Development of Organisms and

Continuity of Life

CELL DIVISION AND REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION

Definition: grow
The process whereby organisms produce offspring.

develop

mature
LIFE CYCLES (GROWTH,
DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION OF
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE
OFFSPRING) SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE
CYCLE CYCLE
ASEXUAL VS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The process of production of genetically The process of production of genetically
identical offspring from a single parent dissimilar offspring
without the use of gametes Involving the production of gametes (via
Meiosis)
No fertilization
Fertilization (fusion of haploid nuclei of
Only via Mitosis
gametes) to form a diploid (2n) zygote
No genetic variation
Greater genetic variation (Fertilization
involves DNA from both male and
female gametes)
 Diploid cells (2n): Cells of the body containing the original number of chromosomes in its nuclei.
E.g each human cell bears 46 chromosomes in its nucleus

Haploid cells (n): Cells bearing half the original number of chromosomes in each of their nuclei. E.g
Gametes

Gametes: Highly specialized haploid (n) sex cells, produced by gonads (reproductive organs) that
provide half the genetic material in producing a new offspring e.g - sperm cells or pollen grain nuclei
(in male gonads)
- egg cell or ovum (in female gonads)
All gametes contribute to sexual reproduction by fusing with another from the opposite gender, during
fertilization, to produce a diploid zygote (which grows and develops into an offspring)
SEXUAL vs ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
CELL DIVISIONS: MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS
MITOSIS
A type of cell division which gives rise to
genetically identical cells
in which the chromosome number
remains the same (mostly diploid i.e
“2n”)
All (somatic) cells undergo mitosis
Location: all tissues/organs
MEIOSIS (REDUCTION
DIVISION)
A type of cell division which gives rise to
formation of gametes
in which the chromosome number is
reduced to half (haploid i.e “n”)
Only germ cells undergo meiosis
Location: Gonads (reproductive organs
e.g testes, ovaries, anther (for flowering
plants)
 CELL DIVISIONS: MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Function: - growth Function: - formation of gametes, for
fertilization and zygote development
- Development
during sexual reproduction.
- Asexual reproduction/cloning
- Examples:
- Repair of worn out tissues Examples: - Sperm cell and Egg cell (for
- RBCs, bone marrow cells animals)
- Gut wall - Pollen grain nucleus and
- Epidermis Ovum/Egg cell (for flowering plants)
- Growth of Meristems (specialized tissues at the
growing tips of roots and shoots of plants)
Number of chromosomes in a nucleus - Diploid
(2n) vs Haploid (n)
“ Diploid (2n) vs Haploid (n)
(KARYOTYPE)
Karyotype: a picture of a person’s chromosomes isolated stained and examined
under a microscope

”
 Question: Why should gametes of human being
nuclei carry 23 (n) chromosomes, while nuclei of
other cells carry 46 (2n) chromosomes?

ANSWER: The fusion of gametes i.e fertilization must result in the total number of chromosomes
being the same number as possessed by a normal somatic cell.

If gametes were also diploid (2n=46), then fertilization of gametes would have resulted in the zygote
having double the number of chromosomes i.e 92!
MITOSIS AND THE CELL CYCLE

Cells divide when:

- an organism grows
- an organism becomes damaged and needs to produce new cells
It is essential that any new cells produced contain genetic information that is identical to
the parent cell.
MITOSIS -Summary
Phases of MITOSIS – 1. Interphase (DNA
REPLICATION)
2. Prophase

- Each chromosome becomes visible

as two exact copies (chromatids)
- joined at the centromere
- Nuclear membrane breaks down
3. Metaphase

- Spindle (protein fibres) form

(from centrioles).
- Chromosomes line up at the
equator
- Chromosomes are attached to the
spindle by their centromeres.
4. Anaphase
- Spindle fibres shorten
- Chromatids pulled to the opposite
ends (poles)
- After separation chromatids =
chromosomes
5. Telophase (and
Cytokinesis)
- Two new nuclei form at the
poles, each containing four
chromosomes.
- Cytoplasm starts to divide (Two
new daughter cells start being
produced)
- Spindle breaks down
- New nuclear membranes form
around each set of chromosomes
Mitosis Animation
MITOSIS – Photomicrographs of Mitosis in
Plant cells – Onion Root tip
Interactive Animation on Mitosis

https://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis_j
s.htm
Reinforcement: Cell Cycles, Chromosomes and
Mitosis
MEIOSIS (Reduction
Division – Diploid to
haploid)
-Chromosomes pair up in homologous
pairs, before separation
- Result of Meiosis I: members of
each homologous pair separates – two
cells with half the original
chromosome number

