Zeitschrift fiir P h y s i k f60, 5 9 - - 6 5 (1960)

F r o m t h e Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h College, D e p a r t m e n t of M a t h e m a t i c s , L o n d o n , E n g l a n d

The mass of a static charged sphere

By
W.B. BONNOR
(Eingegangen am 6. J u n i 1960)

T h e field of a static, c h a r g e d s p h e r e is i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g g e n e r a l relativity.

I n NORDSTROM'S exterior s o l u t i o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s m a n d e, referring to m a s s a n d
charge, are u n r e l a t e d , a n d indeed m c a n be p u t e q u a l to zero. I t is s h o w n t h a t , if
t h e interior solution is considered, m c a n n o t be p u t zero unless t h e m a t t e r d e n s i t y
is n e g a t i v e . T h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e electric field e n e r g y to t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l m a s s
is e s t i m a t e d u s i n g c e r t a i n special models.
A m o d e l is g i v e n in w h i c h t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n of t h e c h a r g e d m a t t e r b a
lances its electrical repulsion. If t h e r a d i u s is allowed to t e n d to zero, t h i s gives
a m o d e l of a p o i n t charge w i t h finite a n d non-zero m a s s a n d charge.

w 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
When both m a t t e r and an electromagnetic field are present the field
equations of general relativity are

R~ - 89~ R = - S~(T~ + El). (1.t)

Here T~ is the energy tensor for matter, and E L is the electromagnetic
energy tensor given b y
= " . I .~ FabF~b, (1.2)
where F.,~ is the electromagnetic field tensor. MAXWELL'S equations m a y
be written
Fik = ~ i , ~ -- ~k,~, (t.3)
F~k,k = 4 ~ i, (1.4)
where ~i is the four-potential, ~i the four-current density, and German
letters denote tensor densities.
In this paper I shall consider the static spherically symmetric solu-
tion of these equations. The solution for e m p t y space, when ~ = 0, is
well-known"
d s ~ = _ ~, 1 d r 2 _ r ~ ( d O ~ + sin20 d g)2) + y d t ~, (1.5)
where
e2
~, = t - 2I"~ + 72-' (t.6)
and
x~ = e/r, xl = x2 = • = 0. (1.7)
60 w . B . Box~oR:

In the solution m is interpreted as the mass of the central body, and e

as its charge.
There is nothing to prevent one putting m equal to zero in (1.6), and
then the field seems to correspond to a b o d y with zero gravitational mass,
since g44 in (t.5) contains no t e r m in r % One might therefore conclude
t h a t the electrical energy of the charge exerts no gravitational field.
The main object of this paper is to show that, if one considers the
interior solution, one is not permitted to put m = 0, and that the charge
does in fact contribute to the gravitational mass of,the system. The
genei'al interior metric is considered in: w2 , a n d two special models are
studied in w and w The paper ends ,with a brief con&i~sion in w5.

w 2. The interior field

Let the metric within the sphere be
ds ~ = -- e ~ d # -- r 2 (dO 2 + sin ~O d ~2) + d d t 2, (2.1)
where A and v are functions of r only, and let u ~ ~(r) be the electro-
static potential. The metric (2.1) is to be matched to the metric (1.5)
at the boundary of the sphere r = a. The boundary conditions will be
satisfied if the following are continuous at r : a (0'BI~IE~ and SYNGE,
t952)1:
elk, ~gt~v/e~', Tkl' E~, (/A, V = 2, 3, 4). (2.2)
As material energy tensor within the sphere we shall take

