Magnetics: Inductors and Transformers

ECE 112| Basic Power Electronics MIDTERM Experiment | Magnetics
MAGNETICS
Inductors and Transformers
As a preparation for the next project and to further understand its behaviour and characteristic,
inductors are considered on this activity which is then extended to transformers. The transformer has
three uses: stepping up or down voltages or currents, and transforming impedances. Through this
activity, the inductors nonideal characteristic will be analysed.
Before doing this experiment, students should be able to:

 Measure inductance using LCR Meter and operate DMM.
 Do a transient (time dependent) simulation of RC, RL and RLC circuits using LTSpice
 Do an AC sweep (frequency dependent) simulation of RC, RL and RLC circuits using LTSpice,
determining both the magnitude and the phase of input and output voltages.
 Determine the complex transfer function for RC, RL and RLC circuits and simplify for high and low
frequency.
 Be able to define what is meant by high and low frequencies in the context of RC, RL and RLC
circuits.
 Identify whether an RC, RL or RLC circuit is a low-pass, a high-pass, a band-pass or a band-reject
filter
 Find the corner frequency for RC and RL circuits and the resonant frequency for RLC circuits.
 Find a practical model for a real inductor and determine the range of frequencies in which the real
inductor behaves nearly like an ideal inductor.
ILOs:
 Estimate the inductance of simple magnetic solenoid and ring inductors using well-established
analytic and empirical formulas.
 Build a simple solenoid or ring inductor using enamelled magnet wire and a non-magnetic winding
form.
 Estimate the inductance of a solenoid inductor by building a resonant RLC circuit and finding the
resonant frequency.
 Do a transient (time dependent) simulation of a resistor loaded transformer circuit using LTSpice.
 Do an AC sweep (frequency dependent) simulation of a resistor loaded transformer circuit using
LTSpice.
 Demonstrate the relationship between the voltage and current of an inductor.
 Analyze a simple transformer using LTSpice and demonstrate that it works as designed for some
range of frequencies.
 Build a simple transformer from two solenoids and demonstrate that it works as designed for
some range of frequencies.
Equipment:
 DMM & LCR Meter  Iron Ring or Core, Nail, Paper or PVC Tube
 Oscilloscope with Probes  Electrical Tape
 Function Generator with Probes  Sandpaper
 Breadboard and Connecting Wires  1 x 47Ω resistor
 LTSpice  2 x 1μF capacitor
 6m Enamelled Magnet Wire  1 x 1Ω current limiting resistor
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A. Inductor Making
Inductance
An inductor consists of a wire of conductive material wound around a (usually) solid object
called a core. The inductance of an inductor depends on the material and geometry of both the coil and
the core. Inductors have larger values when the core material is a magnetic material like iron. The value
of the inductance will also depend on the geometry of the core material. Each physical coil geometry
has a unique equation to calculate its inductance. Just for simplicity, we will address only one geometry,
the cylindrical core. Search online for solenoid or solenoidal inductor and you will get a better idea of
what such coils look like in practice. In some classroom demonstrations in physics, a simple open
structure is used so that it is easier to see the geometry. An example of such a coil from Pasco is shown
below along with a couple of other inductors like the ones we are using.
If the core cylinder has a radius equal to rc and a coil is winded N times around the cylinder to cover a
length d, the inductor will, ideally, have an inductance equal to:
where µo = 4π x 10-7 Henries/meter. If the core is not air, but rather some magnetic material, replace µo
with µ which is usually many times larger than µo. By many times we can mean as much as 105 times
larger. Note that this formula only works well when the length d is much, much larger than the radius rc.
What if d is not very large compared to rc? This coil would look more like a finger ring and have the
shape of a coin. In this case, the above equation would over-estimate the value of the inductance and,
thus, it is only useful to find a ballpark number. However, you can use this equation to get a better
estimate of the inductance of a ring-shaped coil.
where rc is the major radius of the coil and rw is the radius of the wire. Calculations (based on this coil
shape and others) from the University of Missouri- Rolla Electromagnetic Compatibility Laboratory can
be found here: http://emclab.mst.edu/inductance/. Electromagnetic Compatibility, or EMC, refers to
the ability of a device or system to function without error in its intended electromagnetic environment.
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Electromagnetic Interference, or EMI, refers to electromagnetic emissions from a device or system that
interferes with the normal operation of another device or system. Both are very big issues indeed in
electromechanical systems.
Note that neither of these formulas will produce a result that agrees exactly with the actual inductance
of the coil. They are useful to find ballpark values for inductance only.
A semi-empirical formula was developed by H. A. Wheeler in the 1920s. He was a distinguished

