Wallaga University

School of Graduate study

College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Food Technology and Process Engineering
Masters in Food Technology Program

Nutritional, Antinutritional and Functional Properties of Okra (edible green Leave and
Pods) grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia

Master’s thesis

Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
in Food Technology

By:
Gatwech Both Puot

Advisor: Dr. Wondu Garoma (PhD, Associate Professor)

June, 2022
Nekemte, Ethiopia

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APPROVAL SHEET FOR SUBMITTING THESIS
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Gatwech Both Puot; entitled: Nutritional,
Antinutritional and Functional Properties of Okra (Edible green Leave and pods)
grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia and submitted in partial fulfilments for
the requirements for the degree of masters of science of Food technology complies with the
regulations of the university and meets the accepted standards concerning originality and quality.

Name: Gatwech Both Puot

Signature: . Date: ____________________
The undersigned members of the thesis examining boards appointed to examine the thesis of
Gatwech Both Puot and submitted for the degree of Master of Science in Food technology
confirmed that the thesis fulfils the requirements of the program and approved it to be accepted.

Chairman, School’s Graduate Committee: Signature date

Internal Examiner: signature date

External Examiner: signature date

Advisor: signature date

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STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR
I, Mr.Gatwech Both hereby declare and affirm this thesis entitled: Nutritional, Antinutritional
and functional Properties of okra (Edible green Leave and Pods) grown in Abol district,
Gambella Region, Ethiopia. Is my own conducted under my advisor Dr. Wondu Garoma
(Ph.D. Associate Professor).I have followed all the ethical principles of scholarship in the
preparation, data collection, data analysis and completion of this thesis. All scholarly matter
that is included in the thesis has been given recognition through citation. I have adequately
cited and referenced all the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all
principles of academic honesty and integrity and I have not misrepresented, fabricated, or
falsified any ididea/data fact / source in my submission. This thesis is submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for a degree from the Post Graduate Studies at Wollega
University. This research study is my original work and has not been presented for any
organization, any diploma or degree program in this or any other institutions /university, and
all sources of materials used for accomplishing this thesis has haven appropriately
acknowledged.

Name: Gatwech Both Puot Signature .

Date: June/2022

College: Engineering and Technology

Department: Food Technology and Process Engineering

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
The author, Gatwech Both Puot was born on 03/06/1988.G.C. at Wanthoa Woreda in
Gambella Region, Ethiopia. He attended Elementary school in Yoak wuol and preparatory
school in Matar high school. He has successfully passed the Ethiopichool Leaving Certificate
Examination (ESLCE) in 2012, and joined Adama Science and Technology University,
College of agriculture and environmental science in 2013. Then after four years of study; he
graduated with B.Sc. degree in food science and postharvest technology. After graduation, he
had worked for one year from august 2019 and in September 2020 he joined the School of
Graduate Studies at Wollega University College of engineering and technology to pursue
Master of Science in food technology.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, thanks to almighty God, for helping me in all circumstances to complete the
course work and my thesis research successfully, blessing my life and giving me the
knowledge, and patience to accomplish this study. My deepest gratitude goes to my Advisor:
Wondu Garoma (PhD, Associate Professor) for his critical advice and professional
comments, constructive criticism, suggestion and useful that have improved the quality of my
work. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to department head Mr.Tamirat Endale
(M.Sc.) for genuine way he treated me while learning. I would like to express my
appreciation for the academic staff of the food technology and process engineering
department at Wollega University.

Gambella University is acknowledged for allowing my monthly salary. Wollega University is

highly acknowledged for it’s all round support during my study period. I am indebted to Mr.
Gatwech Makuach (M.Sc.) for his assistance in helping me on how to analyses the data and
keeping me faithful to statistical task when I floundered.

I also extend my sincere gratitude to all individuals who directly or indirectly helped me to
analyse this thesis. On again my specially thank goes to the laboratory staff of Bless Agri-
laboratory PLC by helping me for analysis (proximate and minerals). I would also thank the
Ethiopian public health institute for their unwavering task by helping me to analysis
(antinutrient and functional properties). I would like to thank my parents especially my Mom,
Nyayiech Yuot who experience pain of my life and my wife Nyahoth Majiok and Marry
Nyachoap Mut for nurturing love that has been the solid ground I have walked on through the
years and bring this thesis to fruition. Words are not enough to express my little brother
Mr.Chan Both for wish, pray and encouragement. Lastly but not least, I would like to thank
my kids, Mabil, Chudier, Gatluak, Nyajima and Nyawargak for their joy and loving kindness
guided my heart.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS
AAS : Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
BD : Bulk Density
BHA : Butylated Hydroxy Anisole
BHT : Butylated Hydroxy Toluene
CA : Calcium
CHO : Carbohydrate
DWB : Dry Weight Basis
GAPLZ : Gambella Agro-Pastoral Livelihood Zone
GARI : Gambella Agricultural Research Institute
GCHACLZ : Gambella Coffee, Honey and Cereal Livelihood Zone
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GLO : Gambella Landraces okra
GPNRS : Gambella Peoples‟ National Regional State
IV : Indigenous vegetables
K : Potassium
Na : Sodium
Ox : Oxalate
P : phosphorus
PC : Principal Component
Phy : Phytate
ROS : Reactive Oxygen Species
TFC : Total Flavonoid Content
TPC : Total Phenolic Content
UV-VIS : Ultraviolet-Visible
WAC : Water absorption capacity
WU : Wollega University
Zn : Zinc

Table of Content

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s
Approval sheet for submitting thesis......................................................................................ii
Statement of the author..............................................................................................................iii
Biographical sketch......................................................................................................................iv
Aknowledgement...........................................................................................................................v
List of abbreviations/acronyms...............................................................................................vi
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................xiv
Chapter one......................................................................................................................................1
1. Introduction.................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background..............................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of problems.........................................................................................................4
1.3. Objective of the study..........................................................................................................6
1.3.1. General objective...............................................................................................................6
1.3.2. Specific objective..............................................................................................................6
1.4. Research questions................................................................................................................6
1.5. Significance of the study....................................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO.................................................................................................8
2. Review of literature..........................................................................................8
2.1. Production, processing and economic importance of okra: overview...........8
2.2. Processing of okra leave and pods.................................................................9
2.3. Economic importance of okra......................................................................10
2.3.3. Growth and development of okra leave and pods....................................12
2.3.4. Harvesting and yields of okra leave and pods..........................................12
2.4. Traditional processing of okra leave and pods............................................14
2.5. Health benefits and nutritional values of okra.............................................16
2.5.1. Nutritional value of okra leaves................................................................17
2.5.1.1. Proximate composition of okra leave....................................................18
2.5.2. Nutritional value of okra pods..................................................................19
2.5.2.1. Proximate composition of okra pod.......................................................20
2.5.2.2. Minerals contents of okra pods..............................................................22

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2.5.2.3. Anti-nutritionts in okra pod...................................................................22
2.6. Functional properties of okra.......................................................................23
2.6.1. Bulk density..............................................................................................23
2.6.2. Water and oil absorption capacity............................................................24
2.7. Okra seeds....................................................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE....................................................................................................................26
3. Materials and method............................................................................................................26
3.1.Materials..................................................................................................................................26
3.1.1. Description of sampling site and collection area.................................................26
3.2.Sample collection and reagents......................................................................................28
3.3.Preparation of okra flour...................................................................................................29
3.4.Proximate composition......................................................................................................32
3.4.1. Moisture content..............................................................................................................32
3.4.2. Crude protein.....................................................................................................................33
3.4.3. Crude fat..............................................................................................................................34
3.4.4. Crude fiber.........................................................................................................................34
3.4.5. Ash content........................................................................................................................35
3.4.6. Total carbohydrate content..........................................................................................36
3.5. Mineral contents..........................................................................................36
3.5.1. Preparation for standard solution..............................................................36
3.5.2. Microwave digestion procedure...............................................................37
3.5.3. Determination of minerals............................................................................................37
3.6. Anti-nutrients constituents...........................................................................38
3.6.1. Phytate......................................................................................................38
3.6.2. Tannin.......................................................................................................38
3.6.3. Oxalates....................................................................................................38
3.7. Functional properties...................................................................................39
3.7.1. Bulk density..............................................................................................39
3.7.2. Water absorption capacities......................................................................39
3.8.Statistical analysis................................................................................................................40
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CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................41
4. Result and discussion.............................................................................................................41
4.1.Proximate composition......................................................................................................41
4.1.1. Moisture..............................................................................................................................41
4.1.2. Protein..................................................................................................................................42
4.1.3. Fat..........................................................................................................................................42
4.1.4. Ash........................................................................................................................................43
4.1.5. Fiber......................................................................................................................................43
4.1.6. Carbohydrate.....................................................................................................................44
4.1.7. Gross energy values........................................................................................................44
4.2. Mineral content............................................................................................45
4.2.1. Potassium..................................................................................................45
4.2.2. Calcium.....................................................................................................46
4.2.3. Iron............................................................................................................46
4.2.4. Copper.......................................................................................................47
4.2.5. Zinc...........................................................................................................47
4.2.6. Sodium......................................................................................................48
4.2.7. Magnesium...............................................................................................49
4.2.8. Manganese................................................................................................50
4.3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods flour of okra landrace.....................50
4.3.1. Sodium to potassium ratio........................................................................51
4.3.2. Calcium to potassium ratio.......................................................................51
4.4. Antinutrients................................................................................................51
4.4.1. Phytate......................................................................................................52
4.4.2. Oxalate......................................................................................................53
4.4.3. Tannin.......................................................................................................53
4.5.1. [phytate] to [calcium] molar ratios...........................................................54
4.5.2. [phytate] to [iron] molar ratios.................................................................55
4.5.3. [phytate] to [zinc] molar ratios.................................................................55
4.5.4. [oxalate] to [calcium] molar ratios...........................................................55
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4.5.5. [phytate][calcium]/ [zinc] molar ratios.....................................................56
4.6. Functional properties...................................................................................56
4.6.1. Bulk density..............................................................................................57
4.6.2. Water absorption capacity........................................................................57
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................58
5. Conclusion and recommendation...................................................................58
5.1. Conclusion...................................................................................................58
5.2.Recommendation.................................................................................................................59
6. References.......................................................................................................60
Appendices.....................................................................................................................................67

