Powerful Strategies menos SCTE rete CiaTel Keer) Small Group Instruction That Improves Comprehension Lois A. Lanning96 POUR POWERFUL STRATEGIPS FOR STRUGGLING READERS, GRADES 3-8 (— KEY TERMINOLOGY Inferring: This strategy involves seeing and considering ideas that are not literally ‘on the printed page. ‘+ Using background knowledge: The importance of the background know! edge a reader brings to text became recognized in what is known as schema the- ory. Reading is now understood to be an active process of constructing meaning by connecting one's own knowledge and prior experiences with the information found in text. ‘= Determining author's purpose: Determining an author's purpose is identify- ing the reason or reasons an author wrote a selection. ‘© Being aware of text language: The literary techniques that an author uses cften help a reader visualize ideas and make connections, but they also require a reader to infer the meaning behind the words. + Recognizing author's biases/views: Learning to identify the ways an author may manipulate data or expose strong feelings for or against a character, group, ‘or issue supports the ability to infer. Thoughtful readers learn to decipher what is implied or suggested just as well as what is explicidy stated and to separate fact from opinion. ‘+ Making predictions: The subtle clues the author offers trigger predictions about meaning, outcomes, actions of characters, events of a plot, and resolutions of problems. in informational text, features such as bold headings illustrations, or side notes can be used to predict information that is significant. ‘© Determining theme: The skill of determining theme means a reader must identify the central (and possibly minor) lesson or moral about ifthe nature of rman, or the world that was developed in the selection. ‘+ Drawing conclusions: This skill refers to a reader arriving at a logical decision Cr opinion based on information presented in a text (implied and explicit) com- bined with the background knowledge and experiences of the reader. ‘+ Questioning: Questions that support the strategy inferring include: What con- sion can | drow based on the ideas presented? What opinions are revealed in the selection? Where con | find clues about the characte’ feelings? What information is ‘missing? Bosed on what I've read so far ond what | know about this topic, what might | come next? How can 1 use my questions to modify the emerging theme? What is this figurative language realy implying? ‘+ Synthesizing text clues and various types of connections: A reader using this ski fils in decals and information about what the writer is implying based i (on their text connections (text-to-self,text-to-text, or text-to-world). WHAT IS INFERRING? Chapter 1 explained how readers make inferences by constructing meaning {rom the information provided in the text (text-based inference) and by using the information they bring to the text from their background experiences (knowledge-based inference). In both cases, the reader is interacting with the text. Rosenblatt (1978) and Iser (1978) called this direct exchange of meaning between the reader and the text transactional theory.PUTTING THE STRATEGIES INTO PRACTICE: INFERRING 97 ‘The reader who struggles with comprehension is often not able to fulfill a transactional role with text. Rather, he or she expects the text to supply every- thing. Iser (1978) tells us that were text to offer everything, the reader would be bored and dissatisfied. As readers, our imagination and intellect must have work to do, details to sketch in, implications to elaborate, and/or questions to answer—otherwise reading would be a monotonous and unchallenging activ- ity, The inferring strategy requires this kind of mindful work. Yet, too often we are quick to put struggling readers in low-readability texts that have controlled ‘vocabulary. a high level of predictability. and leave little to the imagination. Thus. we inadvertently contribute to these students’ aversion to reading and to their dependency on literal level understanding. In turn, if a text demands too cuuch and offers too little. even with attempts to infer meaning. the text can overstrain and frustrate any reader. Keene and Zimmermann (1997) tell usinfer- ring has mang facets and great books provoke us to consider and use them all. ‘Authors skillfully provide some information directly and insinuate or imply other information. If in the process of reading, we are mindful of the fluctua- tions we go through—changing perspectives, revising impressions, passing through a series of emotional states. discovering new insights—we begin to see the amount of inferring we are doing. Inferring. according to Anderson and Pearson ‘1984). is the heart of meaning construction for learners of all ages. Inferring 's essential to comprehension and for this reason was selected as one of the Four Powerful Comprehension Strategies. WHEN DOES A READER INFER? An oversimplified answer to this question is that a reader infers every time he or she makes an educated “guess” about the meaning of text. This does not mean a random, off the wall guess, but one that is grounded in the information pre- sented and the reader's background knowledge. In order to infer. a reader needs to integrate and apply a variety of the skills that are embedded in this complex strategy. A sentence as simple as, “She bowed her head, took a deep breath, and allowed the stiliness to wash over her,” can evoke a range of conclusions based on a reader's inference. For example, a reader may infer the person is an elderly person who is in church. Another may infer the person is a young woman start- ing a yoga lesson. A third reader may infer it isa little girl who just entered the refuge of her secret hiding place away from her loud and tormenting brothers. ‘The examples go on and on. Each example shows how several inferences were made in an attempt to make sense of the text. Some of the inferences come from the information that the author supplied in the text. For example, the pronoun “she” has no antecedent, but an assumption can be made that this woman or girl is an important character. Further, some of the inferences come from the reader's background knowledge. For example, bowing one's head is a behavior typically associated with prayer. meditation. and or relte! A skillful reader infers when trying to figure out explanations about why events are occurring: why characters behave and interact as they do: why the author chose to write the text: and why a particular setting was se story. The strategy of inferring is also at work when a search is made98 FOUR POWERFUL STRATEGIES FOR STRUGGLING READERS, GRADES 3-8 clues to unlock an unknown word; when a reader tries to connect antecedents and pronouns; and when readers link different elements of text. Making predic tions is a form of inferring (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997), because predictions also require a reader to combine background knowledge with information presented in the text to draw conclusions. A prediction, however, can either be confirmed or rejected as the reader reads further, but inferences can be left to the reader's imagination or judgment. Many books lend themsclves to great debates among readers as to their “real” meaning and this is what makes them so mem- orable and interesting to read and discuss! WHY DO READERS INFER? Good readers infer in order to connect with, make sense of, and appreciate text to the fullest extent. Inferring is the defining strategy that separates indepen- dent readers from struggling