electrical engineer who worked at the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) and Hazeltine
Corporation (headquartered in Greenlawn, Long Island and now part of BAE Systems). His formula,
accurate to within 1% as long as d>0.8rc, gives the inductance in µH, if the dimensions are in inches.
Resistance:
When one makes an inductor, the wires used can have a large variety of cross sectional areas.
There are some inductors made with very thick wires, while others are made with very thin wires. Thin
wires permit one to wind many more turns of wire around a core and thus increase the inductance.
Thick wires have lower resistance for any given length. All wires have a resistance given by the
expression , where l is the length of the wire, A is the cross sectional area of the wire
(thickness), and σ is the conductivity of the wire material. For copper, the conductivity is about 6 x 107
Siemens/meter. The unit of Siemens is 1/Ω. Sea water has a conductivity of 5 Siemens/meter. There are
many handbooks like the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics that have the resistance of different
diameter wires per mile (or another unit of distance). It is also quite easy to calculate the resistance of a
piece of wire using the formula above. The links page contains several links to tables with conductivity
information. One of the more useful tools for finding information like resistance per unit length of
copper wire is: http://www.megaconverter.com/mega2/.
EXPERIMENT________________________________________________________________________________________________________
In this part of our experiment, an inductor will be built and its calculated properties will be compared to
its measured properties.
I. Build.
1. Use a piece of PVC tube for the coil winding. Measure the tube outer diameter (O.D.).
2. Use around 4m of enameled wire. Note the gauge of the wire used and the wire length.
3. Leave a few inches of wire hanging out, and wrap it tightly around the tube. Carefully keep
track of the number of times the wire is wound around the tube. This is the number of turns
of the inductor, N.
4. Leave enough wire hanging for making electrical connections.
5. Secure the windings with electrical tape.
6. Remove some of the enamel from the ends of the wire (½ to 1 inch). The enamel is the
insulation for this type of wire, so an electrical contact can’t be made unless it is removed.
Use sandpaper. Please do not sand the desks when removing the enamel!
II. Calculate.
1. Calculate an estimate for the resistance of the wire. Look up the dimensions of the wire in a
table of wire properties listed by gauge. Calculate the resistance using the equation.
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2. Calculate an estimate for the inductance using the inductor equation for a long, thin coil.
3. Calculate an estimate for the inductance using the inductor equation for a ring-shaped coil.
4. Calculate an estimate for the inductance using Wheeler’s formula. Be careful with the units.
III. Measure.
1. Measure the resistance using the digital multimeter (DMM). When measuring small
resistances, it is important to first measure the resistance of the wires used to connect the
coil to the meter. Then, add the coil and measure again. The resistance of the inductor will
be the difference between the resistance of the wires alone and the resistance of the wires
with the inductor. Does the measured value agree at least roughly with the calculated
value?
2. Measure the inductance of the coil directly with LCR meter at the available frequencies.
Which equation gave a better estimate of the measured value? At which LCR frequency?
B. Inductance Measurement
Overview
A better method to estimate the inductance of a coil will now be used. In the circuit in Figure B-1, V1
is the source (function generator). R1 is a standard 47 Ohm resistor. R2 is the wire resistance of the coil
and L1 is the inductance of the coil. This experiment works well with a 2μF capacitor, put two 1μF
capacitors in parallel.
Figure B-1
The inductor will have a positive imaginary impedance given by jωL while the capacitor will have a
negative imaginary 1/jωC or – j/ωC. If we redraw our circuit at low and high frequencies, we can see that
at both extremes, the output will be small. At low frequencies, the inductor is nearly a short to ground.
At high frequencies, the capacitor is a low impedance path to ground. At the resonant frequency,
, the parallel combination of an ideal inductor and a capacitor has an infinite impedance.
Real L’s and C’s have losses so the actual impedance is finite, but the magnitude of the impedance peaks
at or near the resonant frequency. We can measure the resonant frequency and use this equation to
solve for L1.
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EXPERIMENT________________________________________________________________________________________________________
An RLC circuit will be built to find its resonant frequency, and use it to solve for an unknown inductance.
I. Actual component values.
1. Measure the capacitance of the two 1μF capacitors using LCR meter. It is the actual value of
C that will determine the resonant frequency, not the labelled value.
2. Do not remove the inductor from the tube. Make sure it is well secured to the tube. Any
changes in the geometry of the inductor will change its inductance.
3. Note the mathematical value calculated for the inductance in part A. Use the value from the
equation that gave an amount closest to the measured inductance. Call this inductance Lc.
(Remember that the inductance are treated as unknown, so the inductance measured with
the LCR meter cannot be used.)
4. Calculate an estimate for the resonant frequency, , using the
capacitance measured and the inductance calculated.
II. Find experimental resonant frequency.