List of tables

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Tables’ pages

Table: 3 1. Samples of landraces Okra and collected area.......................................................28

Table: 4. 1. Proximate composition (g/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of landrace
Okra………………………………………………………………..………………………....41
Table: 4. 2.Total mineral content (mg/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of landrace okra.

..................................................................................................................................................45

Table:4. 3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods of landrace okra........................................50

Table:4. 4. Anti-nutritional constituent of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of landrace okra.. 52

Table: 4. 5. Calculated mineral ratios to photochemical of dry Leave and pod flour of

landrace okra............................................................................................................................54

Table:4. 6. Functional properties of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of landrace okra............56

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 List of figure

Figures Pages

Figure: 2. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia).............................................13

Figure: 2. 2. Edible green leave of Okra Gambella, (Ethiopia)...............................................16

Figure: 2. 3. Edible green pods of Okra...................................................................................20

Figure:2. 4. Okra seeds (Gambella Agricultural Research Institute, 2020).............................25

Figure: 3. 1. Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella)…………………………...………..27

Figure: 3. 2. Fresh samples of leave and pods.........................................................................28

Figure: 3. 3. Selected nutritrients, antinutrient and function properties...................................29

Figure: 3. 4. Sliced samples of raw materials..........................................................................30

Figure: 3. 5. Flowchart for preparation of okra flour (leave and pods)...................................31

Figure: 3. 6. Powder sample of Okra (leave and Pods)............................................................32

Figure: 3. 7. Analysis of Protein content used Kjeldhal Digestion Unit..................................40

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 List of Appendix
List Page

Appendix: 1. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia)........................................13

Appendix: 1. 2.Edible green leave of Okra..............................................................................15

Appendix: 3 1. Map of study site (Gambella)..........................................................................26

Appendix: 3 2. Photo of powder sample..................................................................................29

Appendix: 3 3. Photo during analysis......................................................................................40

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Abstract
The agro ecological conditions of Ethiopia are favorable for home garden and commercial
production of okra. Okra is an economically important vegetable crop grown in different part
of Ethiopia. The national production and consumption of okra both leave and pods is
negligible and the crop has been considered as a minor crop which is traditionally cultivated
in some parts of the country like Benishangul Gumuz, Gambella and Humera. Lack of
scientific information on the nutritional quality, phytochemical and functional properties of
okra is a major constraint in in Ethiopia, particularly in Gambella Region. Therefore, the study
was aimed to determine nutritional, anti-nutritional and functional properties of Okra (edible
green leave and pods) grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia. The leave and pods
of okra landrace, namely GLO48 for leave and GLO49 – GLO50 for pods, were collected
from the December 2022 during main okra harvesting time. The proximate composition in
g/100g on dry weight basis of the leave and pods of okra landrace were significantly (P<0.05)
high in crude protein, crude fiber and utilize carbohydrate and gross energy in leave than
pods respectively, whereas low in crude fate and total ash from the following ranges in leave
and pods. Moisture value 9.41 - 12.67, the protein content 19.51 - 27.16; crude fat 1.99 -
4.31; total ash 1.96 - 5.06; crude fiber 11.94 - 17.56; carbohydrate 39.53 - 43.06 and gross
energy value 292.27 kcal/100g – 305.60, respectively. There was a significant difference
(p<0.05) in mineral contents in mg/100g of leave and pods of okra landrace from the
following ranged potassium 147.11 - 243.37; calcium 96.79±0.30 - 276.93; Iron 1.55 - 4.20;
copper 0.31 - 0.72; Zinc 4.84 - 5.40; Sodium 10.95 - 41.92; magnesium 364.29 - 388.61 and
manganese 2.73 - 9.54, respectively. The molar ratios of the leave and pods in this study were
below the standard reference and which show the high mineral bioavailability in all edible
with significant difference (p<0.05) in contents. The phytochemical in mg/100g was a
significant difference (p<0.05) in leave and pods of okra landrace with following ranged
Phytate 0.26 - 3.11; Oxalate 0.19 - 0.50; tannin 1.02 – 1.99 respectively, the amount that were
detected from photochemical were low in oxalate and phytate. The functional properties in
(g/ml) was ranged from Bulky density 0.30 - 0.44 and Water absorption 0.86 - 3.15
respectively. The proximate composition indication that the leave and pods of okra landrace
can be an important nutrient to both human and livestock. Generally, the results of this
research indicated that okra contains essential nutrients and phytochemicals as compared to
the commonly consumed green vegetables in Ethiopia. Further studies are recommended to
determine the active ingredients.
Key words: Okra leave, nutritional, phytochemical and functional properties, okra landrace.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1. Background

Food and nutrition are closely associated with human health and the world population growth
has led to an increase in nutritional deficiencies and diseases related to the lack of essential
nutrients in human diet, particularly affecting vulnerable populations. One of the world’s
greatest challenges is to secure sufficient and healthy food for all, and to do so in an
environmentally sustainable manner. In order to reduce these conditions, the attention has
been increasingly focused on exploring non-conventional food sources that provide
nutritional and pharmaceutical benefits, highlighting dark-green leafy vegetables, good
sources of minerals and vitamins Raju, et al., (2011). Plant photosynthetic is obtained via
three main recourses including current photosynthesis in the leaves, photosynthesis in green
parts of plants excluding the leaves and transferring from the storing parts. If the rate of
transfer of photosynthetic materials is slightly higher than utilized, photosynthetic would be
stored as starch in deferent part of plant, such as in the okra pods. In addition, okra has
attributes that could permit it to be used for other purposes. Okra leaves, buds, and flowers are
edible; it could provide oil, protein, vegetable curd, and a coffee additive or substitute Burchi et
al., (2011).Vegetables have long been part of diets in communities worldwide and contribute
substantially to food security Aja et al., (2010). Okra is scientifically known as Abelmoschus
esculentus; also Hibiscus esculentus”. Additionally known by diverse names around the
world as: Okra is called Wegee in Nuer and Amula in Anuak, Bamya in majang and oppo,
and in the eastern Mediterranean and Arab countries bamies, majock wutchok, te.al, (2020).

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is a vegetable native to the tropical and subtropical
regions of the world which belongs to Malvaceae family and the leaves and seeds are also
edible with less common use Adetuyi, & Gaset, (2011) Okra is originates widely and spread
all over tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus L.) is one of the oldest cultivated crops and presently grown in many countries and
is widely distributed from Africa to Asia, southern Europe and America. (Saifullah.et al. ,
2009). It is one of the most widely known and utilized species of the family Malvaceae. The
higher ranker production of Okra is India, it produces more than 6350.3 million tonnes and
the productivity is 12.0 million tonnes per hectare 70% which is total world production of
okra from 2013-14. It plays an important role in the human diet and is a good source of

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primary and secondary metabolites such as protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, enzymes, and
various minerals which are often lacking in the diet of developing country. Naveed, et al.,
(2009).

Okra fruits are a green capsule containing numerous white seeds when not matured Jesus,et
al., (2008) and the flowers and upright plants give okra an ornamental value. Okra has several
potential health beneficial effects on some of the important human diseases like
cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, digestive diseases and some cancers. Overall, Okra is
an important vegetable crop with a diverse array of nutritional quality and potential health
benefits. It usually occurs in the roots, bark, and seeds, but is also found in the flowers, leaves
and cell walls Shui G, Peng LL. , 2004).The edible part of okra is the immature pod, which is
harvested when tender. The leaves, buds and flowers are also edible. Dried okra can also be
stored and used later for soup or stew. In West Africa, okra is utilized mainly because of its
high mucilage content which is used in the thickening of soup Schippers, 2000; Uzo and
Ojiakor1980). Okra fruit also present significant antioxidant properties, mostly due to their
high content in vitamin C, carotenoids and flavonoids, as well as therapeutic properties
against diabetes, hyperlipidaemia, microbes, ulcers and neurodegenerative diseases Atawodi,
et al.,(2009). Dried seed from okra are the richest part of the okra plant, although oil from
okra seed is nutritious and significantly rich in protein, it is not only processed for oil or
protein as the production of seed is limited to seedling and regeneration purposes. However
large quantities of okra seeds are discarded as unfit for seedling purposes reported that a high
protein meal remains after oil extraction of okra seed similar to that of cottonseed meal. Okra
seed is made up of oligomeric catechins (2.5 mg/g of seeds) and flavonol derivatives (3.4
mg/g of seeds), while the mesocarp is mainly composed of hydroxycinnamic and quercetin
derivatives (0.2 and 0.3 mg/g of skins). The pods and seeds are rich in phenolic compounds
with important biological properties like quartering derivatives, catechin oligomers and
hydroxycinnamic derivatives Arapitsas, P., (2008). These properties, along with the high
content of carbohydrates, proteins, glycol-protein, and other dietary elements enhance the
importance of this foodstuff in human diet Arapitsas and Manach et al., (2005).