T~1 = -- pl, T~ = Ta3 = -- P2, T4* = O, (2.3)

and the non-vanishing components of the electromagnetic energy
tensor are, using (i.2), (1.3) and (2A),
E I = - - E ~ = - - Ea = E ~ = ~I e_;,_~ c~,= , (2.4)
where ' means d/dr.
The field equations (1.1) give, with the aid of (2.1), (2.3) and (2.4):

e -'~ (Z_[ +_#_t) _~_,=.t 8~p{--e ~-~,2, (2.5)

e -*t~lwv'' -- ~a'v'4 + 4v'2+ v'~-)*' , = 8 = p a + e - a - ~ o ( ~, (2.6)

r r2 + 7 - - - - 8 = ~ + 2 (2.7)
Eqn. (2.7) m a y be written

d (re_a) = t -- (8:zCr = + e - a - ~ r 2 o d 2 ) ,
dr
10'BRIE~, S., and J.L. SYNG1~: J u m p Conditions at discontinuities ill general
relativity. Dublin: Institute for Advanced Studies 1952.
 The mass of a static charged sphere 61

a n d on i n t e g r a t i o n , we h a v e
r
e -~ = 1 - - r -1 f (8st ~ r ~ + e-;'-~r~o~ '2) dr + K r -1,
0
where K is a c o n s t a n t of i n t e g r a t i o n . To a v o i d a s i n g u l a r i t y at t h e origin
we p u t K - 0 a n d o b t a i n
r
e -~' ---=1 - - r -1 f ( 8 ~ Q r ~ + e-~-~r2o~ '2) dr. (2.8)
0

F r o m (2.2) a n d (1.5) it follows t h a t a t r = a we m u s t h a v e e -~ equal

to T, so
~ ~-- t - a-1 f (8zt@r2 + e-~'-~ r2~
1 - - 2ma "~- ae~ dr" (2.9)
0

A s s u m i n g t h a t ~ is a n o n - n e g a t i v e function we see t h a t t h e i n t e g r a n d is
p o s i t i v e for all r, so m m u s t s a t i s f y

m > o. (2.t0)
Moreover, this r e s u l t will n o t be affected b y a n y real t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
of r p r o v i d e d t h a t p o s i t i v e values of r are t r a n s f o r m e d into p o s i t i v e
v a l u e s of t h e n e w variable. H e n c e we conclude t h a t a charged sphere nr
have a positive mass ; a n d we n o t e t h a t this conclusion still holds if ~ = 0
so t h a t even i / t h e matter density is neglected the mass o/the sphere must
be greater than zero.
W h a t we h a v e shown so far is t h a t i / a n i n t e r i o r solution s a t i s f y i n g
t h e c o n d i t i o n is possible, t h e n we m u s t h a v e m > 0 if e >= 0. W e n o w
show t h a t solutions do exist s a t i s f y i n g (2.5) to (2.7) a n d t h e conditions
(2.2). T h e l a t t e r require t h a t at r = a
e2
e- ~ = 1 - 2 ~ +~, (2.11)

e'=l-- 2~ +__ v = +-- (2.t2)

Pl -----0, (2.t3)
c~' = -- e/a s. (2.14)

T h e last of t h e s e ensures also t h e c o n t i n u i t y of t h e electric field. To

m a k e t h e solution r e g u l a r a t t h e origin we shall also r e q u i r e t h a t a t r = 0

e~ = 1 , ~'=0 (2A5)
d = t, v' = o, (2A6)
~' = O. (2.t7)
F i n a l l y we o u g h t also to d e m a n d t h a t ,~ a n d v be sufficiently differentiable
in 0 < r < a, say, t h a t d e r i v a t i v e s u p to t h e t h i r d o r d e r exist.
62 w . B . Bo~NoR:

To show t h a t solutions of this nature are possible first choose ~ and

to be finite polynomials in r, the latter such t h a t (2.14) and (2.17) are
satisfied. Then e -h, given b y (2.8), is a finite polynomial evidently
satisfying (2.t 5); also, b y appropriate choice of m (2.tt) can be satisfied.
N e x t choose for e~ a polynomial satisfying (2.12) and (2.t6). T h e n (2.5)
gives ibl = 0 so (2.13) is fulfilled. Thus all the conditions (2,t t) to (2.t 7)
are satisfied. The functions Pl and Pz are determined in t e r m s of the
chosen polynomials b y (2.5) and (2.6),
The only iield equation we h a v e not considered is the remaining
Maxwell equation (t.4) which determines the charge distribution. I t
is a physically necessary requirement t h a t the t o t a l charge within the
sphere shall be equal to e, and we shall now verify t h a t this is so. T h e
i n v a r i a n t charge density is given b y
~ = ,~ 34 (-- g)-i (2.t 8)
where g is the d e t e r m i n a n t of the metric (2.t). Using (t.4) we obtain
t 6 az ~= = e-a r-4 {jr ue-~ (a+') ~'~'}=, (2.19)
and we find for the total c h a r g e * within r = a