1. Set up Figure B-1 on a breadboard. Use capacitors whose value is measured and the
inductor made. Make sure that the inductor is making contact with the breadboard. Bad
connections can be a common problem. Do not remove the inductor from the tube.
2. Set the amplitude of the function generator output to 1Vp-p (0.5V amplitude). Observe the
voltage at Vin on one scope channel and the voltage at Vout on the other channel. Always
display both input and output voltages.
3. First, adjust the frequency to be close to the resonant frequency calculated finital. Then adjust
the frequency up and down until the output reaches its largest value. DO NOT ASSUME that
the value measured is exactly the same as finital. The calculation for inductance only gives a
rough estimate. The circuit is used to get a CLOSER estimate. When satisfied with the
located the resonant frequency, enter it in the table below. Also for Vin(pp) and Vout(pp).
4. Find a frequency below and above resonance where the output voltage is about ½ of the
value found at resonance. Enter these frequencies and voltages in the table.
5. Save a picture of the input and output at the resonant frequency.
Table B-1
f Vin(pp) Vout(pp)
Below Resonance
At Resonance
Above Resonance
III. Calculate unknown inductance.

1. Use to estimate for the unknown inductance.
2. Use the exact resonant frequency identified and the capacitance measured with the bridge.
3. What value is obtained for the unknown inductance? How close is this to the measured one
using LCR meter? Is it closer than the estimate using inductance equations?
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SIMULATION________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LTSpice will be used to simulate the circuit built and get the closest estimate to the actual inductance.
1. Simulate Figure B-1. Use the measured value for the capacitor and 47Ω for the resistor R1.
Recall that inductors do not have negligible resistance. Therefore, in the LTSpice model, the
inductor built looks like an inductor and a resistor in series. Use the measured value for the
resistance of the inductor for R2 and the inductance that just calculated (Lest) for the L1.
2. Create an AC sweep and determine where the plot reaches a maximum.
3. If the maximum is exactly at the resonant frequency found for the circuit built, then L1 is as
close as it can be to a good theoretical estimate. If it is not, adjust the value of L1 in the circuit
until the maximum point in the AC sweep is identical to the resonant frequency found using the
real circuit (fbetter).
4. When a good value for L1 is found, print out the plot of the AC sweep. Mark the output voltage
maximum point. Also write the experimental resonant frequency and the new estimate for L on
the plot.
C. Voltage-Current Relationship
Overview
An inductor is a linear circuit element whose voltage and current are related by a differential
equation, much like that of a capacitor. The behavior of a real capacitor is very close to the behavior of
an ideal capacitor. However, a real inductor often behaves differently than an ideal inductor because of
the effects of electrical losses. However, for most applications, an actual inductor behaves like an ideal
inductor in series with a resistor. For an inductor, the relationship between current and voltage is
Actual inductors has a resistive term which accounts for the electrical losses,
Figure C-1
Unfortunately, it is not possible to observe both terms of these terms. For a sinusoidal current at a
particular frequency, So, If the voltage is
written as , where is the phase difference between and , and using
the trigonometric identity,
. Equating the two derived , and L and
Rs may be calculated to be: and where is the phase difference between
and and is the radian frequency of the sinusoid, .
EXPERIMENT________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The voltage and current relationship of the inductor made will be observed under types various sources.
I. Voltage-Current Relationship
1. Measure the apparent values of the inductance, L, and series resistance, Rs with an LCR.
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2. Assemble the following circuit with a breadboard. The large value of R1 assures that, vL, the
voltage across the inductor, is small compared to v1. Since vL is small compared to v1 the
current, i, will be proportional to v1.
Inductor made
Figure C-2
3. Set the oscilloscope triggering to positive slope, and channel 1. Set the vertical mode to dual
trace. Set the signal generator for a sinusoidal output of 1 kHz. Adjust the output level of the
signal generator for 20 volts peak-to-peak, with a zero offset. Adjust the trigger level for a
stable display. Change the volts/div for channel 2 so that the peak-to-peak amplitude of the