Okra leaves, is botanically classified as vegetables natives, grow on an annual flowering

plant and it is used as a part of vegetable among the possible alternatives food sources
Doreddula et al., (2014). Okra leave are commonly used both as cooked stew and for curative
purposes, showing good calories, a good source of edible fiber, contains important bioactive
compounds such as carotene, folic acid, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, oxalic acid

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and amino acids Roy et al., (2014). Besides, the nutritional properties mentioned above, some
authors have reported a variety of functional activities attributed to okra leaves are such as
anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal and antioxidant Khomsug et
al., (2010). The antioxidant activity of the fruit is due to its content of phenolic compounds,
which are effective antioxidants and can be used in the prevention of degenerative processes
such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes Doreddula et al., (2014). Moreover,
vegetal sources may contain substances harmful for human health, affecting the
bioavailability of nutrients. Among these substances, lectins, tannins and saponins stand out.

Okra leaves contains trace amount of vitamins A and K. According to the office dietary
supplements, vitamin A is essential for bone growth, reproduction, cell division eye health
and immune system function. Vitamin K is essential to the body’s ability to form blood clots
in response to injury. Vitamin K is also necessary for bone strength especially in older
populations. Okra leaves contains trace amount of minerals and phytonutrients such as Fe and
Mg. Fe is important for the formation of protein use to make blood cell and hemoglobin, the
component of the red blood cell that caries oxygen. Magnesium is important for many
enzymatic activities throughout the body and contributes to health of the immune system, the
central nervous system and bone Naveed et al., (2009) and Tiwari et al., (2016).

Seedpods can be consumed in many ways as fresh (raw), dried, cooked, frozen, fried and
pickled. Okra also has industrial applications and is used in confectionary Adetuyi, et al. ,
(2011).The edible fruit is widely grown from Africa to Asia, in Southern Europe, the
Mediterranean and South America. Total commercial production of okra in the world is
estimated at over 4.8 million tons with India and Nigeria as the leading producers followed
by Sudan Gulsen et al., (2007). Okra cultivation and production is widely practiced across all
agro-ecological zones of Nigeria because of its importance to food security, and can be found
in almost every market in the country (Christo and Onuh, 2005). Okra leaves and pod of okra
(Abelmoschusesculentus (L) Moench) are edible and consumed in many societies. There is no
complete record on production area and production of okra in Ethiopia, but it is a traditional
crop in south western, western and north western Ethiopia Mihretu,et al., (2014).

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1.2. Statement of problems

Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa with fast population growth rate
Mohammed et al., (2014) and had food deficit. The high intake of plant product is associated
with reduced risk of a number of chronic, diseases such as atherosclerosis and cancer Gosslau
and Chen (2004). The agro ecological conditions of Ethiopia are favorable for home garden
and commercial production of okra. Okra is an economically important vegetable crop grown
in different part of Ethiopia. Okra is a popular vegetable consumed predominantly as food
among the various ethnic groups in Gambella Region, Ethiopia. Its most crop next to maize
and sorghum production in Gambella region. The national production and consumption of
okra both leave and pods is negligible and the crop has been considered as a minor crop
which is traditionally cultivated in some parts of the country like Benishangul Gumuz,
Gambella and Humera.

Household food availability is the most important determinant for the community intake and
it influenced by local food production. Okra is like other vegetable crops in terms of the area
coverage at the regional level and land allocated. The protection that fruits and vegetables
provide against these maladies has been attributed to the presence of essential nutrients and
several antioxidants Garcia-Salas et al., (2010) and offer advantages over dietary supplements
because of low cost and wide availability. Increasing vegetables utilization and consumption
are away to reduce incidence of nutritional deficiencies. Furthermore, according to the
information from Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey EDHS, Rochville, (2016), the
severe acute malnutrition still increases in Gambella regional state’ due there is lack of
comprehensive information regarding nutritional knowledge, food diets. Programs and other
materials specifically related to nutritional value, antinutritional and function properties
contents of Okra leave and pods are not known.

Diet in most part of Ethiopia is characterized as monotonous and over-dependence on cereals

and grains as the primary source of energy Baye, (2014). Cereals and grains are the major
food crops in terms of the area coverage (77%) at the national level and land allocated for
vegetables is only 1% Taffesse et al. (2012). The protection that fruits and vegetables provide
against these maladies has been attributed to the presence of essential nutrients and several

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antioxidants Olana, (2001); Garcia-Salas et al., (2010)and offer advantages over dietary
supplements because of low cost and wide availability Dias, (2012).

In Gambella region, okra like many other vegetable crops, is eaten in a raw or processed
form, but cassava, maize and sorghum varieties had comprehensive nutritional profiles and
the quality of Okra leaves and pods is not study. Therefore, there’s limited information on
the nutritional value, antinutritional value, and function properties of Okra leave and pods
grown in Abol district, Gambella Region. Knowing the Okra leave and pods nutritional
diversity would have a direct impact on the improvement of Okra for quality and for food
product development to reduce the prevalence of food insecurity, especially for those low-
income communities. To the best of our knowledge, there is no single published report
currently available on nutrients of Ethiopian okra leave. However, to use plant leaves as an
alternative source of nutrients, the current study was present the nutritional, antinutritional
and functional properties of okra leave and pods.

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 1.3. Objective of the study
1.3.1. General objective
The present study was to determine nutritional, anti-nutritional and functional properties
of Okra (edible green leave and pods) grown in Abol district, Gambella Region, Ethiopia.

1.3.2. Specific objective

To determine proximate composition of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To evaluate mineral contents of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To determine anti-nutritional contents of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.
To determine functional properties of edible green leave and pods of okra landrace.

1.4. Research questions

The present research has identified the following questions to be addresses:

I. Is there any significant difference in nutrients and antinutrients composition of the edible
green leave of okra and pods okra landraces grown in Abol district, Gambella region,
Ethiopia?
II. Is there any significant difference in phytochemical profile of the leave and pods of okra
landrace?
III. Is there any significant difference in functional properties of the edible green leave and
pods of okra landrace?

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1.5. Significance of the study

Exploring of this research, it expecting to fill the gap concerning Gambella communities on
okra to determine the scientific information on proximate composition and functional
properties of edible green leave and pods. It would benefit researchers and consumers with
okra in Gambella, (Ethiopia) and the rest of regional state at large. Some okra composition
have been identified in Ghana, Sudan, South Africa, Egypt and others site in Ethiopia as well.

There is the need to evaluate and explore alternative uses for edible green leaves and pods of
Okra based on the quality attributes in Gambella. Because when the nutritional composition
of the edible green leaves and pod of Gambella okra are known, as usually, the society will
use it as a staple food, and this is where will help in combating food insecure, reducing
poverty and ensuring food diets in the region. By determining the compositional, it will
provide the possible information about functional properties that would contribute to human
health and it will be used as functional food ingredients. Therefore, the result of the study will
help the society to know the nutritional, anti-nutritional which will increase the absorbability
of nutrients. It will help to understand economically with a potential to increase the farm
income of small producers. This will introduce the popular of Okra because it’s easy to grow
and valuables with average details.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. Review of Literature
2.1. Production, Processing and Economic Importance of Okra: Overview

World production of okra both species as fresh fruit-vegetable is estimated at 6 million t/year.
Common okra makes up 95% of this amount. It is only in West and Central Africa
(accounting for about 10% of world production) that common okra and West African okra are
both used Nilesh Jain, et.al, (2012). Okra is commonly grown in the South due to its robust
nature. Okra holds up well to pests, scarce water, and even intense heat. Additionally, the
plant produces high yields throughout its season, making it a very rewarding experience for
even the least experienced gardeners Schalau J., et. al, (2002). The plant grows preferably in
well-drained humus rich fertile soil in full sun with pH ranging from 6 to 6.7, but it can
tolerate a wide range of soil types and pH from 5.5 to 8.0 N. Jain, R. Jain, V. Jain, & S. Jain,
(2012). The leaves are long-petiole, orbicular or orbicular-ovate around 10–20 cm long,
broad and rough, palatably lobed with 5–7 lobes. Flowers of this plant are axillary and
solitary, 4–8 cm in diameter having five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple
spot at the base of each petal. Fruit is elongated, 10 to 25 cm long, 1.5 to 3 cm in diameter,
tapering to a blunt point and containing rows of rounded, and kidney shaped seeds. The entire
plant is edible and is used to have several food and okra leaves are to some extent edible and
are used as salad when fresh or cooked for edible purposes as the greens of beets or
dandelions Maramag, et.al, (2013) and non-food applications.