4 = f a eSar= dr = - ~rge -~a (a+~) ~'~a = + e. (2.20)

0

Thus, as expected, the total charge within the sphere is equal to e,

irrespective of the particular internal charge distribution chosen.

w 3. A special model
To show how the calculations work in practice, I shall construct a
special model for the interior, which is m a t h e m a t i c a l l y simple.
T a k e for r < a
= ~o (const), o~' = - - ea-Sre~(~+~); (3.1)
then from (2.8) we h a v e
e - a = t -- a~eo r ~ _ e~ r~" (3.2)
3 Ta~
To satisfy (2.1t) we m u s t t a k e

m-- 4~e0 aa_~ 3 ~2 (3-3)

3 5
* I n t h i s t r e a t m e n t t h e choice of sign is n o t q u i t e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . I n t a k i n g t h e
s q u a r e r o o t of (2.t9) to find ~ a m i n u s sign is i n t r o d u c e d 'co m a k e t h e r e s u l t corre-
s p o n d w i t h t h e classical f o r m u l a d i v e = 4no'. A n o t h e r p o i n t to notice is tha'c t h e
t o t a l c h a r g e is c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e f o r m u l a f V--%g~;dv, w h e r e ag is t h e deter-
m i n a n t of t h e s p a t i a l p a r t of t h e me'cric (2,1).
 The mass of a static charged sphere 63
To complete the solution we m a y t a k e for e~ an expression of the form

d = 1 + A r 2 + B r a, 0.4)

where the constants A, B are to be chosen so t h a t (2.12) are satisfied.

The stresses Pl and P2 are then obtained from (2.5) and (2.6). The solu-
tion then satisfies (2.11) to (2.17). No difficulties arise concerning the
continuity of ~, v, c~ and their derivatives for r < a provided t h a t a is
e2
not too small. (If a is v e r y small the expression t -- 2r~a + a 2- can be
non-positive if nr => ] e] : such a value of a would m e a n t h a t the sphere lies
inside its Schwarzschild singularity.) The actual expressions for A, B, Pl
and p~ are complicated, and not of great interest, so t h e y will not be
given here.
The contribution of the electrical energy to the gravitational mass
is represented b y the second t e r m on the right of (3.3). I t will be noted
t h a t this model does not lead to a satisfactory model for point charge
since m--> ~ as a - > 0 ; in addition, if a is too small there will be a singu-
larity of Schwarzschild t y p e outside tile sphere, as pointed out in the
previous p a r a g r a p h .

w 4. A model without stresses

Let us now revert to eqns. (2.5) to (2.7) and p u t

e ~ = (1 + 89 v')L ~ = ~: e ~ . (4.t)

Then we find Pl ----ib~= 0 , and the charged m a t t e r inside the sphere is in

equilibrium under the action of its gravitational attraction and electric
repulsion. F r o m (2.7) we obtain

8~ = 2v" ~+( t }rv'2

+ 8 9 + rv" , (4.2)

and introducing r as in (2.18) we find

I m p o s i n g the b o u n d a r y conditions (2.11) and (2.12), we obtain

(4.3)
and the exterior solution is given b y (t.5) with

This exterior field was treated b y PAPAPETROU (t948)~.