- During Meiosis II, the two chromatids

of each chromosome separates.
- Result of Meiosis II: Four haploid
cells
- Advantage: More genetic variation
= more adaptability to changing
environments
Interactive Animation on MEIOSIS

https://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis_js.htm
Comparison – Mitosis vs Meiosis
Photomicrograph - Meiosis of Lily cell (Early Prophase)
Comparison – Mitosis vs Meiosis
Comparison – Mitosis vs Meiosis
Comparison (key points)– Mitosis vs Meiosis
Development of Organisms and
Continuity of Life

Asexual REPRODUCTION
Vegetative Propagation:

Definition:
It is the mode of asexual reproduction in
which plant parts are detached from the
parent to form a new plant.
Example of Runners (strawberries, bermudagrass,
peppermint, spidergrass, Bamboo)
Other methods of asexual
reproduction/vegetative propagation
Some species produce organs such as
a) Potato TUBERS (thickened underground stem)
b) RHIZOMES (stem that sends outs roots and shoots) such as ginger and
c) BULBS (onion, garlic) – to detach from parent plant and form a new individual
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE
PROPAGATION METHODS
COMMERICAL USES from Types of
Vegetative Propagation
Key Points
In natural asexual reproduction, roots can give rise to new plants, or plants can propagate using
BUDDING or CUTTING.
CUTTING is the process in which the stem of a plant is placed in moist soil or water to generate a new
root system.
In GRAFTING , part of a plant is attached to the root system of another plant; the two unite to form a
new plant containing the roots of one and the stem and leaf structure of the other.
In LAYERING , part of the plant’s stem is bent down and covered with soil; this stem can generate a
new root system and, therefore, an entirely new plant.
MICROPROPAGATION is the process in which part of a plant is placed in plant culture medium and
provided with all the hormones and nutrients it needs in order to generate new plants.
When part of a plant is placed in plant culture medium and provided with all the hormones and
nutrients it needs, it can generate new plants; this is known as micropropagation.
1. Examples of Cutting
Examples of cuttings
Other examples of Cuttings

Raspberry
Blackberry
Rose
Fig
Lilac
2. Examples of Grafting
Examples of Grafting

Roses
Fruit trees (Mangoes)
3. Examples of Layering
3. Examples of Layering
3. Examples of Layering

Forsythia
Holly
Strawberry
Raspberry
Blackberries
Azalea
4. MICROPROPAGATION

Definition: The rapid vegetative multiplication of valuable plant material through tissue
culture is called micropropagation
Procedure:
a) Take explants (small pieces of plant tissue from actively growing parts of plant –
meristem )
b) Surface sterilization
c) placed in growth medium of agar jelly + added nutrients + plant growth hormones
d) explants grow, differentiate into new tissue, forming “plantlets”
e) plantlets transferred to compost to complete development
Advantages of Micropropagation
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Examples:
- Hydra
- Jellyfish
- Sea anemones
- Aphids

Note: All these organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually by BUDDING or
FRAGMENTATION (both involve cell division by MITOSIS)
CLONING (Artificial Asexual Reproduction) –
Example of Dolly, the Sheep
Advantage of Asexual Reproduction

Animals and plants of desired characteristics e.g plentiful meat, milk, eggs, crop yield,
disease resistance, aesthetic beauty, nutritious value etc. can be repeatedly
cloned/reproduced from the ideal parent plant/animal.