trace for channel 2 is about 2 - 3 divisions. If a high frequency noise signal is superimposed
on channel 2, press the “Scope BW” button to filter out most of this noise. Switch the input
selector of each channel to ground and position the trace to coincide with the graticule at
the center of the screen (zero volts and current). Switch the input coupling of both channels
to DC. Adjust the time base of the oscilloscope to display 1 or 2 periods and accurately
sketch the two waveforms. Record their period and peak values. As accurately as possible,
obtain the phase angle difference between the two waveforms. The 10x horizontal
magnification may be used to obtain an accurate reading.
4. Set the signal generator to produce a triangular signal so there is a 20 volt peak-to-peak
signal output with zero offset. Accurately sketch the voltage and current waveforms. The
observed waveform, vL, is the sum of the resistive term, iRs, and the inductive term, .
5. Set the signal generator to produce a square wave so there is a 10 volt peak-to-peak signal
with zero offset across the inductor. Accurately sketch the voltage and current waveforms.
II. Calculations
1. The current through the inductor was a sinusoidal signal in step 3. Use the measured phase
angle, , and the ratio of the magnitude of the inductor voltage and current, , to
determine the equivalent series resistance, Rs, and the inductance, L.
2. In step 4 of the experimental procedure, the current through the inductor was a triangular
waveform. Using the current and voltage waveforms, calculate Rs and L.
3. A parameter frequently used to characterize an inductor is its quality factor, Q, defined as
For a specified radian frequency, ω, Q is the ratio of the inductor reactance to its
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series resistance. A higher quality factor means the inductor resistance is small and the
inductor is more nearly ideal. Calculate Q for the inductor.
SIMULATION________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LTSpice will be used to simulate the voltage and current relationship under various sources.
1. Simulate Figure C-2 with Rg = 0, and Rs = measured inductor resistance.
2. Follow the input sequence (sine-triangular-square) and its setting in analysing the circuit
behaviour. Obtain the parameters from the experiment procedures.
3. The waveforms are now time-based. Change the result settings accordingly.
4. Magnify any low signal waveform, particularly the output voltage, by multiplying the selected
output/input waveform by 10, 100, or 1000 in the results setting be able to identify its
behaviour. This is equivalent to setting the oscilloscope probes to x10 or x100.
D. Transformers
Overview
Inductors work by creating a magnetic field. When current runs through an inductor it becomes an
electromagnet. The direction of the magnetic field can be found by placing the right hand around the
core in the direction of the coil. The thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in
Figure D-1. If one inductor is placed near another inductor, then the magnetic fields of the two inductors
will interact with one another. Even if the interaction can’t be sensed, a current in one coil will induce a
current in a nearby coil.
A transformer is a device that takes advantage of the fact that one inductor can induce a current in
another inductor. It is used to transform one voltage level into another. A “step up” transformer will
make a small voltage larger and a “step down” transformer will make a large voltage smaller. They are
made by winding coils of wire around some kind of a core material. Sometimes the core material is just
air, as performed in part A where wires are wound around a plastic tube, for example. Most of the time,
the core material is iron or some other magnetic material. To maximize this interaction, coils are usually
wound onto the same core and make them look as similar as possible.
Figure D-1
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In the transformer circuit in Figure D-2, the voltage source (VS) and the 50Ω resistor (RS) represent a
sinusoidal voltage source like a standard function generator. (The internal resistance of the Analog
Discovery function generator is zero so we have added the 50Ω resistor to see how a standard and much
more expensive function generator behaves.) RL is the load on the transformer represented by a single
resistance and TX1 is the transformer. The primary (or source) inductor in the transformer, L S, draws a
current from the source. The magnetic field created by LS induces a current in the secondary (or load)
inductor, LL. This creates a new voltage to power the load, RL.
Figure D-2
Transformers only work for time varying currents and voltages. Note that when the coils are as similar as
