Units
Example : Unit Conversion

1- The heat dissipation rate density of an electronic device is reported as 10.72 mW/mm2 by the
manufacturer. Convert this to W/m2.

2- Convert kg / m. s^2 to Pa and kPa

 SI and English Units
Example : Unit Conversion

1- The heat dissipation rate density of an electronic device is reported as 10.72 mW/mm2 by the
manufacturer. Convert this to W/m2.

𝑚𝑊 10−3 𝑊 3
𝑊
10.72 = 10.72 −6 2 = 10.72 × 10
𝑚𝑚2 10 𝑚 𝑚2

2- Convert kg / m. s^2 to Pa and kPa

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑁
= × = = = 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑠 2 𝑚 𝑠2 𝑚 𝑚2 𝑠 2 𝑚2
 Thermodynamics properties
•Density [r] :It is defined as mass per unit volume

𝑚
r= [kg/m3]
𝑉
 Thermodynamics properties
Specific Volume Comparison (1kg)
• Specific volume v : The volume per unit mass, Lead versus Air

𝑉 1
𝑣= = [m3/kg]
𝑚 r

• The specific volume 𝑣 is the volume per unit of mole, 𝑣 = 𝑀𝑣

kg g
Where: M is the molecular weight in or
kmol mol

n is the number of moles in [mol]

Gases have specific volume much
greater than liquids and solids
1 gram mole contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Representative specific volume values for air and

steam, two gases commonly used for
thermodynamics applications, are indicated below
Substance Specific Volume
Air 1.05
Steam 1.70
 Thermodynamics properties
• Temperature [T]: It is used to measure the hotness or coldness of materials, T [oC, k, R, oF].

• When the temperature changes, other properties also change.

Temp (A) > Temp (B) Temp (A) > Temp (B) contact Temp (A) = Temp (B) contact
No contact Heat transfer from A to B Thermal equilibrium between A and B

B expands
A B A B A B
A contracts
 Thermodynamics properties
Other Thermodynamics Properties:

• Mass [m]: a fixed amount of matter

𝑚 [𝑘𝑔]

• Specific gravity: The ratio of fluid density to water density at 4oC (rwater = 1000 kg/m3)

𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

• Specific weight: The weight of a unit volume of a substance

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝑔
𝛾= = = 𝜌𝑔 𝑁/m3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
 SI and English Units
Work = Force  Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of engineering
1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units:

Force = Mass x Acceleration
F = ma
1 N = 1 kg. m/s2

The newton, N, is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1kg at the

rate of 1 meter per second per second.
 Applications
Which of the following food items weighs approximately 1 newton ?
a) a grain of rice
b) a small strawberry
c) a medium-sized apple
d) a large watermelon

A tank is filled with oil whose density is ρ = 850 kg/m3. If the volume of the tank is V = 2 m3. Determine:

1. the amount of mass m in the tank

2. The specific volume of the oil
 Applications
Which of the following food items weighs approximately 1 newton ?
a) a grain of rice
b) a small strawberry
c) a medium-sized apple (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒌𝒈) => 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏 𝑵
d) a large watermelon

A tank is filled with oil whose density is ρ = 850 kg/m3. If the volume of the tank is V = 2 m3. Determine:

1. the amount of mass m in the tank

2. The specific volume of the oil

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
1. 𝜌 = → 𝑚 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 = 850 × 2 𝑚3 = 1700 𝑘𝑔
𝑉 𝑚3

𝑉 2
2. 𝑣 = 𝑚
= 1700 = 0.001176 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
 Extensive Vs Intensive properties
Thermodynamics properties can be placed in two general classes : Extensive and Intensive

Extensive Property :

A property is called extensive if its value for an overall system is the

sum of its values for the parts into which the system is divided.