Fruit production have increased significantly on the domestic and international markets due
to their attractive sensory properties and a growing recognition of its nutritional and
therapeutic value Samadderet, (1990). In many cases the raw fruit is not consumed directly
by humans, but first undergoes processing to separate the desired value product from other
constituents of the plant tissue. Like tropical crops such as jackfruit, pineapple, papaya and
mango are typically valued for their fruit. Processing of these crops typically involves
separating the valuable fruit part from by products such as skin and seeds Aguilar et al,
(2010). Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is a plant of the Malvacae family cultivated for its
immature pods. The crop is grown in many tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions
around the world. Okra originated in Ethiopia Olana,et al., (2001) and was distributed to
North Africa, Mediterranean, Arabia and India in the 12th century Nzikou et al., (2006).It is
mainly cultivated for its immature fruits which are eaten after cooking. The plant is also
cultivated because the leaves can be consumed and the stem used for fiber and rope.

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The top ten major okra producing countries in the world are India, Nigeria, Iraq, Cote
d’Ivoire, Pakistan, Egypt, Benin, Cameroon, Ghana and Saudi Arabia, Oyelade et al., (2003).
This vegetable is an important part of the diet of Africans and Indians as well as of other
countries with the worldwide production of okra estimated to be close to 7 million Mt
whereas that of Ghana alone is about 60,000 M. The vegetable is known by several names in
West and Central Africa and some of these names are Gombo (French), Miyan-gro (Hausa),
La (Djerma), Layre (Fulani), Gan (Bambara), Kandia (Manding), Nkruma (Akan) and Fetri
(Ewe) ( Negi and Mitra, 1999). In Ghana, Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Northern, Volta, Greater
Accra and Central regions are the largest producers of okra. Nowadays, it is widespread
throughout the world, while in Europe its cultivation and consumption is more common
around the Mediterranean basin, and especially Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, and Turkey where it
is a basic ingredient in many local and traditional dishes, (Çalişir, Özcan, Haciseferoğullari,
& Yildiz,, (2005). In Greece and Turkey, they are considered as minor vegetable crops,
however they are important vegetable species and the small immature fruit are very popular
in various summer dishes. Thus, the high production of okra the world over should be utilized
to some extent in the large-scale production of okra-based nutraceuticals, which could also be
used to alleviate the problem of malnutrition in underdeveloped countries. Worldwide
production of okra as fruit vegetable is estimated at six million tonnes per year. In the peak
season, it is produced in large quantities much more than what the local populace can
consume. Proper processing, preservation, marketing and utilisation of okra is necessary to
arrest the wastage being experienced during the peak season. Such efforts should involve the
development of appropriate technologies for processing and preserving okra to produce
products of high market value.

2.2. Processing of Okra Leave and pods

There is need for crop management strategy for removing edible okra both leave and pods. In
another trial Olasantan et.al., (1999), pruning treatments imposed on apically de-budded okra
plants for years to ascertain effects of removing a quarters of the primary branches on growth
and fresh leave. Manual and semi-modern processing methods are still being used for both
fresh and dried okra. The tools used for processing fresh okra are knife, grater, and mortar
and pestle/ grinding stone respectively. Fruit and vegetable processing has increased
considerably during the last 25 years (Akingbala, et.al., (2003). This has reflected the
increase in demand for pre-processed and packaged food, particularly ready meals. During

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the period, many modern processes were developed and implemented but disposal of waste
was not the major issue it is today. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Lam.) is an economically
important, tall growing vegetable crop grown in tropical parts of the world. In India, it ranks
number one in its consumption but its original home is Sudan and Ethiopia. It is cultivated
throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its green edible fibrous
fruit and pods containing round, white seeds as well as for its ornamental value. It is an oligo
purpose crop, but it is usually consumed in a variety of ways. However, many tannin
molecules have been reported to reduce the mutagenicity of a number of compounds and it all
depends on the concentration at which it is used or consumed. To avoid these problems, it is
recommended that during the preparation of extracts from these by-products, acidic and/or
alkaline hydrolysis are recommended in order to inactivate these compounds Rufino et al,
(2010).

2.3. Economic Importance of Okra

Okra has nutritional as well as medicinal value. The green tender leave and pod contains
oxalic acid. Calcium content is very high as compared to other vegetables, which is about 66
mg per 100g. The okra pod is excellent source of mineral which is necessary for the resistant
against throat disease like Goitre. It is good for the people suffering from heart weakness
(Yawalkar, 1969). Its ripe pods are roasted, ground and used as a substitute for coffee in
some countries. Mature pods and stems containing crude fibre are used in the paper industry.
Recently an attention has been given to the use of okra seeds as a source of proteins. Okra is
an annual crop, which requires warm conditions for growth and is available in almost every
market all over Africa, example in Gambella Region, (Ethiopia) Hazra, P. and Basu., (2000).
It is grown purposely for its leave and pods which are frequently eaten green as vegetable.
Okra mucilage is suitable for medicinal and industrial applications. In the medical field, the
mucilage is used as a plasma replacement or blood volume expander. Industrially, okra
mucilage is usually used to glace certain papers and is also useful in confectionery among
other uses Farinde, et.al., . (2007). Worldwide production of okra as fruit vegetable was
estimated at 6,000,000 tons per year. In West Africa, it was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000
tons per year Burkill, et.al., (1999) observed a great diversification of okra with the most
important production regions localized in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Nigeria. The West and
Central Africa region accounts for more than 75% of okra produced in Africa, but the average
productivity in the region is very low (2.5 t/ha) compared to East Africa (6.2 t/ha) and North
Africa (8.8 t/ha) FAOSTAT, (2006). Nigeria is the largest producer (1,039,000 t) followed by

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Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana and others (FAOSTAT, 2008).The three most important vegetables
grown by 28% of the rural poor in Ghana include pepper tomato and okra Diao, (2010).
According to Oppong-Sekyere et al. (2011), fresh okra is a vegetable that can be found in
almost all markets in Ghana, during the rainy season and in a dehydrated form during the dry
season, particularly in Northern Ghana due to its strong commercial value for poor women
farmers and its importance as food in the diets of the inhabitants of the cities and villages.
Several in natural foods are consumed daily in dishes in their raw state or included in their
cooked state in dishes and country preparations; most people are unaware of their potential
health benefits Costa, et al.,(2019). However, industrialized functional foods have added
production value, which raises their final cost to consumers. This higher price is in part due to
the various health benefits they provide, in part to the production costs, and also in part to the
marketing carried out on them by companies to win over consumers, seeking to give greater
emphasis out on them by companies to win over consumers, seeking to give greater
emphasis.

2.3.1. Economic important of okra leave

Okra leave were a wide variety eaten in notably East Africa, West Africa and Southeast Asia,
Academies of Sciences: Martine, (2005) tender okra leaves are often part of the daily diet.
They are most frequently cooked like spinach or added to soups and stews. Some leave an
objectionable feature reduced by cooking; others are hairless. In West Africa the tender
shoots, flower buds, and calyces are traditionally thrown into the leave as well. Okra leaves
are frequently dried in the sun, crushed, or ground to a powder, and stored for future use. In
taste, they are somewhat acidic. By carefully picking lower parts of the plant it is possible to
get a good crop of leaves without reducing the number of seedpods further up the stem
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2006).

2.3.2. Economic important of okra pods

Mature pods are the plant edible portion mainly employed as an alternative sources of
vegetable food, they can be stir-fried and grilled. Some are blanched and processed as a
canned product. Whether boiled, added to soups, or sliced and fried, the pods have a unique
flavor and texture. They may be used alone or mixed with other vegetables. Mucilage
released when okra slices are fried is known to be a good thickening agent for gravy. In West
Africa, young pods are thinly sliced to prepare okra soup, which has been called “a perfect
partner with fufu” (the region’s main staple, made of starchy roots). Inside the dried pods the

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gums stay intact and remain useful for flavoring and thickening foods. West Africans slice,
sun dry, and grind pods into a powder that is put away for the hungry time that hits each year
just before the new harvest. In Turkey the pods are strung out to dry for winter use. Lost
Crops of Africa: (2006).

2.3.3. Growth and development of okra leave and pods

Pods is formed in the okra plant, the greater amount of photosynthetic material moves to the
pod, depending on the species and environmental conditions Bhatt and Srinivasa (2006)
reported that the influence of leaf excision at different positions (odd and even nodes) in okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus L.cv. Arka Anamika) plant gives a higher sink - source ratios thus
increasing the photosynthetic rate and the leaf area of the remaining leaves.

Okra is perfect as a villager’s crop which can be grown on a wide range of soil types,
although rich, sandy loam soils are optimum Sharma & Prasad, et al, (2010). It is also easy to
grow, robust, and adapts to difficult conditions and can grow well where other food plants
prove unreliable National Research Council, (2006). Flowering begins about two months
after planting. Other countries14 flower then develops rapidly into a pod, which is typically
harvested just 3-6 days after the flower was formed. Pods harvested at this stage are tender,
flavourful, and about half was grown. Any that remain on the plant quickly turn fibrous and
tough National Research Council, 2006).