possible, all the geometric terms in the formulas for the inductance will be the same for the primary and
the secondary coils. Only the number of turns will be different. We can demonstrate this using our
equation for the inductance of a long, thin coil. Note that L1 = LL and L2 = LL will be used interchangeably.
Since µo, rc and d are tried to be similar, these terms cancel out and the ratio of the inductances depends
only upon the ratio of the number of turns squared.
Analysis
To analyze just how a transformer works, an additional kind of inductance, called mutual inductance,
should be added. If a coil of wire of inductance L1 is very near another coil of inductance L2, there will be
a mutual inductance M between the two coils, where M2 = k2L1L2. The constant k is the coupling
coefficient. If the coils are perfectly coupled, k = 1. Usually k is a little less than 1 in a good transformer.
Referring to Figure D-2, the two loop or mesh equations that apply to the two current loops in the
transformer circuit are:
Primary Loop: VS = IS (RS + jωLS ) − IL ( jωM )
Secondary Loop : 0 = −IS ( jωM ) + IL (RL + jωLL )
where LS is the inductance of the primary (source) coil and LL is the inductance of the secondary (load)
coil. By convention, the coil connected to the source is called the primary coil and the coil connected to
the load is called the secondary coil. The L and M terms have opposite signs because the loop currents
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go in opposite directions. Thus, the voltage generated by one coil will influence the other in the opposite
direction. The input impedance is the impedance across the primary coil, LS. Since V = IZ and the current
through all the elements in the primary coil is IS
(Note that Rs and Zin form a voltage divider.) The primary loop equation can be solved for Zin by solving
for (VS/IS)-RS.
If the secondary loop equation for IL/IS is solved, this ratio can then be substituted in the equation
above:
By definition, M2 = k2LSLL, and for an ideal transformer, the coupling constant k = 1, thus
Let both LS and LL or ω become very large (tend to infinity). The RL term in the denominator will drop out
and . Defining a constant, , that has the following property: , then . Thus,
the transformer transforms the load resistance RL by the square of the turns ratio, a = NL/NS where NS is
the number of turns in the primary coil and NL is the number of turns in the secondary coil. This is the
first, and most stringent, relationship for an ideal transformer. Remember that Zin is the ratio of the
input voltage to the input current. In any circuit built or simulated, Zin can be determined by finding this
ratio.
The relationship between the primary and secondary currents in the transformer can be found from the
second loop equation. Solving again for the case where the inductances become very large,
Note that both the voltage and current relationships shown contain no sign information. Depending on
how the transformer is wired, it is possible for minus signs to appear in these expressions. Thus, it
should be considered that it hold only for magnitudes. As with Zin, these ratios can be determined by
measuring the voltages and currents separately and then taking their ratios. When designing a particular
transformer, a turns ratio is usually in mind. For example, in the DC power supplies that come with
consumer electronics (also called wall warts), there is a step-down transformer that takes the 120Volt
line voltage and steps it down to a smaller voltage, like 6 or 12Volts. In such devices, NS/NL is chosen to
be 10 or 20, depending upon the desired output voltage. This voltage is then rectified with a full-wave
rectifier and sometimes regulated to produce a DC voltage.
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Although the equations for transformer behavior are quite simple, many assumptions need to be made
in order to satisfy it. A transformer will not behave in a circuit according to the equations for all
frequencies or load resistances. In order for a transformer to be working properly, the following
expressions must all be satisfied. When :
SIMULATION________________________________________________________________________________________________________
LTSpice will be used to create a transformer circuit and find the input frequencies where it behaves
according to the transformer equations.
I. Set-up.
1. Follow Figure C-2 and set the values: VS = 1Vpp, f = 1kHz, and a DC offset of 0V. VAC = 1Vpp.
2. Rs must be included for the simulation to work. Set it to a small value, such as 1Ω, it
represents wire resistance.
3. Set the load resistance, RL, to 50Ω.
4. Set the coupling coefficient of the transformer to 1 for perfect coupling.
5. Set the primary and secondary inductances, L1 and L2.
6. Perform an AC sweep from 1Hz to 1MHz.
II. Zin, V and I relationship.

