1. What are the functions performed by the Data Link layer?

The OSI model's data link layer comprises two sub-layers: logic link control (LLC)
and medium access control (MAC).
The logic link control sub-layer provides error-free data transmission between
network devices. It ensures that the data the recipient receives is the same as the data
sent by the sender. The LLC also provides flow control, segmentation and reassembly of
data and manages data transmission across multiple networks.
The medium access control sub-layer is responsible for managing access to the
shared physical medium among multiple devices in a network. It defines the rules and
procedures for transmitting data on the network and resolving potential conflicts when
multiple devices try to transmit simultaneously.
2. What is the topology of a Geo satellite network?
A point-to-multipoint topology, star topology. In this topology, each Earth Station
communicates with the central satellite using a directional antenna, which transmits
data to the satellite at one frequency while receiving data from the satellite at a
different frequency. The central satellite receives data from multiple Earth Stations and
retransmits it to other Earth Stations as needed. The satellite acts as a repeater,
amplifying the signal from each Earth Station before retransmitting it to other Earth
stations.
3. What is the difference between Token Ring and FDDI?
a. Medium: Token Ring networks use copper wire as the physical medium to
transmit data. FDDI uses fibre optic cables, supporting higher bandwidth and
longer distances.
b. Topology: Token Ring network using a ring topology, where each device is
connected to the next in a circular loop. FDDI network can use a ring or a dual-
ring topology, where data is transmitted in opposite directions on two rings for
redundancy.
c. Speed: FDDI is faster than the token ring
d. Token passing: In the token ring, the token passes sequentially from one device to
the next in the ring. In FDDI, there are two independent token passing rings, one
ring serving as a backup to the other. If a token is lost or a ring is broken, the
backup ring takes over and continues transmitting data.
e. Reliability: FDDI networks are generally considered more reliable than Token Ring
networks because of their use of fibre optic cables and dual rings for redundancy
4. Provide a communication network for which you have no choice but to use Aloha or
slotted Aloha and explain why.
Aloha or slotted aloha may be the only option is a satellite communication
network. In satellite communication, data is transmitted between a ground station and a
satellite in orbit. Because of the large distance involved, the transmission time for data
packets can be quite long, leading to delays and increased chances of collisions.
Aloha transmits data whenever they are ready without checking if the channel is already
used. This can lead to collisions, but the protocol is simple and efficient.
 Slotted Aloha, the transmission time is divided into fixed time slots, and devices are
allowed to transmit data only at the beginning of each time slot. This helps to reduce
collisions and improve efficiency.
5. Which protocol provides higher utilization? CSMA/CD or CSMA/CA
CSMA/CD is used in wired Ethernet networks and works by having devices listen
for a carrier signal before transmitting data. If two devices transmit simultaneously, a
collision occurs, and both devices back off and wait for a random amount of time before
retransmitting. While this may lead to some collisions and retransmissions, CSMA/CD
allows devices to transmit as soon as the medium is idle, which maximizes network
throughput.
CSMA/CA is used in wireless networks and works by having devices check for the
availability of the medium before transmitting data. If the medium is busy, the device
waits for a random amount before attempting to transmit again. This approach is
necessary for wireless networks due to the possibility of signal interference and
multipath propagation, which can cause collisions and reduce network throughput.
6. CSMA/CD operating:
CSMA/CD is a protocol used in Ethernet networks to regulate access to the
network medium.
Before a device can transmit data on the network, it must first listen to the
medium to determine if it is idle or if other devices are transmitting. If the medium is
busy, the device will wait until idle before attempting to transmit.
Multiple devices may attempt to transmit data on the network at the same time.
In this case, a collision can occur, which happens when two devices transmit data at the
same time, causing the signals to interfere with each other.
When a collision happens, each device detects the transmission failed and
stopped transmitting. The device then waits for a random amount before attempting to
retransmit. This random waiting period is necessary to avoid collisions occurring again
when multiple devices wait for the same time.
After waiting for a random period, each device involved in the crash will attempt
to transmit again. The devices use an exponential backoff algorithm to determine when
to retransmit, meaning that if a device experiences multiple collisions, it will wait longer
before attempting to retransmit again.
When a device successfully transmits data on the network, it will continue
monitoring the medium for collisions and wait for a brief period until the transmission is
successful before releasing the medium.
7. CSMA/AC + ACK operating:
CSMA/CA is a protocol used in wireless networks to avoid collisions between
multiple devices transmitting on the same channel. In CSMA/CA, a device senses the
wireless medium before transmitting data to check if it is free. If the medium is busy, the
device waits for a random amount before attempting to transmit again. If the medium is
free, the device sends a request to transmit and waits for an ACK from the receiving
device before transmitting the data.
The ACK is a signal sent by the receiving device to confirm that it has successfully
received the data transmitted by the transmitting device. If the transmitting device does
 not receive an ACK after a certain time, it assumes the data was not successfully
received and tries again.
8. The difference between SIFS and DIFS
SIFS (short interframe space) wireless is a shorter interframe space used for
time-sensitive transmissions, such as ACKs and data fragments, and lasts 16
microseconds. During SIFS, a device that has already transmitted a frame and is waiting
for an ACK to confirm successful reception can immediately retransmit the next frame
without waiting for another device to transmit.
DIFS (distributed interframe space) is a longer space used for non-time-sensitive
transmissions, such as data frames, and lasts 34 microseconds.
The difference between SIFS and DIFS is the duration of the inter-frame space
and the type of transmission they are used for.