readers (Ocakus, 2004). Readers infer differently depending on their purpose for reading. For example, if a reader is reading informational text (a research study) with the purpose of learning about an unfamiliar topic, more text-based inferences will probably be used to support comprehension. The reader will most likely be making predictions, generating questions, connecting different sections of the research, and drawing conclu- sions based on the information presented by the author. If, however, a reader is reading a novel for enjoyment, inferences are more likely to be shaped by the reader's knowledge of the world. The reader will need to draw from personal experiences to fully connect with the book and to appreciate the emotions of a character. Inferring is just the beginning, Why is inferring such an important comprehension strategy? Because inferring allows a new layer of the reader's personality to be brought to light; Iser (1978) believes the significance of the work does not [just] lie in the mean- ing scaled within the text, but in the fact that that meaning brings out what had previously been sealed within us. How great is that? SAMPLE LESSONS FOR THE STRATEGY INFERRING Background: The following is a description of a fourth grade small group reading lesson, taking place early in the school year. This example may help demonstrate how the five steps of a gradual release small group reading com- prehension lesson look in practice. The teacher designed the lesson around pre- viously identified student needs, with four students participating in this reading group. At the start of the new school year. all were reading approximately one year below the typical reader in this fourth grade classroom. Important note: This lesson example is not intended to be scripted instruc- tion. The Gradual Release Lesson Procedure (Chapter 2) is intended to show how lessons need to explicitly teach comprehension strategies; however, the effective- ness of the lesson hinges on the teacher's ability to make decisions based on how students respond. This is one of the many strategy lessons that might be used to teach the various skills of inferring across different types of texts.In a Reading State of MIND [ewe lammosecieay eacher Modeling, and CompreRension InstructionVisualizing Visualizing, or forming a mental image, is what writers hope their readers do with the texts they create. Writers evoke images for their readers through words. As we read, our brains create the proverbial “movie in your mind.” Koch (2005) suggested that this cinematic experience is not limited to reading, but rather is how humans experience and process : sensory information. Reading is visual information that activates areas of 7 the brain that have stored other memories. We know, for example, that reading about a particular smell can evoke a strong reaction, even in the absence of the actual olfactory stimulus (think of the words armpit, rose, and diaper. Similarly, reading can evoke our other senses. Consider the range of senses that are evoked from a seven-word Haiku written by one of the masters, Yosa Buson, 1716-1783: a tethered horse in the stirups Can you feel the cold? Can you see the horse standing in the cold with snow filling the stirrups? In addition to the sensory information, does this evoke a memory or emotion? ‘As you considered your sensory reaction to the Haiku, did you also think about the role that background knowledge or experience had in your understanding of the text? As we have noted, background knowledge is a significant predictor of comprehension and something that we have to attend to in classrooms. Providing students with ‘examples of visualizing helps them build background knowledge and _experience t ion of that knowledge while reading. After reading the opening paragraph for Chapter 3 of The Outsiders (Hinton, 1967), Ms. Taylor visualized the scene for her ninth-grade students. The chapter opens with the fact that two girls don’t have a ride home and want to call their parents for a ride. The boys talk them into accepting a ride home. Ms. Taylor said, “I can just see the scene, can't you? The movie is over, it's getting late, and they need to get home or they're busted. | can see the looks on their faces. They're worried about being late and they're worried about getting in the car with Two-Bit. Show me that look on your face. [pause] Yep, there itis. You can see it too.” Ms. Meyers also used visualizations with her science students. For example, she periodically displayed a webpage with information about recent earthquakes in California (quake.usgs.gov/recenteqs) and then visualized where the quake was and how strong it was. For example, she said, "Oh, there was a quake this weekend in Tecate. I've been to Tecate and can picture the people there on the market street making salsa and tortillas. I see that the quake was only 2.0 and it happened at 4:00 PM. tt only lasted a few seconds so | don't think that people really even felt much. When I see 2.0, | visualize people going about their day and most of them not even noticing that the ground shook a bit. like to see the waveforms [opens the page). These waveforms confirm my thinking. They show a fairly small event that didn’t last too long.” For students to try on visualizing that is more than a simple picture, they need to have examples that are complex and varied. When their teachers share the Visual representations they create, student understanding is increased. But more important, when students have lots of examples of visualizing, they begin to engage in this behavior automatically, which is the goal of reading after all.Inferring Understanding implied messages is critical for comprehension. Authors do not state everything explicitly and instead rely on the reader to supply information and draw conclusions based on what is known. inferences occur “when the reader activates information that is evoked by, yet goes beyond, the information that is provided explicitly in the text” (van den Broek, Fletcher, & Risden, 1993, p. 170). Sometimes referred to as “reading between the lines” or a blending of “text-based connections and schema-based connections" (Herber, 1978, p. 154), inferring is a complex cognitive process that can easily go astray. As McMackin and Witherell (2005) noted, “Lack of sufficient background knowledge, ‘inconsiderate texts’ (Armbruster, 1984], weak vocabulary knowledge, lack of relevant experiences, and many other factors contribute to the level of difficulty readers encounter when making inferences” (p. 246). There are two types of inferences as described by educational psychology researchers McKoon and Ratcliff (1992)—minimal and elaborative. The first type, minimal inferences, occurs almost naturally and is readily available to the reader. For instance, in the sentence “Vultures flew overhead as the exhausted cowboy collapsed beneath the blazing desert sun,” the minimal inference is that the birds were in the sky. In addition, we know it is hot, based on the description of the sun. As such, these are not the types of inferences that typically need to be modeled. However, the more elaborative inferences include the recognition that vultures wheeling the sky are often awaiting the death of a creature, and that in this case it might be that cowboy. Other elaborative inferences fill out the scenario. We visualize a scene from a movie western, perhaps imagining the cowboy struggling on his hands and knees. Those elaborative inferences are more complex and require explicit modeling. Recall the discussion on hierarchical knowledge and the