2.3.4. Harvesting and yields of okra leave and pods

Okra leave and pods can be harvested by hand manually and the seeds extracted when the
pods become mature, dry and brittle. The pods have a high respiration rate and should be
cooled quickly. Those in good condition can be kept satisfactorily for 7 to 10 days at 7 to
10°C. A relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent helps prevent shrivelling .About 10 to 15 ton
per hectare of the pod yields can be obtained under good management, but yields of over 40
tons per hectare can be realized under optimal conditions Kumar et al., (2013). An average
yield of okra varies from 6.5-7.5 t/ha of pods during the dry season and 11.5-12.5 t/ha during
the rainy season Ahmad et al., 2015). Seed yields approaching 500 kg per picking per hectare
(0.5 kg per plant) may be pro9duced during a harvest period of 30-40 days. Okra can be
stored for 3 to 5 days in the refrigerator. Okra that is too mature can be dried, cured, and used
in flower arrangements. Okra seed is easily saved for next season by leaving some of the last
pods on the plant until they get very large. Remove them and allow them to dry. The seeds

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will shell easily from the pods. Other okra plant material such as leaves and stems can be put
in a compost pile. To reduce postharvest losses, it necessary to harvested okra at a good stage
of maturity. Vegetable fruits are generally harvested at juvenile stage of maturity and are
mainly used in the preparation of sauces. These sauces are prepared either with fresh or dried
fruits, sliced or not and reduced to powder. Some strategy to reduce losses was developed in
the country; sun-drying is the first mean to preserve agricultural products because of its
availability. Drying is the most common method to keep okra from wasting. Dried okra is
more accessible and available in specialty markets and grocery stores. Drying increases the
storage time of okra and extends its sale. The okras can therefore be exported and kept
longer. The present work aims to study the variation of the biochemical parameters of dried
okra at different stages of maturity to determine the stage of maturity with the best nutrient
profile after drying.

Appendix: 1. 1. Local farm during sample gathering of Okra landrace, Gambella (Ethiopia).
Normally, the pods of okra were harvested every 5 day from the time the first pod is formed.
It takes 5 to 10 days from flowering to picking fruits ready for the markets (Adetuyi et al.
2008). Harvesting is usually done early in the morning, after which it enters the market
(Moekchantuk, et.al, 2004).

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Figure: 2. 1. Local farm of landrace Okra, Gambella (Ethiopia).

2.4. Traditional processing of Okra leave and pods

In traditional process, the vegetable crop with considerable area under cultivation in Africa
and Asia with huge socio-economic potential in West and Central Africa. It has been called
“a perfect villager’s vegetable” because of its robust nature, dietary fibers and distinct seed
protein balanced in both lysine and tryptophan amino acids (unlike the proteins of cereals and
pulses) it provides. Processing of these crops typically involves separating the valuable fruit
part from by-products such as skin and seeds Aguilar et al, (2010). The mass of by-products
obtained as a result of processing tropical exotic crops may approach or even exceed that of
the corresponding valuable product, affecting the economics of growing tropical exotic crops
Miljkoet al, (2002).Okra, being an inexpensive popular vegetable crop, is consumed by
several populations globally and is a local staple food in low-income countries. Nowadays,
due to its nutritional and health benefits, there is a growing demand for okra, and different

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okra products are available for purchase on online marketplaces. Recently, the agency Market
Research Future estimated that the global okra seed market could earn a revenue of USD
352.7 million and register a 9.8% compound annual growth rate during the period,
Muhammad, et al, (2018).

Globally, the market of okra seeds is geographically largely divided into Europe, Asia-
Pacific, and North America, followed by the remaining countries. In 2018, the largest
accreditation for the contribution of the okra market share (63.77%) was recorded by the
Asia-Pacific region. It is estimated that the okra-based nutraceutical market was reach a
worth of 222.9 million USD by the end of the year 2023. Small-scale manufacturers are a
major cause for the disintegration of the okra market in the Asia-Pacific region. Pakistan,
Malaysia, India, and the Philippines are regarded as the dominant producers of okra seeds
Akintoye, H.; Adebayo, et al, (2011). In recent times, India has been the prominent producer
of okra globally, followed by the remaining countries mentioned above. Since 2018, these
remaining countries have held a 33.0% share of the global okra market. This enhanced
expansion within the local market is attributed to increased cultivation, as well as the
development of genetically modified seeds. Furthermore, the acceptance of hybrid and
disorder-resistant seeds within the region has also facilitated the noticeable expansion of the
okra market. Africa is now predicted to globally dominate the market for the consumption of
okra seeds. It represents approximately 69% of the territorial market share due to increased
accessibility to more arable croplands within the country. On the other hand, during 2017,
North America accounted for only 2.2% of the okra market share, whereas Europe accounted
for only 1.0%. At the same time, Mexico is known to be a dominant producer of okra in
North America because of the high cultivation of okra within the country. The global okra
seed-mediated market (OSM) is divided categorically and regionally. Based on the category,
the OSM is further divided into conventional and organic seeds of okra plants. The
conventional is more prominent, with a market share of 90.5% since 2018. The market
dominance of could be attributed to the exploitation of different varieties, namely open-
pollinated and traditional. In contrast, organic OSM is estimated to show a high growth rate
of 10.7%, which could be attributed to a shift in consumer awareness resulting in an
increased preference for organic plant produce. The processing operations of okra are still
predominantly achieved through manual methods. Dadali, et al. , (2005) reported the
economic, health and nutritional benefits of okra. The traditional methods of processing okra
is laborious, time consuming and huge losses, the various processing operations are

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characterized with high degree of unhygienic conditions such as contamination with dust,
ash, soil, sand particles and insects infestation and is weather dependent (Dadali et al.,
(2005). According to Doymaz (2005) and Wankhade.et al, (2012) reported three drying
techniques such as open sun drying, solar drying and hot air drying.

The practice of harvesting the leaves of okra for consumption during its productive life is the
basis needs Oyewole CI,et.al, (2014). Okra leaves are consumed used as green vegetables for
cooking, the plant contains it leaves and stem, a mucilaginous material that has several food
and medicinal uses. The green stems of mature plants after the picking of fruit are generally
used for preparation of crude mucilage extract. The okra mucilage is a glycoprotein
comprising of about 10% protein and 80% polymeric carbohydrates. It has large water
binding properties due to hydroxyl group of sugar. The okra mucilage helps to stabilize blood
sugar by curbing the rate of which from the intestinal tract Kalu et.al, (2006). The fruits are
harvested when immature and eaten as a vegetable kiran, et.al, (2002). The consumption have
increased significantly on the domestic and international markets due to their attractive
sensory properties and a growing recognition of its nutritional and therapeutic value
Samadderet al, (1990). Hence it play vital role in human diet. For consumption, young
immature leave are important fresh fruit – vegetable that can be consumed in different forms.
They could be boiled, fried or cooked. In Nigeria, okra is usually boiled in water resulting in
slimy soups and sauces, which are relished. The fruits also serve as soup thickeners and the
leaves, buds and flowers are also edible Schippers,et.al, (2000). Okra seed could be dried.
The dried seed is a nutritious material that can be used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted
and ground to be used as coffee additive or substitute. Appendix: 1. 2.Edible green leave of
Okra. The harvesting of leave are done by cut the stem just above the cap with a knife.

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 Figur
e: 2. 2. Picture of author, Edible green leave of Okra Gambella, (Ethiopia).

2.5. Health benefits and nutritional values of Okra

Okra is abundant with several vitamins, minerals, and nutrients that handles the health
advantages the plant provides. Okra is an oligo purpose crop due to its various uses of the
fresh buds, flowers, pods, stems and seeds Habtamu et al., (2014). Okra is a very good source
of calcium and potassium. Polysaccharides in okra lowers cholesterol level in blood and may
prevent cancer by its ability to bind bile acids Kahlon et al., (2007). Okra is rich in foliate
which are helpful for the fetus while pregnant. Foliate is a vital nutrient that increases the
growth and development of the fetus’ brain. The high quantity of folic acid within okra
performs a huge role within the neural tube formation of the fetus through the fourth to the
12th week of pregnancy Zaharuddin et al., (2014).

Additionally, okra contains pectin that can help in reducing high blood cholesterol simply by
modifying the creation of bile within the intestines Ngoc et al., (2008). It is high in fiber,
which helps to stabilize blood sugar by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed from
the intestinal tract. Okra is also high in iodine which is considered useful for the control of
goiter. Okra is also used in folk medicine as antiulcerogenic, gastro protective, diuretic agents
in some countries Gurbuz, (2003). Regular consumption of okra can improve heart health and
the body’s cholesterol level. The polysaccharides present in immature okra pods possessed
considerable anti-adhesive properties (i.e. they help remove the adhesive between bacteria
and stomach tissue, preventing the cultures from spreading). The okra pods contains

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substantial amount of Vitamin A and also beta carotene that are both important nourishment
for sustaining an excellent eye-sight along with healthy skin Lengsfeld et al., (2004).