Different energy protects my signals and raises control priorities.
9. Explain what the capture effect is
In other words, when two devices transmit on the same frequency at the same
time, the receiver may be able to detect and interpret the stronger signal while
ignoring the weaker signal, even if both signals are present.
The capture effect can improve the system's efficiency by allowing stronger
signals to be prioritized over weaker ones. In other cases, reducing interference and
improving signal quality may be necessary to ensure reliable communication.
10. Explain what a hidden terminal is and provide two scenarios that could create it.
A hidden terminal is a type of problem that can occur in wireless communication
networks when two devices are out of range of each other but are within range of a
third device. In this scenario, the two devices cannot directly detect each other’s
presence or activity and may attempt to transmit data simultaneously, leading to a
collision and lost data.
The problem is that not every station can hear everybody else’s transmissions.
1. For instance, node 2 can both hear node 1 and node 3, and nodes 1 and 3 cannot
hear each other. 2. A wall between nodes 1 and 2, can block the signal transmission.
11. Explain why CSMA/CA used SIFS and DIFS.
SIFS and DIFS are used in CSMA/CA to help regulate access to the wireless
communication medium and ensure reliable and efficient data transmission. SIFS
prioritizes critical frames like ACK frames, while DIFS regulates access to the medium and
prevents collisions between multiple devices trying to transmit data.
12. How does RTS/CTS work?
RTS/CTS (Request-to-send/Clear-to-send) is a mechanism used in wireless
networks to prevent collisions and improve data transmission efficiency.
When a device wants to send data to another device in the network, it first sends
an RTS frame to request permission to transmit. The RTS frame includes information
such as the duration of the intended transmission and the source and destination
addresses. When the receiving device receives the RTS frame, it responds with a CTS
frame to confirm that the wireless medium is available for the intended transmission.
The CTS frame also includes the same duration information as the RTS frame.
13. What is the difference between RTS and CTS?
 RTS (request to send) are sent by a device that wants to transmit data to another
device in the network. The RTS frame includes information such as the duration of the
intended transmission, the source and destination addresses, and a sequence number.
The purpose of the RTS frame is to request permission to transmit data and to provide
other devices in the network with information about the intended transmission.
CTS frames are sent in response to an RTS frame. When a device receives an RTS
frame, it responds with a CTS frame to confirm that the wireless medium is available for
the intended transmission. The CTS frame also includes the same duration information
as the RTS frame. The purpose of the CTS frame is to indicate the wireless medium for
the duration of the transmission.
14. You have an Ethernet Subset and a Token ring subset. You wish to connect them. Would
you use a switch or a router?
Routers are devices that can connect multiple networks and enable
communication between them. Routers can support multiple networking technologies
and can translate data from one networking technology to another, making them a good
choice for connecting different types of networks.
Switches are designed to connect devices within the same network segment, and
they typically support only one networking technology, such as Ethernet.
15. Repeater and Hub
A repeater and a hub are different networking devices performing distinct functions.
Repeater: A repeater is a networking device that regenerates and amplifies signals received
on one network segment and retransmits them to another. Repeaters extend the range of a
network by increasing the distance that data can travel without degradation of the signal. They
often connect two LAN segments to create a larger network.
Hub: A hub is a central networking device that connects multiple devices in a LAN. It acts as
a central connection point, allowing devices to communicate through the hub. Hubs work by
receiving incoming data packets from one device and then broadcasting the packets out to all
other devices connected to the hub.
16. What is the difference between repeaters and bridges?
Bridge: operate at Data Link Layer (layer 2)
They physically separate the PHY layers of different segments.
They connect networks of the same layer 2 technology.
Repeater: operate at the Physical layer (layer 1)
Connect segments of identical physical and data link layer technologies. For example, if
segment 1 is fast, then segment 2 should also be fast.
17. Router
Router operates as a network layer (layer 3)
Can connect networks of dissimilar technologies.
Advantages:
a. Routers do all IP-level processing in software.
b. High-speed LANs and high-performance layer 2 switches pump millions of packets
per second.
c. The software-based router can only handle well under a million packets per second.
Problems:
 a. Typically use subnetworks connected by routers.
b. Limits broadcast to a single subnet.
c. Supports multiple paths between subnets.
18. Compare bridge and Hub.
Function: hubs connect multiple devices in a LAN and broadcast incoming data to all
connected devices. Bridge connects two LAN segments and selectively forwards data
packets based on the MAC addresses.
Network segments: Hubs are typically used to connect devices within a single LAN
segment, while bridges connect two separate LAN segments.
19. What is ECN, and what is DS?
ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification) is a feature that allows routers to notify
endpoints of network congestion before packet loss occurs. This is accomplished by
setting a bit in the packet header to indicate congestion, which allows the receiving
endpoint to adjust its sending rate and avoid packet loss.
DS (Differentiated Services) is a QoS mechanism that allows network traffic to be
classified into different classes, each with its priority level. This gives higher-priority
traffic more network resources than lower-priority traffic, ensuring that important
traffic, such as real-time voice and video, gets the resources it needs even in congested
network conditions.
20. What is the difference between IPv4 and IPv6?
Header size: IPv4 header is 20 bytes long, while the IPv6 header is 40 bytes long.
This increase in header size is necessary to support additional features, such as larger
address space and improved security.
Fragmentation: IPv4 fragmentation is performed by routers when a packet is too
large to be transmitted over a network. In IPv6, fragmentation is performed only by the
sending device, which reduces the processing load on routers.