pathways that move both up and down the map. Kintsch’s (1988) assertion that learners, spent part oftheir time pooling details into larger representations is borne ‘out in this example. We gather up chains of associated information and use the ones that fit best to fill in what is missing, Graphic novels are especially useful in modeling elaborative inferences. The space between the panels is called the gutter, and it is the place where the reader must make inferences (McCloud, 1994). Consider the use of a single page irom Will Eisner’s book New York: The Big City (2000) (see Figure 6). Your understanding of this page is based on your ability to infer. Do you think that the two people are in an argument in the first few panels? If so, how do you know? Nancy likes to imagine (infer) that the man is apologizing in panel 5. So then, did you infer that they made up? Interestingly, from the worm’s eye view, you can make a number of inferences about what's happening on the street. This is what readers have to do all ofthe time. Modeling inferring, especially with highly visual sequential art, can help students build this habit and apply it to increasingly complex pieces of text.Figure 6 Worm’s Eye View Graphic Novel WORMWM’S EYE VIEW ee Eg : 18,1, 18,15 by Wil ne er rl sar’ new York The bgt by Wil see Reerted wth persason of WIN. Neston & Company Ine “ecueyStotie of Thought 2ND EDITIONKey Ideas for Comprehension Strategy Instruction Inferring ‘+ Inferring is the process of creating a personal and unique meaning from text. It involves a mental process that combines information gleaned from the text and relevant prior knowledge. The reader's unique interpretation of text is the product of this blending. ‘© When proficient readers infer they create a meaning that is neither stated explicitly in the text nor shown in the illustrations. The process implies that they actively search for or become aware of implicit meaning, © Inferring may cause the reader to read more slowly, reread sections, converse, write, or draw to better understand the content. ‘+ Inferences may be more thoroughly developed if the reader pauses to reflect and consider multiple interpretations and perspectives. ‘+ When they infer, proficient readers: © Draw conclusions from text © Make reasonable predictions as they read, then test and revise those predictions as they read further © Create dynamic interpretations of text that they adapt both while they read and after they read © Use the combination of background knowledge and explicit information from the text to answer questions they have as they read © Make connections between conclusions they draw and other beliefs or knowledge, and use the inferences to extend and adapt existing knowledge © Arrive at insight © Make critical or analytical judgments about what they read ‘+ When proficient readers infer, they are more able to remember and reapply what they have read, * Proficient readers revise their inferences based on the inferences and interpretations of other readers. ‘+ A.wide variety of interpretations is appropriate for fiction and poetry; a narrower range of interpretation is typical for nonfiction text. Teachers should allow great latitude, provided the reader can defend their inferences with a description of relevant, prior knowledge and. specific text they have read Keene, 0. & Zimmeman,S., (2007). Mosaic of Thought The Power of Comprehension Strategy Instruction. 2nd Edition, Portsmouth, NH: Heinemannere Nts ae Seed “a Putate classroom errs100 - [ptroduction When we read, we stretch the limits of the literal text by folding our experience and belief into the literal meanings in the text, creating a new interpretation, an inference. — Keene & Zimmermann, Mosc of Thovght (1997), p 147 wha’ Inferring is being able to ‘read between the lines, when the author implies something but doesn't exactly state it. To infer, we need to use both the clues in the text (context, illustrations, etc) and our ‘own prior knowledge. By using the text and our own prior knowledge, we can interpret what we think the author is really trying to say. We can make inferences at word level too, by using the context of the text and our own prior knowledge to infer the meaning of the word. Inferring is closely related to predicting. gt students develop deeper understandings of the text when they'tead between the lines’ to draw their own conclusions by using prior experience. They create their own unique meaning of the text. As they read, these understandings may be revised as the reader is exposed to new information and confirms or adjusts their thinking. Lang « + Reading between the lines, | think + would expect that ... + Lalready know that ...50 I think. + Inmy experience + I think the authors really saying .. + My conclusion is... because in the text it says + The author's clues were + Ithink what's really going on is, + Iwonder why + LwonderifInferring support material ae Infringing abet mog between then “han the authors somthing but ein exo State it You neo tecein the text ond your tw pr kronldge ols you understand. Inferring mini poster M30 Inferring strategy starter chart SM29 tn gpg es 0% 1 Jack's new labrador puppy. | | Patch, never left his side | | 2 sam flew into the room with ‘a huge smile on her face. 3 The old lady's mouth quivered as she slowly got Up ond left the room. 4 "Got me the chief of police immediately!” shouted the president, os he put the phone down, Teacher modelling chart SM31__inference detectives: ooking for Inference detectives: Looking for clues SM31A clues SM31B Infering certificate SM32 101Character inference chart In this activity, students collect a range of information about a character. This information is then Used to discuss whether the information they have collected can be found in the text or whether they have inferred it. Strategies and skills practised: inferring, note-taking Materials: + text at the instructional level of the students + Character inference chart PM21 Stucient grouping: individuals, then buddies or small group Procedure 1 Students read the text selection in its entirety. 2. Students then read the text for a second time using the prompts — facts, quotes, actions and getting inside the character's head — on the Character inference chart PM to gather information. Remind the students that they do not have to write full sentences; rather, just jot down appropriate information in note form. 3. Students then share the information collected and the inferences they have made with a buddy orin a small group. seme, Boo ow (108 q | Seen xed fan Pennsgivana | “lets de ot!” |b Arena “Tamed mysett ely ead iPeeieet mouse “tne iu pees eva IMadpre Then Hally golly | Wa® a pet ret Conaament Tre Stargicl” stacgir | 2 oy Sony Spine) Ging le he Joiays the uketere Samer elon osaen Sadat ae | SOM eemy Jott i Sees bas greramen agate fsapeests Berle nen cnnamen et ms ae Lanner om ee ne San eae (ua Ba em ane Co Star gui i a cenfident_and_tprave __ clucgcler. She dcesmt jue cther pecple and accepts them for Whe they are. 106an Character inference chart Your name/s Date Facts - whot do you know about the character? Actions - whet does the character actually do? Quotes - what does the character say? Write some brief quotes thot help you to understand what the choracter is ike, Getting inside the character's head - ‘Write down some of the character's thoughts and feelings What can you infer about the character? “chin Fey Compernen Stee « Shsoa Camron 208 Ts a9 epreucbiforcasoom seTeaching Strategies a practical classroom guide f aealle Beta88 a) Introduction There is an