1. Recall that V2/V1 and I1/I2 must be equal to a constant, . To find where the transformer
works, plot the three relationships and determine where all three are satisfied. To avoid
dividing by zero current, plot .
2. Find the constant, , using the ratio of to . Remember that the ratio of N2 to N1 is
determined from the ratio of the square roots of L2 and L1.
3. Add a trace of V1/V2, where V1 is the voltage across the primary coil and V2 is the voltage
across the secondary coil.
4. Add a trace of I2/I1, where I2 is the current through the secondary load resistor and I1 is the
current through the resistor in the primary loop. This ratio may be negative due to
simulation polarities. Multiply it by -1 or change the polarity of one of the resistors to make
it positive.
5. For the third criteria, solve Zin = RL/η 2 for 1/η. This means 1/η must be equal to . Zin
is the impedance of the primary inductor, L1. It is equal to the voltage across L1 divided by
the current in the source loop (I1). Therefore, to plot 1/η, plot sqrt(V1 /I1). Add a trace.
6. Save one plot with all three ratios. Mark the frequency range where all three criteria are
satisfied on the plot.
III. By trying a variety of values for L1 and L2, find a transformer for which the three relationships are
satisfied and η=10 (1/ η=1/10). In this case, the voltage across the primary coil will be 1/10 the
voltage across the secondary coil and the other two expressions will also be satisfied. Use the
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smallest possible inductances needed to make the transformer work properly at 1kHz and above.
(To change the effective frequency, increase or decrease both L1 and L2, while keeping the ratio
of the square roots the same (1/10).) Write down the values for L1 and L2 selected and save
PROBE plot with the three ratios that demonstrate that the transformer works as specified.
IV. Now repeat the task of the last paragraph for frequencies of 100Hz and up. Write down the
values for L1 and L2 selected and save PROBE plot with the three ratios that demonstrate that
the transformer works as specified. What design advantages exist for circuits that are to work at
higher frequencies rather than lower frequencies?
E. Transformer Making
Overview
To design a transformer for which the output voltage is the same as the input voltage, there
must be same number of turns on the output coil as on the input coil. A range of frequencies for which
transformer actually works as it must also be determined. Since one coil is already made, the addition of
a second coil will result in a configuration that can be used as a transformer.
EXPERIMENT________________________________________________________________________________________________________
I. Build.
1. Make a transformer by winding a second coil directly over the inductor already built.
2. Wind a second coil on paper or pvc tube with about ½ as many turns as the first coil, using a
wire that is a little over 2 meters long. Each turn has a larger diameter so it takes a little
more than half the original wire length to do this. In order to get decent coupling try to get
the two coils to be as close as possible to one another. Because an air core (with a very low
permeability) is used, wind the second coil directly on top of the first coil. Be sure to count
the number of turns in both coils. Note that it is not necessary to use the same wire gauge
for the secondary coil as used for the primary.
3. Mark the ends of each coil, so that it can be hooked up.
4. Remove enamel from the ends of the second coil to make good electrical contact.
5. A transformer is now built where one of the coils is the primary and one is the secondary.
6. Calculate the value of η using the number of turns in the two coils. How should this value
affect the magnitude of the output voltage relative to the input voltage?
II. Frequency.
1. From the LTSpice simulation, the transformer will only work at certain frequencies.