Okra can also be used to treat digestive issues. The polysaccharides that are present in
immature okra pods contain considerable ant adhesive properties (i.e. they help remove the
adhesive between bacteria and stomach tissue, preventing the cultures from spreading).
Okra’s polysaccharides were particularly effective at inhibiting the adhesion of Helicobacter
pylori, a bacterium that dwells in the stomach and can cause gastritis and gastric ulcers if left
unchecked. Therefore, eating more okra can keep our stomach clean and create an
environment that prevents destructive cultures from flourishing Messing et al., (2014). Okra
is used to support colon health.

It smoothly sails down our colon, absorbing all toxins and excess water in its path. Okra is
filled with dietary fiber that is required for colon health and digestive health all together. The
Okra fiber helps to cleanse the intestinal system, letting the colon to operate at higher amount
of effectiveness. In addition, the vitamin A plays a role in wholesome mucous membranes,
which assists the digestive system to function adequately Georgiadisa et al., (2011).

Vital role in human diet. For consumption, young immature fruits are important fresh fruit –
vegetable that can be consumed in different forms. They could be boiled, fried or cooked. In
Nigeria, okra is usually boiled in water resulting in slimy soups and sauces, which are
relished. The fruits also serve as soup thickeners Schippers,et al., (2000). The leaves buds
and flowers are also edible. Okra seed could be dried. The dried seed is a nutritious material
that can be used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted and ground to be used as coffee
additive or substitute.

2.5.1. Nutritional value of okra leaves

Okra is a nutritious food with many health benefits. Okra leaves contains trace amount of
vitamins A and K. According to the office dietary supplements, vitamin A is essential for
bone growth, reproduction, cell division eye health and immune system function. Vitamin K
is essential to the body’s ability to form blood clots in response to injury. Vitamin K is also
necessary for bone strength especially in older populations. Okra leaves contains trace
amount of minerals and phytonutrients such as Fe and Mg. Fe is important for the formation
of protein use to make blood cell and haemoglobin, the component of the red blood cell that
caries oxygen. Magnesium is important for many enzymatic activities throughout the body

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and contributes to health of the immune system, the central nervous system and bone Naveed
et al., 2009; Tiwari et al., (2016).

2.5.1.1. Proximate composition of Okra leave

Okra leaves contain high % of carbohydrate (53.48 ± 0.020). The amount of carbohydrate
from the leaves could be consumed as a source of carbohydrate food especially in tropic
where carbohydrate contributes up to 80 % daily caloric need Ezekiel Tagwi Williams and
Nachana’a Timothy, (2020). Carbohydrate are utilize as major sources of biological energy
(Habtamu et al., 2014). Crude protein obtained from the leaves is 13.56± 0.001 %, which is
an appreciable value. Consumption of protein helps in the building of essential and non-
essential amino acid for protein synthesis. The average crude fibre (9.42 ± 0.005 %) obtained
from the leave revealed that it can be used as a source of dietary fibrer Caluete et al.,(2015).
The moisture content (9.77 ± 0.00 %) obtained from the leaves shows appreciable amount.
The crude fat obtained was 6.25 ± 0.00 % which are universally stored forms of energy in
living organism. The proximate composition obtained is higher than that obtained by
Emmanuel et. al, (2014) except for the moisture content which was reported to be 82.60 %.
The differences observed in the proximate composition may be due to the differences in the
locality of their growth climatic conditions. Seedpods of okra contains proteins,
carbohydrates and vitamin C Dilruba et al. (2009), and plays a vital role in human diet
Kahlon et al. (2007). Consumption of young immature okra pods is important as fresh fruits,
and it can be consumed in different forms Ndunguru & Rajabu (2004). Fruits can be boiled,
fried or cooked Akintoye etal. (2011). The composition of okra pods per 100 g edible portion
(81% of the product as purchased, ends trimmed) is: water 88.6 g, energy 144.00 Kj (36
kcal), protein 2.10 g, carbohydrate 8.20 g, fat 0.20 g, fibre 1.70 g, Ca 84.00 mg, P 90.00
mg,Fe 1.20 mg, β-carotene 185.00 μg, riboflavin 0.08 mg, thiamin 0.04 mg, niacin 0.60 mg,
ascorbic acid 47.00mg/g.

2.5.1.2. Mineral contents of okra leave

Okra leave is a nutritious food with many health benefits. It's rich in mineral composition of
revealed the presence of Na (41.23 ± 0.010mg /100 g), K (1142.56± 0.015 mg /100 g), Ca
(121.43 ± 0.005mg / 100 g), Mg (94.68 ± 0.00 mg /100 g), P (65.26 ± 0.014 mg /100 g), Zn
(11.32 ± 0.015 mg /100 g),Fe (9.47 ± 0.015 mg /100 g) and Mn (25.11 ± 0.010 mg /100 g).
These shows that the leaves could be a good source of minerals for body building and boaster
of immune system Ojo et al., (2014). Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in various

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metabolic reactions. The presence of Ca shows why the leaves are important in blood cloting
Uzoekwe and Mohammed (2015). The concentration of Fe is also of significance in the leave,
it plays a vital role in many intercellular reactions. The leaves contain a high amount of K.
Potassium is the principal intercellular cation which function as co factor in several enzmes
system involve in the transmission of nerve impulse and in the regulation of heart beat
Caluete et al., 2015; Labaran et al., (2020b).

2.5.1.3. Anti-nutrients of okra leave

Okra leave revealed the presence of saponin (3.04 ± 0.015 %) which was the highest %
obtained from the leaves and flavonoids (1.50 ± 0.00 %), it was reported by Caluete et al.
(2015) that saponin and flavonoids present in plant extract have varied uses as inflammatory.
The leaves were also find to contain appreciable amount of tannin (2.72 ± 0.005 %), Alkaloid
(0.22 ± 0.005%), oxalate (2.31 ± 0.010 %) and phtate (0.34 ± 0.010 %). These
phytochemicals have shown effectiveness in treatment of cardiac problems, antimicrobial,
anti-inflammatory, antidiarrhea, anti-allergic and anti-cancer effect. The leaves of okra
therefore, have potential sources of drugs (Emmanuel et al., 2014).

2.5.2. Nutritional value of Okra pods

Okra pods are important as fresh fruits, and they can be consumed as boiled, fried or cooked
Akintoye et al. (2011).The pods are consumed as boiled vegetables; dried and used as soup
thickeners or in stews Yadev & Dhankhar, (2004). The pods of okra have a unique flavor and
mucilaginous texture. In Turkey, the young pods are strung together and allowed to dry for
use in winter. In Africa the fruit is sliced, sun11 dried, ground to a powder and stored until
needed. Sharma & Prasad, et, al, (2010) reported that the young tender pods of okra are used
by different people in different ways as boiled vegetables, eaten fresh, canned, frozen or dried
and used as a soup thickener or cooked in curries, stews, and soups. When ripe, the black or
white-eyed seeds are sometimes roasted and used as a substitute for coffee National Research
Council, (2006). The okra pods are reported to have viscous fibre and lower cholesterol
content Kumar et al., (2010). In Iran, Egypt, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Greece, Turkey
and other parts of the eastern Mediterranean, okra is widely used in a thick stew made with
vegetables and meat Singha et al., (2014).

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Figure: 2. 3. Edible green pods of Okra.

2.5.2.1. Proximate composition of okra pod

Proximate composition gives an information on the basic chemical composition of food

which involves moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein, crude fibre, and carbohydrate Aja et
al., (2015). Okra is highly perishable because of its high moisture content and respiratory
activities, thus it is necessary to dry them for prolonged use Falade & Omojola, (2010). The
high moisture content (89 g/100g) in okra fruits is also reported by Goplana et al. (2007). The
maximum water content varies between individual vegetables because of structural
differences and cultivation condition that influence structural differentiation and may also
have a marked effect on water levels of vegetables Nzikou et al.(2006) reported that okra
seed moisture content ranged from 9.6 to 11.7 g/100g.

Moisture content of flour is crucial for some reasons; the higher the moisture content, the
lower the amount of dry solids in the flour and also flours with higher moisture content
higher than 14% are prone to microbial spoilage. A study found at that flour having low
moisture content had the highest resistance against fungal growth and pest infestation when
stored Nasir et al., (2003).

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Proteins may be found in a variety of foods. The proteins from plant sources are considered
to be of low biological value because an individual plant source does not contain all of the
essential amino acids. Therefore, combinations of plant sources must be used to provide these
nutrients (Nelson & Cox, 2005). Okra pods have been reported to have crude protein contents
(g/100g) of13.61 to 16.27 Adetuyi et al., (2011), 18 to 27 Sharma & Prasad,et al (2010).
Dietary fats are used to increase the palatability of food by absorbing and retaining flavors
Antia et al. (2006). Excess consumption of fat has been implicated in certain cardiovascular
disorders such as atherosclerosis, cancer, and aging whereas a diet providing 1-2% of its
energy as fat is said to be sufficient to human beings Blessing and Cert et al. (2000) reported
that agronomic and climatic conditions, fruit or seed quality, oil extraction system and
refining procedures can cause variation in the content and composition of the constituents of
vegetable oil. The oil content of some okra varieties of the seed can be quite high, about 40%
Deeplata & Rao, (2013). Okra oil has a pleasant taste and odor and is high in unsaturated fats
such as oleic acid and linoleic acid. Okra pods have been reported to have crude fat contents
of 0.18 g/100g Nwachukwu et al., (2014) and 9.22 to 10.57 g/100g Adetuyi et al. (2011).
Okra seeds have also been reported to have crude fat content of 23.44 g/100g Ndangui et al.,
(2010) and 16.00 g/100g. The ash content is a measure of the nutritionally important mineral
contents present in the food material Nesamvuniet al., (2001).Ash is the inorganic residue
remaining after the water and organic matter has been removed by heating in the presence of
oxidizing agents, which provides a measure of the total amount of minerals within a food
Kweninet al., (2003).Okra pods have been reported to have crude ash content ranging from
7.19 - 9.63 g/100g Adetuyi et al., (2011) reported that okra seeds have crude ash content of
9.02 g/100g.