old saying that a picture is worth a thousand words. When it comes to comprehension, this saying might be paraphrased, a visual display helps readers understand, organise, and remember some of those thousand words’. — Duke & Pearson (2002) What is visualising? Visualising is when the reader uses their prior knowledge and experiences to create a mental image ‘of what is happening in the text. Visualising is also sometimes called sensory imaging, creating images, pictures in the mind or'the movie in your head! It may be helpful for some students to actually close their eyes and imagine what is being read. ‘The reader may use all their five senses to make the story come alive. Reading about a boy having a picnic at the beach and imagining the taste of the sandwiches, the sound of the waves, the feeling of the sand and the smell of the salt air connects the reader to the story, if they have had a similar experience. Visualising helps the reader to connect with and become part of the story ~ which creates that special magic of reading. Itis important that students understand that everyone creates their own unique mental images in their head. There are no right or wrong images, but students must use the clues in the text to create their pictures. Ask the students if the characters in the Harry Potter movie were exactly the way they imagined them, if they had read the books before they saw the movies. The activity on page 90 in which the students draw a pair of shoes may help students to understand this concept. ‘Making models or dioramas is another way to help students use the information in the text to visualise what they have read. How does visualising support reading comprehension? Visualising supports comprehension as students create their own mental images of what they are reading. By doing this, they feel more connected to the story, enjoy the story more and understand it more deeply. Visualising is also useful for self-monitoring. f the ‘movie in your head’ stops, meaning has broken down and you will need to use a strategy to regain understanding. Language we use when visualising + Inmymind ican see - + Icanimagine__ + The movie in my head shows = + The image | see in my head is. + Ican just taste the + Ican feel the _ + lean hear the + Icansmell the94 ie) Senses chart Assenses chart is a graphic organiser that encourages students to think about how text can stimulate all the five senses. It could also be a way of activating prior knowledge for a topic. Strategies and skills practised: visualising, listening, activating prior knowledge Materials: «suitable picture book or section of text + Senses chart PM17 + pencils + markers or coloured pencils (optional) Student grouping: individuals, small groups then whole class Procedure 1 Revisit the visualisation strategy. Discuss how we can make pictures in our mind from the words in the text. We can also go even further than that and use all our five senses. Ask the students to think about all their five senses as you read the text. 2. Read the picture book or text. 3. The students write the title of the topic in the square in the centre. They then complete their senses chart and share their ideas in a small group, and finally each group chooses their best Ideas to share with the whole class. [menus Frat. a 19.98. } is Senses chart nar | re | Sptazny | Pe | a | vee gr ~ Tamme a Beach ||tercomy aoe wpene] || hae a food i | 1 (aaa [3 nats | schocolate cSiske |Senses chart per Your name/s eee eee eee Tooks like... tastes like... sounds like .. .Stephanie Anne | Harvey Goudvisisualizing and Inferring: ne day Steph walked into a staff develop- ers’ meeting and mentioned that she was in search of a fresh, new picture book to teach visualizing. Our colleague and friend Chryse Hutchins suggested Estelle Condra’s See the Ocean, a beautiful book filled with stunning watercolor illustrations, striking poetic words, and a moving narrative, It is the tale of alittle girl who travels to a beach house with her parents and her brothers each sum- mer. As we read through the story, we soon notice that something is different about Nellie. She never begs to sit near the window in the car, she describes the ocean as an old white-bearded man, and she asks her parents endless questions. Near the end, we discover that she is blind. As Steph read through it, she, too, had endless questions. “| wonder why Chryse recommended this for visualizing?” she asked ‘Anne the next day. “I think it’s perfect for questioning.” Anne read it and com- ‘mented that she thought it was just what she was looking for to teach inferring. When we talked with Chryse later, she said that from her perspective, the poetic language, metaphoric writing, and stunning imagery best lent itself to teaching visualizing, Different readers rely on different strategies to help them gain better understanding. We mention this because, as we have said, well-crafted picture books can be used to teach and practice just about any strategy. To-gain under- standing of See the Ocean, readers are likely to activate several strategies, including visualizing, questioning, and inferring. Many teachers we know introduce this book after their students have spent considerable time practicing different strategies. They encourage their Kids to think about which strategies they are using to make sense of See the Ocean and to mark sticky notes with whatever strategy seems to help them ‘gain meaning. Veronica's sticky notes show how this eighth grader activates all three of these strategies and more as she reads and thinks through See the Ocean. (see Figure 9.1). These sticky notes provide strong evidence of her flexibility with strategy use. She activates multiple strategies to comprehend. ‘We discuss visualizing and inferring in one chapter because they are 130 closely related. Visualizing strengthens our inferential thinking. When weeure 8.1 Verrc’ Siy Note asoneas or Soe Orson Chapter 9 Visualizing and Inferring ——y 1 ae tee baenet Why didnt She | | ke iat wf har bots | vt whe ek $ Sones werd | tke sein trained Brus & content T gata geome of pen cares we Mae oes jest AE 3 Re } ween as ancld yuna cinite ey Going ts ees 13 Iman tans "ard Bee Tt prekoe 1s hie en a Son 7 lta | 3 - | | | aa | ny dick cha ose Her Doha Sait Shee | pide eater Rectan Came see th cen Maybe she's blind oe Gee's hed woe She Sees te cee n her pind visualize, we are in fact inferring, but with mental images rather than words and thoughts. Visualizing and inferring don’t occur in isolation. Strategies interweave. Inferring involves merging background knowledge with text clues to come up with an idea that is not explicitly stated in the text. Inferring is the proverbial reading between the lines. ‘A variety of mental processes occur under the umbrella of inferential thinking. When we teach kids to infer, we might teach them to draw conclu- sions or make predictions. Inferring may involve using the context to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word or noticing a character's actions to sur- face a theme. Our colleague Judy Wallis created a visual that describes the mul- tifaceted nature of inferential thinking, She chose an umbrella to represent the many aspects of inferring. We have adapted it here as a way of showing the dif- ferent ways readers use inferential thinking to enhance understanding. (See Figure 92.)132 Figen 22 The ering Unt Visualizing: Movies in the Mind Poe a ee ene rae Interpreting the meaning of language Figurative language Ichomatc language Metaphoric language Visualizing Constructing meaning with a visual image Infering