PAPAPXTROU, A.: Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. A 51, 191 (1948).
64 w . B . BONNOR:

I n (4.2) v is a r b i t r a r y subject to (2.16) and to (2.12) which because

of (4.4) reduces to

e~ = ( 1 - ~ - ) ~ , v'-- 2m

Let us write
M = fff e e~a r= sin 0 d r d O d # , (4.5)
v
which gives the mass of the m a t t e r inside the sphere V ( r = a); then we
find, inserting the values of k and ~ from (4.t) and (4.2) and integrating,
that
M = m. (4.6)

One might at first sight t h i n k t h a t the g r a v i t a t i o n a l mass m comes

entirely from the matter, and t h a t the electric field makes no contri-
bution to it. This, however, is no t so. Since ~ enters as the material part
of T4t we m a y take it as the proper density of m a t t e r * , and (4.6) states
t h a t the integrated proper mass density, M is equal to the gravitational
mass of the sphere, m. If electric fields are absent we can estimate the
relation betweem the masses (now called Ms and ms) from the Schwarz-
schild interior solution (TOLMAN, t934)a. I n this, we have
87~ ~ r 2 4~ ~ a 3 .
= const, e a= i 3 ' ms - - 3 '

evaluating M s from (4.5) with these expressions we find

Ms=m,
(4.7)
ms=M s 8 aMy + 0 [W)"
~ / M3, \

Thus for the interior Schwarzschild solution m s < M s, and the equality
in (4.6) suggests t h a t a contribution to the gravitational mass comes from
the electric field.
This point m a y be looked at in another way. I n the interior Schwarz-
schild solution the difference between M~ and ms is a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal
to the gravitational self energy of the m a t t e r (which is negative). I n the
electric solution (4A) the negative gravitational se!f-energy of the
distribution is balanced b y the positive electrical self-energy, so M and m
are equal.
* This statement is not unambiguous. From the experimental point of view,
one would have to measure ~ in terms either of the inertial mass density, or of the
gravitational mass density. When electromagnetic fields (or pressures) are present,
it is by no means clear what is the relation of ~ to either of these quantities.
a TOLMAN, R . C . : Relativity, Thermodynamics and Cosmology, p. 245. Ox-
ford t934.
 T h e m a s s of a s t a t i c c h a r g e d sphere 65

The solution given b y (4.t) to (4.4) is of interest because it gives rise

to a model of a charged mass-point with finite and non-zero charge and
mass. The radius a of the sphere does not appear in (4.3) and so m a y be
allowed to tend to zero without m or e becoming infinite or zero. [The
model of w does not have this property, as is clear from (3-3).! The
exterior solution

ds~=--(t--~)-~dr 2-rz(dO 2 +sin=Od~b ~ ) + ( l - ~ ) ~ d , 2 (4.8)

has a singularity of Schwarzschild type at r = m , but this m a y be re-

moved b y the coordinate transformation

which brings (4.8) into the form

dse=--(t q-~)'a(d~Zq-~ZdOZ+~sinZOdq32)+(1 + - ~ - ) - ' d t e. (4.9)

This metric is singular only at the origin ~ = 0. As a model for a charged

particle it suffers from the defect that it applies only if m = [el (rela-
itvistic units). For a particle of electronic charge the mass is e/]/G =
1.85 • -6 gin. I t is therfore of no use as a model of an electron.
This model has recently been examined, from a different point of
view, b y ARXOWITT, DESER and MISNER (t960)4. These authors appear
to consider only an initial-value problem, and do not give the complete
solution.
w 5. Conclusion
This work shows that, in the case of a static charged sphere, the
energy of the electric field contributes to the gravitational mass of the
system. The magnitude of the contribution is of the order of e2/aca gm
if e is measured in e.s.u., and this would probably be too small to be
experimentally measurable in the laboratory. However, I have shown
elsewhere (BONNOR, t960) ~ that a similar effect arises for the field of a
wire carrying a steady current, and in this case the magnitude of the
additional mass is on the verge of experimental detection.
4 ARNOWITT, R., S. DESER a n d C . W . 1V[ISNER: P h y s . R e v . L e t t e r s 4, 375 (i960).
5 BO~INoR, Vr Proc. P h y s . Soc. (in press 1960).

Z. PkyMk. Bd. 160 5