Note: Only advantageous as long as the environment remains stable.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Definition: The fusion of haploid nuclei of

gametes to form a diploid zygote, and
produce genetically different offspring
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING
PLANTS 1. Female Gonad: CARPEL (PISTIL)
Reproductive organ: consisting of Stigma, style, Ovary and ovule)
FLOWER 2. Gametes: Ovum (egg cell)
1. Male Gonad: STAMEN,
consisting of ANTHER and Filament
2. Gamete: Pollen grain nucleus
An INTRO TO FLOWERS
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/flowers/intro

TRAITS OF FLOWERS:
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/flowers/flowertraits/
Pollination

Basic Definition:
The process by which pollen is transferred from the
anthers of a flower to the stigma of the same or a
different flower, for fertilization.
2 types of Flowering plants:
1. Insect pollinated
2. Wind pollinated
Insect-pollinated Flowering Plant
HIBISCUS FLOWER
Wind-pollinated Flowering Plant
Wind-pollinated Flowering
Plant
- Usually GRASS, Wheat or Maize
- No need for large colourful petals
- No nectaries
- Generally small, inconspicuous
- Grouped together to form an
INFLORESCENCE
- Examples: Crops, Dandelions
Comparison
A) Insect pollinated B) Wind pollinated
TYPES OF POLLINATION

CROSS POLLINATION SELF POLLINATION

When pollen transfers from the When pollen transfers from the
anther to the stigma of a different anther to the stigma of the same
flowering plant, of the same flower or a different flower of the
species. same plant.
Advantages held by SELF POLLINATION
over CROSS POLLINATION
1. More likely to happen – close proximity: Anthers closer to the stigma
2. No pollinator needed: Pollen may fall on the stigma , minus insects or
wind.
3. Lesser energy and pollen wastage
4. More reliable than cross pollination – cross pollination depends on insect
behavior and wind direction

Main disadvantage held by self pollination: Lesser genetic variation –

plants only well adapted for survival if environment remains stable/constant.
Conditions that make CROSS
POLLINATION necessary
1. Some species either have only male (stamens) or female gonads
(carpels) – Unisexual e.g. pumpkin, papaya, watermelon, bitter gourd, and
corn.
Conditions that make CROSS
POLLINATION necessary
2. Stamens and carpels of the same flower may mature at different
times – Either stigma may not be ready to receive pollen, or anthers
haven’t matured yet to release pollen.

3. When stigma is taller than the anther

Questions
FERTILIZATION ( The next
step after Pollination)
Definition: The fusion of a haploid pollen
grain nucleus (male gamete) with the
haploid nucleus of the ovum (female
gamete) inside an ovule in the ovary, to
produce a diploid zygote (future “seed”)

Steps of Fertilization:
1. Pollen grain falls on Stigma
2. Stigma produces sugary secretion
3. Pollen grain germinate
4. Pollen tube grows through tissue of
Style and Ovary
5. Tube reaches opening of Ovule
(Micropyle)
6. Tube tip breaks
7. Pollen grain nucleus enters ovule
8. Nucleus fertilizes Ovum
Post-Fertilization changes
- OVULE turns into the SEED
- OVULE WALL turns into TESTA (Seed
Coat)
- OVARY Turns into the FRUIT
- OVARY WALL turns into PERICARP
(Fruit Skin)
- COTYLEDON = Food storage tissue
Structure of a DICOT SEED
Testa: protects the seed and helps to
prevent it drying out

Cotyledons (Seed leaves): contain

food reserves for germination
SEED DISPERAL

Importance of Seed Dispersal: Seeds should be dispersed far away from

the parent plant, to avoid competition for resources such as
- Water
- Air
- Light
- Mineral ions
- To allow colonization of new habitats.
Types of Seed Dispersal

1. Self Dispersal (Explosion):

- Fruits (pods) of pea and bean plants
- dry out when they mature
- Curl
- Split – flicking out the seeds
2. Water Dispersal: Coconut
3. Wind Dispersal
4. Animal Dispersal
Video summary – Seed dispersal
mechanisms
2. Wind Dispersal

Plants with very small and light seeds

Fruits adapted to form windows or parachutes to allow being carried to
long distances
3. ANIMAL DISPERSAL

Plants with Fleshy and succulent pericarp[ (Tomatoes, peaches, oranges,

cherries)
1. Animals remove fruits and carry them some distance away from parent
plant, or drop them.
2. Small seeds may be eaten and passed out as faeces
3. Dry pericarps with hairs or spikes that catch in animal fur.
4. May be stuck on the feet of animals or birds in mud.
SEED GERMINATION – video summary
Seed Germination

Definition: The sequence of events that converts the embryo within a seed into a
young plant.