In simple terms : depend on the size or extent of the sample

Intensive Property :

A property is called intensive if its value are independent of the size

or extent of the system.
 Extensive Vs Intensive properties
Thermodynamics properties can be placed in two general classes : Extensive and Intensive

Exercise:

Classify the following properties into Extensive or Intensive :

Density, Mass, Volume, pressure, Temperature, Volume, Energy,

specific volume

Hints
Extensive depend on the size of the system
Intensive don’t depend on the size of the system
 Extensive Vs Intensive properties
Thermodynamics properties can be placed in two general classes : Extensive and Intensive

Exercise:

Classify the following properties into Extensive or Intensive :

Density, Mass, Volume, pressure, Temperature, Volume, Energy,

specific volume

Answer:

Extensive : Volume, mass, Energy

Intensive : Density, specific volume, pressure, temperature

Hints
Extensive depend on the size of the system
Intensive don’t depend on the size of the system
 Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and the
steam point.
• Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure (0°C or 32°F).
• Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure (100°C or 212°F).
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of any substance.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)

A constant-volume gas thermometer would

read -273.15°C at absolute zero pressure
 Temperature Scales
Comparison of magnitudes of various temperature units. Comparison of temperature scales.

∆T K = ∆T °C

∆T R = ∆T °F

• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was

the ice point, 273.15 K, which is the temperature at which
water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely
reproducible point, the triple point of water (the state at
which all three phases of water coexist in equilibrium),
which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
T K = T °C + 273.15
T R = T °𝐹 + 459.67
T R = 1.8 T K
T °F = 1.8 T °C + 32
 Temperature Scales
Exercise 1: Convert the following temperatures :
21 oC K
-40 oC K

373.15 K oC

0 K oC

0 oC K
293.15 K oC

Exercise 2: Expressing Temperature Rise in different Units

During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10o C. Express the rise
in temperature in Kelvin and Fahrenheit
 Temperature Scales
Exercise 1: Convert the following temperatures :
21 oC 294.15 K
-40 oC 233.15 K

373.15 K 100 oC

0 K -273.15 oC

0 oC 273.15 K
293.15 K 20 oC

Exercise 2: Expressing Temperature Rise in different Units

During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10o C. Express the rise
in temperature in Kelvin and Fahrenheit
Analysis: This problem deals with temperature changes, which are identical in Kelvin
and Celsius scales. Then,
∆T K = ∆T °C = 10 𝐾

The temperature changes in Fahrenheit and Rankine scales are also identical and are
related to the changes in Celsius and Kelvin scales:
∆T R = 1.8 ∆T K = 1.8 𝑥 10 = 18 𝑅
 Thermodynamics properties
• Pressure [P]: The normal force exerted by a fluid/body per unit area,
F N
P= or Pa
A m2

For a gas or liquid at rest we consider pressure (P) as the normal force exerted on a unit area.
Pressure is the ratio of the compressive force Fnormal exerted by a gas or liquid normal to an area (A).
The pressure at a specified point is defined as the limit
Fnormal
p = lim
A→A′ A
Where A’ is the smallest area for which a definite value of the ratio exists.
 Pressure measurement
How Pressure is measured ?

Some basic pressure gages Pressure measurement by a Bourdon tube gage

N
1 Pa = 1 2
m
 Stevin principle
The pressure is identical at a horizontal
plane regardless of geometry if:

1. The fluid is at rest (Static)

2. The fluid is identical (Identical density)

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐺 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃𝐻 ≠ 𝑃𝐼

Same depth, same fluid Same pressure

 Pressure measurement
How Pressure is measured ?
Manometer Barometer

Using Stevin’s principle Using Stevin’s principle

𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏

𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑃𝑏 = ρgL + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃𝑏 = ρℎ𝑔 gL + 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟

𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 can be neglected when compared with the column of mercury

Finally, 𝑃𝑎 = ρℎ𝑔 gL
N
1 Pa = 1 2
m
 Variation of Pressure with Depth
• The pressure of a fluid at rest increases with depth When the variation of density with
(as a result of added weight) elevation is known
2
∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = − න 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧
1