2. Hook one of the two inductors to the function generator. Put a 1Ω, current-limiting resistor
in series with the function generator because this circuit draws too much current at low
frequencies. Set the amplitude of the function generator to 0.2V. Connect the other
inductor to a resistance of 47Ω. (50Ω isn’t a standard value.)
3. Note that the transformer wires don’t always contact well with the breadboard. The most
reliable way to hook up the transformer is with mini-grabbers and alligator clips.
4. Find a frequency for which the voltage ratio of the transformer works more-or-less as
expected. This may be very high because the transformer does not have perfect coupling.
Observe a change in amplitude of both the input and the output voltages as the frequency is
increased. This is consistent with the behavior of the transformer used in LTSpice. The ratio
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of the voltages should be about 2:1 or 1:2 depending on which coil is the primary and which
is the secondary.
5. The turns ratio won’t be exact and the coupling isn’t perfect, so don’t expect to see ideal
results.
6. Obtain a plot of the output of the transformer at a frequency for which the voltage ratio
equation is satisfied. Be sure to display the input to the transformer on one scope channel
and the output on the other. Save this plot and include it to the report.
F. Post-Evaluations
Part A
1. What value did you calculate for the resistance of the inductor? How did this compare to the
measured resistance?
2. What three values did you calculate for the inductance of the inductor? How did these compare
to the measured inductance? Which equation worked better? Which worked second best?
Why?
Part B
1. Analog Plot of the input and output of the RLC circuit at the resonant frequency.
2. LTSpice plot of the AC sweep of your RLC circuit with the value of L that places you closest to the
resonant frequency of the circuit you built.
3. What are the measured values for the capacitance of your capacitor and the resistance of your
resistor?
4. What frequency did you calculate for the expected resonant frequency of your circuit? (Please
show what values you substituted into the equation.)
5. At what frequency did you actually find the resonance of your circuit?
6. For what range of low frequencies was the influence of the inductor/capacitor combination in
the circuit negligible (equivalent to a short)? For what range of high frequencies was the
influence of the inductor/capacitor combination in the circuit negligible (equivalent to a short)?
7. What value did you get for Lest using the equation for the resonant frequency? (Please show
what values you substituted into the equation.)
8. What value of L1 did you get when you adjusted your LTSpice circuit to match the resonant
frequency of the circuit you built?
9. Which of the inductance values you found was closest to the one measured with the impedance
bridge? By what percentage was it off? Why do you think this gave you the best estimate?
10. Find the transfer function of the circuit you used in part B. You do not need to include the
resistance of your inductor in the calculations. The function should be in terms of R1, (R2), C and
L. Determine the value of the transfer function at very low frequencies, very high frequencies
and the resonant frequency.
11. What effect do you think adding the inductor resistance has on circuit’s behavior at very low and
very high frequencies? (Hint: Draw the circuit with the resistor for the inductance included.
Redraw the circuit at very low and very high frequencies by replacing the inductor and the
capacitor by shorts or open circuits. Consider the value of the output voltage in each case.)
Part C
1. Analog Plot of the input and output of the setup for each input settings
2. LTSpice plot of the input and output of the setup for each input settings.
3. LTSpice plot of the voltage and current waveforms for each input settings.
13
4. Did the current of the inductor lead or lag the voltage?