Procedure:
1. Seed absorbs water from the surrounding soil
2. Enzymes within the seed are activated
3. Stored material 🡪 soluble substances
Examples: Starch -> Maltose (Amylase)
Proteins -> amino acids (Protease)
Lipids -> fatty acids + Glycerol (Lipase) Mass of cotyledon INCREASES
Seed Germination

4. Soluble nutrients move into

EMBRYO (by Diffusion, Osmosis or
Active transport) – to be used for
energy and growth
5. Embryo increases in size and
no. of cells. Mass of
cotyledon DECREASES
6. The Radicle (young root)
breaks through the testa and
increases in length
7. Radicle = Root
8. Root hairs develop – to absorb
water and mineral ions.
9. The plumule grows above the
soil, forming the first true leaves of
the plant.
10. Cotyledon is pushed above
the ground
Environmental factors required for
Seed Germination
1. WATER: - to hydrate the seed tissues – to activate enzymes
- transport of soluble nutrients inside the seed

2. OXYGEN: - for cellular respiration – for energy and growth

3. Suitable TEMPERATURE: optimum temperature for metabolic reactions.

Practical: Investigating conditions
required for Seed Germination
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
ANMALS
Reproductive systems and Gametes
 Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
• Meiosis (type of cell division) : A reduction division in which the
chromosome number is reduced to half (haploid), during gamete
production.

• Sexual Reproduction: A process involving the fusion of the haploid nuclei

of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote, and produce
genetically dissimilar offspring.
 The Male Reproductive system
(Gonads: Testes)

1. Testis/Testes: An oval body lying within the scrotum

or scrotal sacs.
- Function: i) Meiosis (gamete/sperm formation)
ii) Testosterone (male sex hormone – responsible for male
secondary sex characteristics)
2. Scrotum/Scrotal sacs: Sacs that house the testes.
Located outside the main body cavity
- Function: maintains the temperatures 1-2 o C below core
body temperature – optimum for sperm development.
 The Male Reproductive System
(Gonads: Testes)

3. Epididymis: long, coiled tube for storing sperm

4. Sperm ducts/Vas deferens/Ductus deferens: Tubes
that transport sperm from epididymis onward, during
intercourse.
5. Seminal Vesicle: glands that secrete an alkaline seminal
fluid , rich in nutrients for the sperm cells and to help
them neutralize acidic vaginal conditions.
6. Prostate gland: a single gland lying below the
bladder – secretes 1/3rd of the semen (ejaculate)
–contains enzymes for the sperm cells’ metabolism.
7. Urethra: Sperm ducts from each testis joins to the
urethra – carries semen from sperm duct and urine
from the bladder.
 The Female Reproductive
System. (Gonads: Ovaries)

1. Ovaries: a pair present in the pelvis on

either side of the uterus (lower
abdomen)
- Function: i) production of gamete (egg
cell)
- ii) secretion of female hormones
OESTROGEN (female secondary sex
characteristics) and
PROGESTERONE (controls
menstrual cycle)
The Female Reproductive System
(Gonads: Ovaries)

2. Oviducts/Fallopian tubes: Tube through which ovary

releases the egg every month to the uterus (ovulation).
3. Uterus/Womb:
- The site of development of later stages of the embryo
(1st stage of baby development) or foetus (8th week of
conception)
- Made of thick walls (smooth muscles) -- to contract
and push baby out during childbirth.
4. Cervix (neck of uterus) – ring of muscles
5. Vagina – birth canal
6. Vulva – opening of vagina
 Sperm meets Egg – The Where and How

https://www.footprints-science.co.uk/index.php?type=Fertilisation
Comparison between Male Gamete (Sperm
Cell) and Female Gamete (Egg cell)
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
ANMALS
Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle
 HORMONES
• Primary Sexual Characteristics: are present at birth and comprise the external
and internal genitalia (e.g., the penis and testes in males and the vagina and ovaries
in females). 
• Secondary Sexual Characteristics: are features that appear during puberty in
humans, and at sexual maturity in other animals e.g. pubic hair,
enlarged mammary glands and widened hips of females, and facial
hair and Adam's apples on males.
• Secondary sexy characteristics are brought about when male hormone
(testosterone) and female hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) start getting
secreted.
 Main hormones upon reaching puberty (the
initiation of meiosis and secondary sex
characteristics)
Follicle stimulating Hormone
(FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
In Males: Production of Sperm • In Males: stimulates testes to secrete
TESTOSTERONE