creates a picture, movi, or sideshow inte mind Strategies That Work Inferring ‘Merging background knowiedge with clues in the text to come up with an idea that is not explicity stated by the author. Reasonable inferences need to be tied tothe tex Inferring relationships | ‘Setting to plot | Cause and effect Characters feetings and motives Inferring the author's purpose Creating interpretations based on text evidence Using text evidence to surat themes and big ideas Inferring the meaning of text features and visuals Inferring the answer to a question Drawing conclusions based on text evidence Visualizing brings joy to reading. When we visualize, we create pictures in our ‘minds that belong to us and no one else. As more and more books are routinely chumed into movies, we are not surprised that most people prefer the book over the movie, kids included. One problem inherent in transforming text to film is that Hollywood routinely takes a four-hundred-and-fifty-page novel and converts it into a one-hundred-page script. Not surprisingly, depth and texture suffer: Another common complaint relates to the characters. Steph could never sit back and enjoy the film Seven Years in Tibet, based on one of her favorite books by Heinrich Harrer, because Brad Pitt, no matter how cute he ‘was, did not jibe with her image of the book's protagonist. Some years ago, a shortlived program about Beverly Cleary’s beloved character Ramona hit TV. Kids were outraged. Each had clear, yet very differ- ent, pictures of Ramona in mind. Not one we spoke to could relate to the tele- vised image of Ramona. When we visualize, we create our own movies in our minds. We become attached to the characters we visualize. Visualizing person- alizes reading, keeps us engaged, and often prevents us from abandoning a book prematurely. When we introduce visualizing, we are likely to facilitate a conversation about books and movie adaptations in an attempt to make the strategy concrete. Kids relate and quickly weigh in with their own opinions.Freaicuon or imierences When Curtis stated that he was making a prediction it gave Jennifer and Steph 2 opgart:~ clscuss the relationship between prediction and inference. Predicting is rk course, but we predict outcomes, events, or actions that are confirmed or ‘end ofthe story. Prediction is one aspect of inferential thinking. “To help our students understand the diference, we encourage them fo consider the ou: ‘come of an event o action each time they make a prediction and notice whether here has been resolution. Curtis continued reading and found thatthe book ends before resolving whether the father finds a new ob. But the story ends hopefully, and Curtis wasn't wrong tinier that the dag ‘would find employment. He had good reason to believe. Curis made a fist of inferences in his ‘notebook as he read Tight Times. When he finished reading, he went back and marked those that were conimed (+ and those that were contracted (-). He lft those thet were unresolved coded wth only fr inference (see Figure 9.7).Pe UR F210) SEL Harvey UO med TR LI TY a SU CO ee s 3a Infer and Visualize Strategy Wrap-up: Creating an Anchor Chart to Capture What We Learned about Inferring and Visualizing Teaching Language Now that we have done some lessons on inferring and visualizing when we read and view, let's take a look back at what we have learned. We can co-construct an Anchor Chart about this strategy that will serve as a visual reminder and help us to infer and visualize. The Inferring and Visualizing Anchor Chart can help guide us as we continue thinking about how to use inferring and visualiz- ing to help us understand what we read. T'll begin by sharing something important that I do when I infer and visu- alize, and I will record it on the chart. When I read, listen, or view, I chink about what I know and merge it with text clues to make meaning. I also get a picture in my mind of what I am reading. While I am jotting this down on the chart, turn to each other and talk about something you have learned about inferring and visualizing that is important to think about when we read. Be sure to say it in a way that makes sense to you. (Kids turn and talk.) Ler’s share some of your thoughts. [We want to capture kids’ comments that shozo their understanding of the strategy as well a our lesson language to guide future teaching and learning.) What We Learned abovt Inferring and Visvalizing We think about what we know and merge ovr back ground knowledge with text clves to make meaning. We visvalize by getting a picture in ovr mind of the Story oF poem We make inferences from the pictues to get informa~ tion. we infer Fror the Features te yet information. We vissalize From the Features to get information, We infer the meaning of unfamiliar words and concepts. We infer ahead in the Story and make predictions. We tie inferences and mental images to the inforration and pictures in the text. We infer and vissalize From the text and pictures in a story to better understand it. ‘The Primary Comprehension Took: fer and VisualizeExpectations for student thinking and learning Questions you can ask yourself to assess student understanding Language of inferring and visualizing Assessment Checklist for Infer and Visualize = Merge background knowledge with text clues to make meaning = Geta picture in their mind as they listen, read, and view = Understand what it means to infer = Understand what it means to visualize = Infer from the features to get information @ Infer to make and confirm predictions = Figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words by using the context = Infer from text and pictures to understand the story = Are they using their background knowledge and merging it with text clues to make meaning? = Do they get pictures in their minds as they read, listen, and view? = Do they understand what it means to infer? Do they understand what it means to visualize? = Do they get information by inferring from the text features? = Do they infer the meaning of unfamiliar words and concepts by using the context? = Do they infer and visualize from the text and pictures to more fully understand the story? “Linfer. “Tm inferring...” “L visualize “Pm visualizing...” “T think...” “Tm thinking...” “Maybe...” “Maybe it means... “Te seems to me. “Probably...” “Lam getting a picture...” “Lean see...” “have a picture in my head. Lesson 15: fer and Visualize with Nareative Nonfiction 65+ BAN Ue Tn Le ee ea HT Ca Le Tackle the Meaning of Language Crack Open Features UTR R Wrap Your Mind Around the Big Ideas68 Teaching Language Now that we have done some lessons on inferring when we read, let's take a ook back at what we have learned. We can co-construct an Anchor Chart about this strategy that will serve as a visual reminder and help us to infer. The Inferring Anchor Chart can help guide us as we continue thinking about how to ‘use inferring to help us understand what we read, Til begin by sharing something important that | do when I infer and I will record it on the chart. When I read, I think about what | know and merge it swith text clues to draw a reasonable conclusion, to make an inference, While | am jotting this down on the chart, turn to each other and talk about something you have learned about inferring that is important to think about when we read. Be sure say it in a way that makes sense to you. {Kids een ond talk. Let’s share some of your thoughts. {We want to capture kids’ comments that show their understanding of the strategy as well as our lesson language to guide future teach- ing and learning-] What We Learned about