21. Why do we need a flow label? What situation needs the flow label?
The flow label is a 20-bit field in the IPv6 header to identify packets belonging to
the same flow or traffic stream. The flow label is primarily used for Quality of Service
 (QoS) purposes, allowing network devices to provide preferential treatment to packets
with the same flow.
The flow label is useful for real-time multimedia applications like video or voice-
over IP.

Flow: a sequence of packets sent from a particular source to a particular

destination for which the source desires special handling by the intervening routers
Flow is identified by src address & destination address + flow label.
The router treats flow as sharing attributes.
1. Path, resource allocation, discard requirements, accounting, and security
May treat flows differently.
2. Buffer sizes, different forwarding precedence, different quality of service
Alternative to including all info in every header.
Router has requirements for flow label processing.

22. Explain what fragmentation is, what it is happening, and how it works. How do I know
when to stop? How do I know which fragment appears first?
Fragmentation is a process that occurs when a packet is too large to be
transmitted over a network in a single unit.
When a packet is too large, the sending device will divide the packet into smaller
fragments, each of which can be transmitted separately. These fragments are then
reassembled at the receiving device to reconstruct the original packet.

When a fragmented packet is, each fragment is given a unique identifier and a flag
indicating whether it is the last fragment in the original packet. The receiving device uses
these identifiers and flags to reassemble the fragments in the correct order.