Okra is considered as a rich source of dietary fibre. Nearly half of the okra pod is soluble
fibre in the form of gums and pectin, which helps in lowering serum cholesterol Jenkins et
al., (2005) and thus reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. The other half is insoluble
fibre, which helps to keep the intestinal tract healthy and prevents the symptoms of irritable
bowel syndrome. The high value of fibre reported for okra fruit can improve its digestibility
and absorption processes in a large intestine, help to stimulate peristalsis and thereby
preventing constipation Olaofeet al., (2008).The fibre in okra helps to stabilize blood sugar
by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed from the intestinal tract Sabitha et al.,
(2011) reported that okra pods had crude fibre contents ranged from 10.15 to 11.63 g/100g.
Okra seeds have been reported to have crude fibre contents of 9.7 g/100g Ndangui et al.,

22 | P a g e
2010) and 13.00 to 17.00 g/100g Hassen et al., (2015). Carbohydrate constitutes a major class
of naturally occurring organic compounds which are essential for the maintenance of life in
plant and animals and also provide raw materials for many industries. Plants are a good
source of carbohydrate when consumed because they meet the recommended dietary
allowance values Mlitan et al., (2014). Okra is the most important vegetable crop and a
source of calorie (4550 kcal/kg) for human consumption. It ranks first before other vegetable
crops Babatunde etal., (2007). Carbohydrates are mainly present in the form of mucilage
Ogungbenle & Omosola, (2015) confirmed that the edible portion of okra fruit is rich in
carbohydrate.

2.5.2.2. Minerals contents of okra pods

All form of living matter requires many mineral for their life processes. Minerals are
considered to be essential in human nutrition. The human body requires more than 22
mineral elements that can be supplied by an appropriate diet in varying amounts for proper
growth, health maintenance, and general well-being World Health Organization, (1999).
Plant-derived foods have the potential to serve as dietary sources of all human-essential
minerals, and with a well- balanced diet. These minerals are vital for the overall mental and
physical well-being and are important constituents of bones, teeth, tissues, muscles, blood
and nerve cells. They also help in the maintenance of acid-base balance, the response of
nerves to physiological stimulation and blood clotting Hanif et al., (2006). Plant foods can
make a significant contribution to daily mineral needs at all stages of the life cycle Valvi &
Rathod, (2011).

The nutritional value of the fruits was high enough to contribute to the nutrient requirements
of humans, with their iron (0.34–1.46 mg/100 g) by Matthew, A. A., (2019). Iron (Fe) is
involved in many vital functions in the human body. In humans, iron is an essential
component of hundreds of proteins and enzymes (Wood & Ronnenberg, 2006). Haemoglobin
and myoglobin are heme-containing proteins that are involved in the transport and storage of
oxygen Walker et al., (2007). Iron nutrition is particularly important during the
complimentary period when the infant is growing rapidly and has a high demand for iron
Lorenz et al., (2007). One mole of phytic acid binds 6 mol ferric irons so that even relatively
small quantities of residual phytate are still strongly inhibitory.

2.5.2.3. Anti-nutritionts in okra pod

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Ant nutrients are chemicals which have been evolved by plants for their own defence, among
other biological functions and reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients especially
proteins, vitamins, and minerals, thus preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present
in a food and decreasing the nutritive value. Some of the antinutrients have been shown to be
evidently advantageous to human and animal health if consumed in appropriate amounts
Ugwu & Oranye, (2006).

Phytate is ubiquitous among plant seeds and grains, comprising 0.5 to 5 percent (w/w)
(Loewus, 2002).The major concern about the presence of phytate in the diet is its negative
effect on the mineral uptake Greiner & Konietzny, (2006). Also, phytate is reported to
interact with carbohydrates (starch) and reduce their bioavailability and digestion. At the
same time, phytate may have beneficial roles at a low level as an antioxidant, and
anticarcinogen Jenab & Thompson, (2002).Depending on the amount of plant-derived foods
in the diet, and the grade of food processing, the daily intake of phytate can be as high as
4500 mg. On average, daily intake of phytate was estimated to be 2000- 2600 mg for
vegetarian diets as well as diets of inhabitants of rural areas in developing countries, and 150-
1400 mg for mixed diets (Golden, 2009).The phytate content of okra reported by Adetuyi et
al. 2011 was 2.64-3.90 mg/100g.

Oxalate is a common and widespread component of most plant families Liebman,et al.
(2002). While its levels in many plants are generally low, it is found in high concentrations in
the leaves, and plants consumed daily that are of concern. When oxalic acid is consumed, it
irritates the lining of the gut and can prove fatal in large doses. Currently, patients are advised
to limit their intake of foods with a total intake of oxalate not exceeding 50- 60 mg per day.
Okra pods have been reported to have oxalate content of 0.32-0.506 mg/100g

Tannins are found almost in all plants all over the world Anonymous,et al (1973). The
antinutritional factors of tannins depend upon their chemical structures and dosage and the
total acceptable tannin daily intake for a man is 560 mg. For example, tannins are found in
tea and coffee and consuming too much of these beverages without milk may lead to calcium
and iron deficiency in the body and often lead to osteoporosis and anemia (Stéphane, et al.
2004).

2.6. Functional Properties of Okra

Functional property of food ingredients can be defined as any property, aside its nutritional
attributes, and that influences the ingredient's usefulness in food. Functional properties play a

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key role in the way foods or food ingredients behaves during their preparation, processing, or
storage Fennema, (1985).

2.6.1. Bulk density

Bulk density can be defined as the weight of many particles of a material or product divided
by the total volume they occupy; it is a reflection of the load a sample would carry if allowed
to sit directly on top of one another. Ikpeme et al. (2010) looked at the difference between
loose bulk density and packed bulk density, the minute differences according to them shows
that the incorporation of taro did not cause a significant decrease in bulk densities of flour
blends.

High bulk density is a good physical attribute when determining the mixing quality of a
particular product. (Edema et al. 2005) discovered that their values for bulk density were
generally lower (between 0.38 g/ml for commercially sold soybean flour and 0.55 g/ml for
Maize soya blend) than those values obtained by Amarjeet et al.,(1993) for durum wheat
blends (0.80 to 0.82). Butt and Batool, (2010) also reported that the defatting process resulted
in very porous texture of the defatted product that can be attributed to low bulk density. This
would be an advantage in the formulation of complementary foods Akpata and Akubor,
(1999).

2.6.2. Water and oil absorption capacity

Soaking up of water is an important functional quality in foods such as sausages, custards and
dough’s. Oil absorption capacity is important in structure interaction in food especially in
flavour retention, improvement of palatability and the extension of shelf life particularly in
bakery or meat products Adebowal and Lawal, (2004). Proteins are solely responsible for the
bulk of the water uptake and to a minor extent the starch and cellulose at room temperature.
Importance of oil absorption is that oil acts as a flavour retainer and helps to increase the
mouth feel of food. Protein is the main chemical component that affects the oil absorption
capacity because it is composed of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Non polar amino
acid side 11 chain can form hydrophobic interactions with hydrocarbon chains of lipid
Jitngarmkusol et al., (2008). According to Ikpeme et al. (2010) their result shows that indeed
addition of taro flour affected the water absorption.

2.7. Okra Seeds

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The okra fruit contains numerous oval, smooth, striated and dark green to dark brown seeds.
Okra seeds are tiny in size and the fibrous seed coat contains high amount of crude fiber.
They are power house of nutrients. Okra seeds can be dried, and the dried seeds are very
nutritious and can be used to prepare vegetable curds, or roasted and ground to be used as
coffee additive or substitute Agbo,et. al., (2008)

Figure:2. 4. Okra seeds (Gambella Agricultural Research Institute, 2020).

Okra plants is the dried seed Adelakun et.al., (2009) as it is very rich in protein, oil and
antioxidant. Okra seeds are rich in unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acids. Fiber of okra
seeds is an important nutrient for intestine microorganisms. Seed mucilage of okra may be
responsible for getting rid toxic substances and bad cholesterol which loads the liver. The
seeds are dicotyledonous and they vary in shape, which is either round, kidney or spherical
with epigeal germination. The monoic flowers of okra are self-compatible Hamon et al.,
(1990). The flower usually remains open for a day. It is mostly self-fertilized; however,
insects such as honeybees and bumble bees can cross pollinate. Okra is self-compatible, and
passive self-pollination can take place in its hermaphrodite flowers Al-Ghzawi et al., (2003).

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 CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Description of sampling site and collection area.