5. Are the calculated Rs and L close to what was measured in step 1 of the procedure? If not, why
not?
6. Are the Rs and L close to what was measured in step 5 of the experimental procedure, or close
to the values calculated? Explain any discrepancies.
Part D
1. LTSpice plot of the initial 3 traces of the ratios for the transformer when L1 = 4mH and L2 = 1mH.
2. LTSpice plot of the three ratios that prove the transformer works at 1kHz and up.
3. LTSpice plot of the three ratios that prove the transformer works at 100Hz and up.
4. In what frequency range did the original transformer function as it should?
5. Use your output traces and the three design criteria equations to describe how you know these
values satisfy the criteria for an ideal transformer.
6. What are the values of L1 and L2 you chose to obtain correct transformer operation for the range
of 1kHz and up?
7. What are the values of L1 and L2 you chose to obtain correct transformer operation for the range
of 100Hz and up?
8. What design advantages exist for circuits that are to work at higher frequencies rather than at
lower frequencies?
Part E
1. Analog plot of the input and output of your transformer.
2. At what frequency did your transformer work as expected? How do you know this? To answer
this question, you will need to analyze the voltages observed and show how closely they satisfy
the basic formulas for the transformer.
3. List at least 2 things that you could do to the design of your coil to improve your results?
Others
1. Organize and complete the report. Are all plots and figures included, labelled and are they
placed in a logical order. Can they be fully understood without reading the associated text? Are
all solutions, data and results, problems encountered and actions taken, conclusions and
recommendations, summary, and references provided in its corresponding sections?
2. List member tasks. It is very important that you divide the responsibility for each aspect of the
experiment so that it is clear who will make sure that it is completed. Responsibilities include,
but are not limited to, reading the full write up before the activity; collecting all information and
writing the report; building circuits and collecting data (i.e. doing the experiment); setting up
and running the simulations; comparing the theory, analysis and interpretation, experiment and
simulation to develop the practical model of whatever system is being addressed, etc.
3. Attach the filled-up rubric. Rubric must be submitted while performing the activities to evaluate
performance.
4. Laboratory activity improvements. Submit a hardcopy of this manual and highlight the parts to
be improved, suggested, or clarified. Use notations (i.e., alphabet letters) to each improvement
parts and create detailed information on those recommendations on a separate report.
G. Further Readings and References:

 https://www.ecse.rpi.edu/courses/S15/ENGR-2300/EILinks.html#Exp3
 https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLZXERmYWSLA9y5KK6e1Ae9XhAZSwE7FFa&fea
ture=edit_ok
 D.R. Cunningham and J.A. Stuller, Circuit Analysis, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1995, p. 45.
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Magnetics: Inductors and Transformers

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Magnetics: Inductors and Transformers

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ECE 112| Basic Power Electronics MIDTERM Experiment | Magnetics

Before doing this experiment, students should be able to:

A semi-empirical formula was developed by H. A. Wheeler in the 1920s. He was a distinguished

II. Find experimental resonant frequency.

III. Calculate unknown inductance.

II. Zin, V and I relationship.

4. Did the current of the inductor lead or lag the voltage?

G. Further Readings and References:

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