In Females: initiates the menstrual cycle

- Maturation of eggs in the ovary
- Ovaries are stimulated to secrete
OESTROGEN
• In Females:
- OVULATION (release of egg from
the ovary into the oviduct)
- Stimulates ovaries to secrete
PROGESTERONE
Puberty and the Menstrual Cycle
 The Menstual Cycle (Definitions)
Menstrual Cycle: 1. The cycle of producing and releasing a mature egg cell every 28
days, after the onset of puberty.
2. A monthly cycle of changes in the ovaries and uterus lining, starting with the
preparation of the egg for fertilization.
3. The repetitive monthly process of ovulation and menstruation in women.
Ovulation: The release of a mature egg cell from the ovary to the oviduct, in the
middle of the menstrual cycle
Menstruation (Period): The monthly discharge of blood from the uterus, via the
vagina
The Cycle
Hormonal levels during the Menstrual Cycle
How the menstrual cycle works
Summary: menstrual cycle hormones and their
functions
 SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN
ANMALS
- Fertile Phase
- Fertilization
- - Dietary needs of pregnant women
 The Fertile Phase of the
menstrual cycle

The period in the menstrual cycle during

which conception is most likely to occur
 The fertile and infertile
phases of the menstrual cycle

Days 1-7 of a woman's menstrual cycle are

considered infertile.
Days 8-19 are considered fertile; considered
unsafe for unprotected intercourse.

Day 20 through the end of the cycle are

considered infertile.
Fertilization
Fertilization and growth of the embryo
Post-fertilization and embryo
growth
6. When haploid nuclei of sperm and egg cell fuse
(fertilization), a diploid zygote forms.
7. Zygote mitotically divides for the next 5 days until
it turns into a ball of 32 cells (Embryo), whilst being
pushed along to the uterus cavity, by the oviduct
cilia
8. Embryo implants itself into the spongy thickening
Uterus lining by day 5/6/7
9. Formation of Amnion, Placenta and Umbilical
cord
Post-fertilization and embryo
growth
Amnion: A membrane formed to protect the
embryo/foetus within
Amniotic fluid: comes from maternal plasma (later
on composed of fetal urine, antibodies, nutrients)
- Functions: - mechanical protection (shock
absorber)
- Reduces friction
- Allows embryo to swim in uterus
- - might contain stem cells (latest research)
Post-fertilization and embryo
growth

Placenta: develops in the uterus wall at

around the same time as the amniotic sac
- Placenta is partly formed from a) tissues
of the uterus lining and b) embryonic
tissue
- Function: Exchange of substances
between the blood of mother and
embryo
 • Umbilical cord: The embryo is attached to
Post-fertilization and embryo the placenta via the umbilical cord,
growth consisting of
• i) umbilical vein (carries oxygenated,
nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to
the fetus) and
• ii) umbilical artery (carries deoxygenated,
nutrient-depleted blood from the fetus to
the placenta)
Post-fertilization and embryo
• 10. Embryonic cells differentiate into dif
growth
tissues and organs
• 11. By 8 Weeks, embryo= foetus
• 12. by week 37-42 (approx. 9 mnths),
Baby to be delivered
• 13. Smooth muscle walls of uterus
contract to push baby out
• 14. Afterbirth (placenta, amnion and
umbilical cord) also removed.
 Functions and working of
Placenta
1. Placenta ensures that fetal and mother’s blood
do not mix – separated by semi permeable
membrane around the fetal prodctop blood
capillaries.
2. Exchange of nutrients (mother foetus):
glucose, amino acids, lipids, mineral ions,
vitamins and water – combination of diffusion,
osmosis and active transport.
3. Respiratory gas exchange: Oxygen (mother
foetus), CO2 (foetus mother.
4. Excretory products (foetus mother): e.g. Urea
5. Antibodies (mother foetus)
6. Progesterone production – maintain uterus
lining
Dietary needs of Pregnant women
Dietary needs of Pregnant women
Dietary needs of Pregnant women
 Advantages of breastfeeding
• Perfect composition – all needed nutrients in the right proportions
• Ideal temperature
• Antibodies – Immunity against infections
• Emotional bond between mother and child
• Cost-effective and convenient
• Has oxytocin hormone – induces calmness and satisfaction
• Lesser likely to cause obesity