Lecture 21. THE PARTICLE.

THE INTERJECTION

1. The particle. General information.

2. Groups of particles.
3. The interjection. General information.
4. Emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
5. Primary and secondary interjections

1. The particle. General information

The particle is a part of speech the meaning of which is difficult to define. It either
emphasizes or limits the meaning of another word, or phrase, or clause. Particles are invariable
and have no syntactical function in the sentence. They form a whole with the part of the sentence
(a word or a phrase) they refer to.
Particles may combine with any part of speech.

Don’t worry – that’s just Aunt Fanny practising her balancing act.
- John is very proud of his daughter. - I should just think so.
Isn’t that just beautiful?
She lives just round the corner.
I said just what I thought.
Just as we thought the sun would sink, it grew still redder.

Particles generally stand before the word they refer to but they may also follow it. This book
is for advanced students only.
2. Groups of particles.

According to their meaning particles fall into six groups.

1. Intensifying particles:

just, even, yet, still, all, simply.

They emphasize the meaning of the word (or phrase, or clause) they refer to or give special
prominence to the notion expressed by it.

The skirt comes just below my knees.

They even offered him higher wages.
Maggie felt all the safer for that.
These days we’re working with still greater efficiency.
We had yet another discussion.

The particles all, still, yet, mostly intensify the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs.

Play yet more softly.

2. Limiting particles:

only, merely, solely, but, alone.

They single out the word or phrase they refer to or limit the idea (notion) expressed by them.

I only wanted to ask you the time.

 Man cannot live on bread alone.
Time alone will show who was right.
She is still but a child, she wants to play.
Mr. Green merely hinted at the possibility.

Just, merely, simply can be used at the beginning of imperative sentences.

You don’t have to be present. Just (merely, simply) send a letter of explanation.

3. Specifying particles:

right, exactly, precisely, just.

They make the meaning of the word or phrase they refer to more precise.

Draw a circle right in the middle of the map (точно, прямо по середине).
We were just about to start (как раз собирались ...).
They arrived precisely at ten (ровно, точно в десять).
The room looks exactly as it did when I was here last year (точно так, как).
What exactly do you mean (что именно ...)?

4. The additive particle else. It combines only with indefinite, interrogative and negative
pronouns and interrogative adverbs. It shows that the word it refers to denotes something
additional to what has already been mentioned:

Something else, nobody else, what else, where else.

5. The negative particle not.

Not a word was said about it.

Not saying anything was a bad idea.
Not everyone likes this book.
Do you want to go? - Not me!

6. Connecting particles: also, too, which may function as conjuncts (see conjuncts).

Were you at the film? - I was also there.

I went there too.
Won’t you come too?

Traditionally particles were classed with adverbs with which some are homonymous:

just, simply, yet, still, exactly, precisely, right, too, barely, etc.

She is old too (particle).

She is too old (adverb).
He’s just the man I’m looking for (particle).
He has just arrived (adverb).

Other particles are homonymous with

adjectives (only, even),

 conjunctions (but),
pronouns (all),
statives (alone).

Only a doctor can do that (particle).

She is the only person for the job (adjective).

Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.

That’s just his way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)

Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, just awful. (Dreiser)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
French people only come to England to make money. (Galsworthy)
(LIMITING PARTICLE)
If only there were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)

Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs
(simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles
else, solely, merely have no homonyms.

3. The interjection. General information.

The interjection is a part of speech which expresses emotions, without naming them. They
are invariable, whereas the emotions expressed by the interjections vary.
Interjections express different kinds of feelings, such as:

joy (hurray, hurrah),

grief, sorrow (alas, dear me, dear, oh),
approval (bravo; hear, hear),
contempt (pooh, gosh, bosh, pah, bah, fie),
triumph (aha),
impatience (bother),
anger (damn),
surprise or annoyance (Goodness gracious, My God).

Some interjections are used merely to attract attention (hallo, hi, hey, here).

Hallo! What’s happening now?

Hey! Is anybody here?
Oh dear! I’ve lost my pen.
Mr. Smith is ill again. “Dear me! I’m sorry to hear that.”
Bother! I’ve missed my train!
For goodness’ sake, stop misbehaving!

The meaning of other interjections is very vague, they express emotion in general and the
specific meaning depends either on the context, or the situation, or the tone with which they are
pronounced. Thus Oh may express surprise, joy, disappointment, anger, etc.

Oh! Really? (surprise)

 Oh! How glad I am to see you. (joy)
Oh! I’m sorry! (disappointment)
Oh! Don’t be a stupid ass. (anger)

As a rule they do not make part of a phrase, but there are some cases when interjections may
be connected with a preposition plus a noun (pronoun) phrase.

We’ve done it. Hurray for us!

Alas for my hopes!

Note:

In these combinations the interjections acquire some verbal character.

4. Emotional interjections and imperative interjections.

According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional
interjections and imperative interjections.

1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo,
alas, etc.

...A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted,
“Americans! Hurrah!” (Heym) (joy)
Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To let”.
(Dickens) (sorrow)
Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty without a little, ill nature.
(Sheridan) (contempt)
Oh, bother! I can’t see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indignation)
“Dear me!” says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shining in his eyes. (Dickens)
(surprise)

2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer.
They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.

Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going. (Shaw) (protest)

“Upon my word I was not awake, sir,” replied Oliver earnestly. “I was not, indeed, sir.”
“Tush, tush, my dear!” said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)

5. Primary and secondary interjections

Interjections may be primary and secondary.

1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are
simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, bravo, hush. Only a few primary interjections are
composite: heigh-ho! hey-ho! holla-ho! gee-ho!
2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous
with the words they are derived from. They are: well, now, here, there, come, why, etc.
(Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclamation-words, such as
nonsense, shame, good, etc.)
 Derivative interjections may be simple: well, here, there, come, etc., and composite: dear
me, confound it, hang it, etc.
Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independent elements of the
sentence.1

1
The independent elements of the sentence are words arid word-groups which are not
grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.
They are:
1. Interjections, such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens, etc.

Oh, if I only knew what a dreadful thing it is to be clean, I’d never come. (Shaw)
“Oh gracious me! that innocent Toots,” returned Susan hysterically. (Dickens)

T h e D a u g h t e r: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have

spared Freddy that.
T h e G e n t l e m a n: Phew! (Shaw)
Well, I don’t like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of
taking. (Voynich)

N о t e. — Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as

interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do
not express emotion or will.