∆𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔∆𝑧 = 𝛾𝑆 ∆𝑧
Free-body diagram of a rectangular
P = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ fluid element in equilibrium
 Absolute Vs Gage Pressure
• Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position, it is measured relative to absolute vacuum.
• Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Most
pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
• Vacuum pressure: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm P > Patm

Pvac = Patm − Pabs P < Patm

• In thermodynamics calculations, always use

absolute pressure.
• Throughout this text, the pressure P will denote
absolute pressure unless specified otherwise
 Pressure applications
As shown in the figure below, an underwater exploration vehicle submerged to a depth of 300 𝑚. if the
atmospheric pressure at the surface is 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎, the density is 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, and 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2.
Determine the pressure on the vehicle, atm.
 Pressure applications
As shown in the figure below, an underwater exploration vehicle submerged to a depth of 300 𝑚. if the
atmospheric pressure at the surface is 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎, the density is 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3, and 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2.
Determine the pressure on the vehicle, atm.

Solution:
The pressure exerted at 300 m below the free surface of the sea is
the absolute pressure at that location:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃 = 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 1000 3 𝑥 9.807 2 𝑥 300 𝑚 𝑥 1
𝑚 𝑠 1000 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃 = 3044 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 Pressure applications
Liquid kerosene flows through a Venturi meter, as shown in Fig. below. The pressure of the
kerosene in the pipe supports columns of kerosene that differ in height by 12 𝑐𝑚. Determine
the difference in pressure between points a and b, in kPa.
Does the pressure increase or decrease as the kerosene flows from point a to point b as the
pipe diameter decreases?
The atmospheric pressure is 101 𝑘𝑃𝑎, the specific volume of kerosene is 0.00122 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔,
and the acceleration of gravity is 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝐿1
𝐿2
 Pressure applications
Liquid kerosene flows through a Venturi meter, as shown in Fig. below. The pressure of the kerosene in the
pipe supports columns of kerosene that differ in height by 12 cm. Determine the difference in pressure
between points a and b, in kPa.
Does the pressure increase or decrease as the kerosene flows from point a to point b as the pipe diameter
decreases?
The atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa, the specific volume of kerosene is 0.00122 m3 /kg, and the
acceleration of gravity is g = 9.81 m/s 2

Solution:

1 1 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 819.67 3
𝑣 0.00122 𝑚 𝐿2
𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔𝐿1 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔𝐿2 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 819.67 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.12 = 964.9 𝑃𝑎 = 0.964 𝑘𝑃𝑎

 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in the figure
below. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 𝑚 where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if ℎ1 = 0.1 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.2 𝑚, and ℎ3 = 0.35 𝑚. Take the densities of water, oil, and
mercury to be 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.
 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in the figure
below. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 𝑚 where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if ℎ1 = 0.1 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.2 𝑚, and ℎ3 = 0.35 𝑚. Take the densities of water, oil, and
mercury to be 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

Solution:
The pressure in a pressurized water tank is measured by a multifluid manometer. The air pressure in the tank is to be
determined.
Assumption: The air pressure in the tank is uniform (its variation with elevation is negligible due to its low density), and
thus we can determine the pressure at the air-water interface.
 Measuring Pressure with a Multifluid Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown in the figure
below. The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 𝑚 where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if ℎ1 = 0.1 𝑚, ℎ2 = 0.2 𝑚, and ℎ3 = 0.35 𝑚. Take the densities of water, oil, and
mercury to be 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , and 13,600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , respectively.

Solution:
Analysis: Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the air-water interface, moving along the tube by adding or subtracting
the 𝜌𝑔ℎ terms until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal to 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 since the tube is open to the atmosphere
gives:
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑔ℎ3 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
Solving for 𝑃1 and substituting:
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑔 𝜌𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 ℎ3 − 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ2

𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 1𝑁 1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃1 = 85.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎 + 9.81 13,600 0.35 𝑚 − 1,000 0.1 𝑚 − 850 0.2 𝑚
𝑠2 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚 𝑁
1 2 1000 2
𝑠 𝑚
𝑃1 = 130 𝑘𝑃𝑎
 End of Chapter1.2
Units, Temperature and Pressure