Inferring Ue think about what we know and merge It with text clves to draw 2 reasonable conclosion. We tie ovr predictions and inferences to evidence in the text. We we the context to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words. We vse the text clues te infer the answers fo unanswered qvestions We wfe text evidence to infer themes and big ideas in the text, We use ovr background knowledge and text clues to infer the meaning of Featores uch af fobheads and titles.Assessment Checklist for Infer Meaning ‘These are questions we have asked our students, but you can adapt them to fit your own students’ unique needs. Expectations for Use ihe context infor the meaning of unfamiliar words and concepts student thinking serge background kxowledgo with txt clues to draw a ressonable conclasion and learning Inter to interpret the deeper meaning of language Use background knowledge and text clues to infer the meaning of subheads, ttles, and features {Infor the answers t unanswered quostions Jnfer to surface big teas and themes supported by evidence from the text Use inferential thinking to read critically Questions bother 1s01e conextiointerhe meaning of untaniliar words and concopis? you can ask ‘re they using thir backoround knowledge and merging it with txt clues to draw yourselftoassess “olin ” ee student understanding Do they use the context to iterpret the meaning of language? ‘re they inering to understond a variety of text festres? ‘re they using tox evidence titer answers to questions tat are not answered in the text? ‘Are they srtacng themes and big ideas to arrive a deeper understanding? Questions Did | infer to figure out the meaning of new words? students can id thine shout what know and morge it withthe information? ask themselves eae te informa ‘Didi find evidence inthe text to support my inference? Did | reed between the lines to get at deeper meaning? ‘itl use the text feetures to infer what the toxt was about? Did l use text clues t infor the answers to questions when I couldn't find the ansover in the txt? Did | infor the themes from evidence and clues inthe text? Language of “n:histing ta. inferring “This information makes me think “thaybe “Waybe tt moans “seems to me That's probably why... what... how. “From the text clues, !can conclude “The evidence suggests”TANNY McGREGOR CORE Ee ions Bridges to Strategic Reading iInferring Not Just Anybody’s Guess Me, in my bell-bottom corduroys, tumbling off the bus after a long day in first grade. Scooby and Shaggy were always there waiting as I stretched out, just three feet from the television. Was this my time for passive TV viewing? No way! From the very moment that the green Mystery Machine van appeared on the screen, I used clues to help me guess the identity of the bad guy. Cartoon watching, or animated inference training? Maybe a combina- tion of both, but I think it’s significant that no wild guessing was going on always based my inferences on evidence, evidence from the text (script) and the animation. When I relate this story to my students, they always nod in understanding. (See Figure 4-1.) They know as well as I do how much fun inferring can be! Guessing is a childhood pleasure. Game companies take advantage of this; dozens of “guessing” games can be purchased at your local toy store. We should take a cue and make the most of the enjoyment inferring can bring. Children infer, all the time, every day—but that doesn’t necessarily mean they know how to infer with text. When difficult text gets in the way, inferring can become drudgery. So the explicit teaching of inferring is one of the most important things we can give our students. Without it, many students may not experience the exhilaration that inferential thinking can bring, Inferring makes reading fun! The ability to infer helps us make solid deductions, often in a short amount of time. When you break it down, inferring is really the process ofComprehension Connections Figure 4=1 Jamon’ letter merging your schema with an evidence-based guess. In Blink, Malcolm Gladwell (2005) writes about the decisions and judgments that humans make in an instant, sometimes solidly and somerimes with misconceptions. OF course I read this book through the lens of a reading teacher, and it seemed to me a book about the strategy of inferring. Gladwell reminds us that this kind of thinking is “an ability that we can all cultivate”(16). We must remember this. Even those students who think very literally and never seem to read between the lines car learn to infer; they just need time and practice. As a third-grade teacher, { would sometimes feel frustrated when teach- ing inferring lessons. My students seemed overwhelmed. I knew the abilityInferring «o infer was crucial: in reading, in test taking, even in life. I think now, how- ever, that I expected my students to do too many new things at once. My instruction combined grasping new language, decoding, and pracessing challenging text with making solid inferences. Too much, too fast. This ‘chapter reflects the changes in my thinking with regard to teaching inferring, providing a map for doling out responsibility in manageable pieces. Teaching students to infer can be a load of garbage. No, really. A cou- ple of years ago, I was asked to speak at a school board meeting (a cable- televised session, mind you) to help the board members understand strategy instruction. Besides being a little nervous, I was very excited, What a great ‘opportunity ro create awareness and rally support! I wasn’t exactly sure how to plan, but I knew right away that I didn’t want to present some dull, mind- ‘numbing lecture based on a bunch of overheads with diminutive print. No bored board for me. After thinking about it for a couple of days, it hit me ‘make it concrete! I decided to deliver a brief research-based rationale for the strategies and then get specific, inviting the board members to experience a single seraregy in a concrete way. Inferring was the perfect strategy to uses its, importance is certain and it is so much fun to practice! I decided to assem- ble a bag of garbage to help the board members practice inferring. Ina small plastic crash bag, I collected a few discarded items from around my house: an empty bottle of vitamin water, an old Ace bandage, a label from a Lean. Cuisine frozen dinner, the receipt from my expired pool membership, a cou- ple of airline ticket stubs from the previous December, a past issue of Consumer Reports. L asked the board members to make inferences based on the “hard evidence” that I produced from the garbage bag. Let me just say it was a success...and here's how this litle experiment with the school board helped me develop a trusted anchor lesson to use with students when launching inferring, Tell my students I have an interesting story for them, a mystery of sorts. I describe a house on my street that puzzles me. Someone must live there because sometimes lights are turned on, sometimes the garage door is raised, and so on, but I've never actually seen anyone around. (Now this, is not a true story....just a story. The kids enjoy the uncertainty, trying to figure out which parts might be true.) I relate how my curiosity has been getting the best of me. How many people live there? How old are they? ‘Whar are they like? Why are they so private? I exclaim to the students that it is my lucky day: garbage day in my neighborhood! I recount the experi- ence of driving to school that very morning and noticing a small baz ofComprehension Connections trash at the end of the driveway of the mystery house. I tell them thar before I