To know when to stop fragmenting, the sending device checks the MTU of the network
it is transmitting on and determines if the packet size exceeds the MTU. If the packet is
too large, it will be fragmented into smaller packets. However, the sending device will
typically try to avoid fragmentation whenever possible, as it can cause additional
overhead and network congestion.

Fragments are reassembled in the correct order based on their offsets, with the first
fragment having zero offsets.

-Fragmentation is only allowed at the source.

-no fragmentation at intermediate routers
-node must perform path discovery to find the smallest MTU of intermediate networks
-set source fragments to match MTU
-Otherwise, limited to 1280 octets
-header includes: fragment offset, more fragments bit and identification

23. Explain the concept of Differential Services and how it works.

 Three main classes (or per-hop behaviours PHB)
a. Expedited Forwarding (EF) is designed to provide dedicated bandwidth to these
types of applications, ensuring they receive preferential treatment over other
network traffic types.
b. Assured Forwarding (AF) is designed to provide a range of different levels of
service assurance, allowing network administrators to tailor the QoS policies to
the specific requirements of each application or user.
c. Best Effort (BF) ensures that non-critical traffic is handled fairly and efficiently.
Subclasses are defined as well.
Differential Services traffic classification identifies and categorizes network traffic into
different services based on their importance or specific requirements. DiffServ traffic
classification is a key component of the DiffServ QoS mechanism, which allows network
administrators to control and optimize network traffic flow, providing better service to critical
applications or users.
24. DS domains protocol
DS domain is used to configure and manage the QoS policies that prioritize and classify
traffic in a network. It allows network administrators to configure QoS policies on a per-
device basis and then share this configuration information with other devices in the
networking using the protocol.
25. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
Basic idea:
a. Host-1 wants to send a message to host-2 (in the same Ethernet); host-1 knows
about the IP address, IP-a, of host-2.
b. Host-1 outputs a broadcast packet onto the Ethernet, asking, “who owns IP-a?”
c. Every machine will receive this packet, and only host-2 (that owns IP-a) will
respond with its Ethernet address.
ARP messages
d. Request from source asking for hardware address.
e. Reply from destination carrying hardware address.
26. How does slowly start TCP works?
In slow start mode, the TCP sender gradually increases the amount of data that
can be sent by increasing the size of the congestion window, which is the maximum
amount of data that can be sent without receiving an acknowledgement. The congestion
window starts with a small value, typically one or two packets, and is then increased by
one for every successful acknowledgement received.
27. What is fast recovery?
Fast recovery is a TCP congestion control mechanism used to quickly recover
from packet loss during data transmission over a network. When a TCP from packet loss
during data transmission over a network. When a TCP sender detects that a packet has
been lost, it can initiate fast recovery to retransmit the lost packet and avoid the delay
caused by waiting for a timeout.
Fast recovery works in conjunction with the TCP fast retransmit algorithm. When
a packet is lost, the receiving device sends a duplicate acknowledgement (ACK) for the
next expected packet that it receives. The sending device used this duplicate ACK as an
 indication that a packet had been lost, and it immediately retransmitted the lost packet
without waiting for a timeout.
Repeater (layer 1) physical layer
Bridge, switch (layer 2) data link layer
Router (layer 3) network layer

Physical Layer:
-concerned with the physical interface between computers and network
-concerned with issues like:
-characteristics of the transmission medium
-signal levels
-data rates
-other related matters
Network Access Layer:
-exchange of data between an end system and attached network
-concerned with issues like:
-destination address provision
-invoking specific services like priority
-access to & routing data across a network link between two attached systems
-allows layers above to ignore link specifics

Internet Layer (IP)

-routing functions across multiple networks
-for systems attached to different networks
-using IP protocol
-implemented in end systems and routers
-routers connect two networks and relay data between them

Host-to-host/Transport Layer
-common layer shared by all applications
-provides reliable delivery of data
-in same order as sent
-commonly uses TCP

Application Layer
-Provides support for user applications
-Needs a separate module for each type of application