could talk myself out of it, I hopped out of my car, snatched the bag, and then drove away. At this point some of the kids can see where I'm going with this; some know I'm just pulling their leg. Others are concerned that I broke the law (F assure them that J did not). I produce the premedi- tated bag of trash, telling the students that by examining the evidence, we can make some inferences to help us figure out the mystery of my neigh- bors. T emphasize that every inference must be directly supported by evi dence. I reveal one piece of trash at a time, inviting kids to turn and talk. about what they can infer. I post the inferring stems to aid students as they express their thinking. (See Figure 4-2.) Here are some of the most common inferences I heat: Bottle of vitamin water: These people must care about their health. They must have some extra money because that stuff is expensive. You can drink water for free if you want to. Old Ace bandage: I'm thinking someone got hurt while exercis- ing, Maybe they are trying to get in shape. They threw it away so they must be feeling better. Label from a Lean Cuisine dinner: | infer that a woman lives in this house because my mom and my aunts eat those kinds of din- ners. I'm thinking someone either wants to stay healthy or they want to lose weight, Receipt from pool memberships I infer tha these people want to cat healthy so they can look good at the poo! each summer. This must be an active family 1e tickets: This family has enough money to go on trips and to fly in an airplane. They probably have jobs. Since they flew to Florida during the holidays, it’s likely that they have family or friends that live there. Consumer Reports magazine: These people must care about getting a good value. Maybe they like to read, especially magazines. Together with their talk partners, kids create a profile of the mystery family, citing their evidence along the way. One class even created a court-Inferring Figure 4-2 Thinking stems for inferring room style exhibit table, complete with inferences written om index cards that accompanied each item. This enjoyable exercise is effective wit to this memorable anchor lesson over and over again as we dee Jp students of all ages. Kids refer pen our study of inferring,Inferring to become reflective and metacognitive, always striving to support their thinking, Sometimes this part of the chart is nor completed so quickly. This column is excellent practice for what is to come, however, since I will soon be asking them to revisit text to pinpoint supporting evidence. For every inference written on our chart, we cite the evidence that led us down this path of thinking in the first place. I write the evidence on the right side of the paper, taking time to link the inference and the evidence with brightly colored arrows—just another way to accentuate the link between the two. (See Figure 4-3.) im 5 neon who has opet hair on lining 7 if SESE | ott, bie I. and relax someone who wears red socke | * red lint inside ij» Someone who is | « Dads & Grandpas male os wear these < Mr. Gregor |» shoe wasin Mrs, Mee , * MCG's bookbag 2 Someone whoa W doesnt like 4o 2 worn out soles Figure 4-3 loferring with Mec McGregor’ slipperinferring Sensory Exercises: Inferring Why You've Been Saving Those Old Magazines! Thinkers use every clue available to make sense of their world. Here's a sim- pple way to launch that practice. Dust off that old stack of magazines you've been saving for just the right lesson. Tear out advertisements that might seem interesting to children: ads with pets, families, sports, or entertainment. Remove the entire page from the magazine. What item could you cover or cutComprehension Connections Zoom has been used so often that it has literally fallen apare at the seams. This was providential, I think, because my students started mixing the pages in ran- dom order and attempting to sequence them once again! I prompted them to use the language of inferring all along the way. No problem here. My students always want to surround Banyai’s books with plenty of conversation. Quotes About Inferring to Get Kids Talking! Reading is important—read between the lines. Don't swallow everything. —Gwrendolyn Brooks, poet ‘There is no surer way to misread any document than to read it literally. —Learned Hand, judge The golden guess is morning-star to the full round of truth, —Afed Lord Tennyson, poet {ts the stuff between the lines, the empty space between those lines which is interesting. —Robert Coriyle, actor From a drop of water a logician could infer the possibility of an Atlantic or a Niagara without having seen or heard of one or the other. —Arthur Conan Doyle, author Guessing what the pitcher is going to throw is eighty percent of being a successful hitter. The other twenty percent is just execution. —Hank Aaron, professional baseball player You can’t tell any kit something to say between the lines. Robert Wise, filmmaker of story without having some kind of theme, ‘Whaat | like in a good author isn’t what he says, but what he whispers. Logan P Smith essayistReading with . Bening Foreword try Elfin Oliver Keene Teaching Comprehension int Primary Grades Debbie % ter yes Miller “<4Mental Images at a Glance What's Key for Kids? m Proficient readers create mental images during and after reading. “These images come from all five senses and the emotions and are anchored in the reader's prior knowledge. Proficient readers understand how creating images enhances compre- hension. Proficient readers use images to draw conclusions, create unique interpretations of the text, recall details significant to the text, and recall a ext after it has been read. 1m Images from reading frequently become part of the reader's writing. m Readers use images to immerse themselves in rich detail as they read. The detail gives depth and dimension to the reading, engaging the reader more deeply and making the text more memorable. m Readers adapt their images in response to the shared images of other readers. m Readers adapt their images as they continue to read. Images are revised to incorporate new information in the text and new interpre- tations as developed by the reader. m Evoking mental images helps readers create images in writing. (Adapted from Keene and PEBC) Tried and True Texts for Mental Images Close Your Eyes by Jean Marzollo Color Me a Rhyme by Jane Yolen Creatures of Earth, Sea, and Sky by Georgia Heard Footprints and Shadows by Anne Westcott Dodd Goodnight to Annie by Eve Merriam Groyling by Jane Yolen I.Am the Ocean by Suzanna Marshak Mountain Streams (compact disc) The Napping House by Audrey Wood Night in the Country by Cynthia Rylant Night Sounds, Morning Colors by Rosemary Wells Pusting the World to Sleep by Shelley Moore Thomas Quiet, Please by Eve Merriam The Salamander Room by Anne Mazer Say Something by Mary Stoltz What Does the Rain Play? by Nancy White Carlstrom When In Sleepy by Jane R. Howard Wild, Wild Sunflower Child by Nancy White Carlstrom The Zoo at Night by Martha Robinson00; I've taught them about rich words, And now they're pursing all chat learning into yet another context: writing, Ics probably no surprise we launch into poetry during this study—or that music is now a ritual in our writers’ workshop, # Evidence of Understanding and Independence “My Dad always says Tim daydreaming, but thats not the right word. Im making mental images and connecting them sogesher. lin not day- dreaming, | tell him, Tin thinking.” Cory “When my Mom reads me Harry Potter, its like I have a paint set inside my brain, And I never run out of paint!” Ben “Yesterday I was ski- ing so fast I just knew Twas in for a major wipeout, and then 1 ‘made a mental image of what I should do. I could see me curving 10 slow down in my head, and then I just 86 Reading with MeaningReading Meaning Foreword by Ellin Oliver Keene Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades Debbie Millerory and Whit rush into the classroom minutes before the bell. They scurry over t0 a cornes, where Cory plunks down his backpack and takes out what looks to be a cell phone. “See, Whit? Here ie is. My mom says it’s broken, but I’m inferring we can fix i!” Out of the corner of my eye T watch them turn i over and over, furiously pushing buttons, pulling the antennae out and pushing it back in, checking the batteries, lis- tening for a dial tone. To their surprise (and mine), the phone begins to make a strange beeping sound. “See? I just knew it” Cory says. “Te just needs a liele some- thing, Go get a magnifying glass, quick!” They methodically examine every inch (centimeter) of the phone. But no amount of close examination ren- ders them a dial rone. The beeping stops. “Well, Whit,” Cory says softly, “ax Tease we tried.” “Cory,” Whit pleads, “we canit give up yet. Oh—wait! I know!” He races over to the basket of two-column note forms and grabs one, “We can infer what's wrong with id” he says. “Let's put our thinking together. Ill draw the phone on this side, and you write our thinking over here. This is going co be a huge infer! When we figure it out, lec’s show Mrs. Miller! She'll go craay for this!” (They were right—see Figure 8.1.) The children have been learning about the ways readers (and telephone repairmen) infer for about four weeks. When I think about how far the kids FIGURE 8.1 Cory and Whits pwo-column notes on the phone Nome Cory Whit lL eee Title es Two Colamn Notes [wee _iffer it tha the fone [Welt off Wen Sometwen I L® ICoparakin}. Wer in fercing 1 that it neods Moo baterces. Lf -__——— (ee Vrokencfore Reading with Meaninghhave come, I realize it’s because I've come a long way, too. I remember when wasn't even sure what inferring was, let alone how to go about teaching it. 1 think back co the day when ten of us were scrunched into the old book room at University Park Elementary, where PEBC staff developer Charyse Hutchins was leading an after-school discussion on teaching infer- ring to our first and second graders. “So whats everybody thinking?” she asks us. We love Chryse, but the room is freezing. We think those might be snowflakes outside the window. And we don't really feel like thinking, Chryse knows all about wait time, but so do we. Undeterred, she asks, “So how is inferring going in your classrooms? Who would like to share what you've been doing?” Kristin and I exchange glances. Should we ell? Kristin gives mea silent kick. I rake the cue. I'l sell. “Well, Chryse, Pm confused, actually. Kristin and I have been having this ongoing discus- sion about inferring, and we've been wondering things like, well, what does ic mean to infer? Ar first we thoughe it was about predicting, but ifa child makes a prediction and confirms ita page later, is thar really an inference, of just a simple prediction?” We chink inferting is bigger than predicting, but we're not sure. This conversation took place early in our work with Chryse, and we were surprised to learn that she wasn't sure about the difference either. And she was smart enough to admit it to us. As with the best staff developers, Chuyse was one of the first to engage us in conversations in which we all participated in the learning. So what is inferring? Prediction isa piece of i, bur our hunches were right: there is more to it. Inferring, according to ‘Anderson and Pearson (1984) is the heart of meaning construction for learners of all ages. What follows are some key considerations and anchor lessons on inferring that put theory into practice. When readers infer, they use their prior knowledge and textual clues to draw conclusions and form unique interpretations of text. we oe Anchor Lessons Readers determine meanings of unknown words by using their schema, paying attention to textual and picture clues, rereading, ‘and engaging in conversations with others ‘A book like Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock is perfect for teaching children about inferring at the word level. Set on the Limpopo River in a dry, sparsely settled area in Zimbabwe, it’s the story ofa litte girl Chapter 8:nferting 107Le Een nm, FIGURE 8.2 Inferring dep ep an Fae ot te Here 7 bce meanings af words from Where Are You Going, Manyoni? by Catherine Stock Pall, Heelan Oh Sere: Wh wf dd we fy piclures, to swords by asing 7 sands Ha tert wy, thew, in AS “When we finish, I ask the children what they've learned, and I record their thinking on the chart (see Figure 8.2). Before I send them off to readers) workshop I say, “In your reading today, if you come across a word and you don't understand what it means, think about what we've learned and give it a wry. Happy reading!” Posseripe: Check out the sticky notes shown in Figure 8.3. A group of kkids at one table came up with the sticky note format, and after they shared it with the rest of the class that day, it caught on. Thereafter, children brought their books and sticky notes to share. This allowed us to tal about the meaning of the unknown words together, which gave several children at once a chance to learn new words, and gave me an opportunity to clear up any misconceptions. Readers make predictions about text and confirm or contradict their predictions as they read on Books with opporcunities for making clear-cut predictions that can be con firmed or contradicted in the text are useful for teaching children about Chapter 8: Inferring 109114 FIGURE 8.6 Using a rwo-columa format for inferring Wame_Qeph Date - Inferring far meaning +f poetry swim inthe sea, ipping and Sin, Gan you see me? Now you do, fend row you doit Try end catch me youror't you wor j 1 jumpin the or and fe! 0 free twisting ond uring, Canyou see me? Now yu do, cae now you dot Try and catch me ~ yetlwon, you wor children’s riddles out in the hall, with spaces for passersby to write in what the) Ngferted the poems were about. After a week or so, children wrote in the title af their poems, giving those same passersby a chance to confirm or ‘How Many Days to America? by Exe Bunting is the story of a family forced by soldiers to flee the village they love “Chey board a small fishing boat in the middle of the night, taking with them ohly.a change of clothing and some jewelry to buy their way to America. The trip is dangerous one; the motors of the litte boat stop, the passengers run out of food and Water, and thieves come aboard, demanding money and jewels. Will chey ever teach America safely? Reading with MeaningEvidence of Understanding and Independence “Inferring is shinking in your head to help ‘you understand, when the story doesn't let you in on it.” Colin enone. Tose i “When we infer sogerber, its like a wire shat connects ‘from my bead to someone elses head, on and on and on, all around the circle.” Riley | When I read thes words Nobo d ¥ wears | “Iaering issome- | a sonsuit on the St dar | thing ly heep | fs 1 6a. tA cdapde | — with me—wherever | 3 Pree iAClawd dee | go, iefollows me | around. I carry it | Scat larenelmeah | Belen | peal Timothy. | things in iy lif.” Frank “You know when you wonder why? Ifthe book doesn’ wll you, ‘you can use your ‘schema and the clues in the text to help you. That's inferring.” Nina Zachary’ prediction in Timothy Goes to School by Rosemary Wells Chaprer 8: Infering 7