Samples of Okra both the matured leaves and pod of okra was handpicked in indigenous okra
landrace grown in Abol district. The study was carried out at Abol districts of the Gambella
People's Regional State (GPNRS). Abol district is one of the districts in Gambella Zuria
having 10 km away from capital, it is covered by forest. The total human population of the
district is 10,590 with 2595 households. The district is found at an elevation bordered on the
south by Abobo district and on the west by Itang districts and on the north and east by
Oromia Regional State. While, Gambella People's National Regional State (GPNRS) is
located at south west Ethiopia between the Geographical coordinates 6028'38" to 8034' North
Latitude and 330 to 35011‟11" East Longitude. The region covers an area of about 29,782.82
km2, which is about 3% of the nation. The Region is bounded to the North, North East and
East by Oromia Regional State; to the South and South east by the Southern Nations and
Nationalities People's Regional State; whereas, to the Southwest, West and Northwest by the
Republic of South Sudan. The regional capital city is Gambella which is about 767km from
Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. The region is divided into 3 Ethnic zones (i.e. Nuer
Zone, Anywuak Zone and mejenger zone) and 13 administrative districts that include one
special district with 5 indigenous ethnic groups and many highlanders. The majority of ethnic
groups residing in the town are Nuer and Anuak. According to the CSA, (2007), Census
conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, the Gambella Town has a total
population of 53,022, of whom 52.6% are men. The town has a total of 11,260 households
with an average of 3.8 persons per a household. The livelihood of the population in the town
is mainly dependent on government worker and animal husbandry. Animal husbandry is one
of the main economic activities of the western Woreda in the region and also subsistence
agricultural farming, traditional fishing, hunting, gathering of wild animals and plants are
used as source of living in the rural parts of the region GRDPPA, (2006). Recession
agriculture is common, particularly maize and sorghum production along the Baro, Gilo and

27 | P a g e
Akobo rivers. Along the Ethio-Sudanese border, where it is too dry for rain-fed agriculture,
livestock constitutes are primary source of income (Sewonet,et.al., (2003). Appendix: 3 1.
Map of study site (Gambella)

Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella). Source: Gambella regional economic bureau
(2021)

Abol

28 | P a g e
Figure: 3. 1. Map of Ethiopia and study site (Gambella).
3.2. Sample collection and Reagents

Edible leave of Okra and pods were collected from Gambella agricultural regional research
site. Three samples of okra, the leaves and pod was handpicked randomly okra landrace in
Abol, a village located at about 10 km north of Gambella agricultural Regional research site
from November to December 2021. All agricultural practices including weed control and
watering were carried out under controlled environmental conditions, and they were fresh
without infection or wounded. Finally, all raw sample were placed in polyethylene bag and
transported directly to the Bless Agri-laboratory service PLC and Ethiopia public health
institute (EPHI) for further process. From samples, 5 kg of leaves and pod of okra were
collected.
Chemical and reagent
All chemicals that used for analysis were analytical grade reagents.

Figure: 3. 2. Fresh samples of leave and pods

Landrace Landrace okra Landrace Woreda Local name in Nuer, Oppo, Local name in
No. code region Majang Anuak,Kome

1 Leave- GLO48 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee,Bamia,Bamia Amula,

Bamia
2 Pod- GLO49 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee,Bamia,Bamia Amula,
Bamia
3 Pod- GLO50 Gambella Abol Weka/Wegee, Bamia,Bamia Amula,

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 Bamia

Table: 3 1. Samples of landraces Okra and collected area.

3.3. Preparation of Okra flour
The leaves of matured okra and pod were directly transported to Bless Agri laboratory PLC.
Once the sample arrived in the laboratory, each of the leave and pods was received. Then
sample were received as a fresh, leave and pods and the leaves were then washed with
distilled water. The leave of okra were dried it and milled separately with pods into a fine
powder using an electric grinder to reduce particle size done by mechanical grinder (RRH-
500A, Germany) for 10 minutes. Whereas, the pods was separated by taken out the seed from
the pod. Samples were properly rinsed with tap water and then washed again with distilled
water to remove any attached soil particles. They were then cut into smaller portions, the
pods were keep isolated and placed in large clean dish and air-dried at room temperature in
enclosed chamber for about 24h. They were then pulverized to fine powder used a grinder
called high-speed multifunction comminutor grinder (RRH-500A, Germany) for 10 minutes.
Appendix: 3 2. Photo of powder sample. The powdered leave and pod samples were then
labelled in polythene bags and placed in a desiccator for further analysis. The dry samples
were analyzed for proximate (moisture, crude protein, ash, fiber, fat and carbohydrate), and
minerals content (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Na, K, Mg, Ca); anti-nutrients (Tannin, Oxalate, phytate)
and functional properties (water absorption, bulk density).

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Figure: 3. 3. Selected nutrients, antinutrients and function properties.

Figure: 3. 4. Sliced samples of raw materials.

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 Over all frame work of the samples preparation is summarized
Fresh product (leave and pods) of landrace okra

Leave Received as Pods

a fresh

Sorting Sorting
Removing
unwanted

Washing Washing
With distilled water

Cutting Cutting
Used the Knife The seed were removed,
to reduced size and cut it by knife

Washing Washing
Wash it again with distilled water

Drying Used universal oven drying, (Germany) Drying

at 95°C for 6h.

Milled Milled
High-speed multifunction comminutor
grinder (RRH-500A, Germany) 10m.

Okra powder

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 Figure: 3. 5. Flowchart for preparation of okra flour (leave and pods).

Figure: 3. 6. Powder sample of Okra (leave and Pods).

3.4. Proximate composition

3.4.1. Moisture Content

Moisture content of Okra leave and pod sample was determined according to AOAC: 2000:
Official method (925.10) used oven drying method until a constant weight was obtained.
Briefly, a clean empty crucible was weighed and previous prepared samples were mixed
thoroughly. About two grams (2 g) of dried okra flour were accurately weighed into crucible.
The crucible with the samples were then placed in a controlled oven (memmert
programmable universal oven, Germany) at 95°C till a constant weight of flour obtained for
6h. The crucible were then removed from oven and cooled to room temperature in a
desiccator for 30 minutes and then weighed. The amount of water lost from the sample was
considered to be directly proportional to the loss of weight due to drying of the sample. The
moisture content of the samples was calculated by the difference in weights and expressed as
a percentage.

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 Where:
W 1−W 2 W 1 = Weight of fresh sample
%Moistu re .content (g/100g )= x 100
W1 W 2 = Weight of dry sample

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3.4.2. Crude Protein

The protein content of Okra leaves and pod samples was determined according to AOAC:
2000: Official method (976.05)’used the Kjeldahl method in which digestion, distillation and
titration was involved. Briefly, the process were beginner by turned on the digester. About
1.5g of dried samples were weighed and transferred carefully to avoid loss into white
digestion tube. Then 6ml (concentration of sulphuric acid and concentration of or
thophosphuric acid) was added by pipette and mixed immediately with acid. After that
process, 3.5 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide was added step by step. As soon as the violet
reaction has ceased, the tubes were shaken few minutes and put it back into the rack. Then 3g
of the catalyst mixture both copper sulphate and potassium sulfate were added and allowed it
to stand for about 10 min before digestion. The mixture were exposed in the digester stove to
place the tube in the digester at 370 oC exhaust manifold analyzer unit (FOSS, Sweden) were
located on the top to continue the digestion until a clear solution was obtained for about 2hrs.
The tubes in the rack was transferred into the fume hood for cooling, then 30 ml of distilled
water were added to dissolve the precipitate and to avoid further precipitation of sulfate in the
solution. Blank sample were analysed along with rest of sample.
After accomplished the digested and diluted solution was transferred into the sample
compartment of the distiller, 250 ml of conical flask containing 50 ml of the boric acid
indicator solution were placed under the condenser of the distiller, nitrogen analyzer
distillation device with its tips immersed into the solution. The instrument that used for
distillation were continued until a total volume of 150 ml is collected. The tip was rinsed with
a 3 ml of distilled water before the receiver was removed.
Finally, the distillate solution was titrated with 0.1 N hydrochloric acid to a reddish color and
the amount of hydrochloric acid was recorded. The amount of protein was calculated by
using the following formula:

Total nitrogen (g/100g) = (V-Vb) x N x 14/W

%Crude protein (g/100g) = total nitrogen (g/100g) x 6.25

Where: V =is volume (ml) of hydrochloric acid solution required for the test sample

Vb= is the volume (ml) of hydrochloric acid solution required for the blank test;

N=is the normality of hydrochloric acid;

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 14=is equivalent weight of nitrogen;

6.25=is conversion factor from total nitrogen to crude protein;

W=is weight of a sample.

3.4.3. Crude Fat

The crude fat content of the samples was determined according to AOAC official method
(2003.05) by used soxhlet extraction. Briefly, an empty cleaned extraction flasks that has
been dried in Oven Drying at 92oC for few hour and cooled in desiccators for 30 minutes
were weighed. The bottom of the extraction thimble were covered with about 2 cm layer of
fat free cotton. In analysis, two grams (2 g) of dried sample of okra was weighed into each
paper thimbles. Then the thimbles was sealed and placed in soxhlet extractors (2055 Soxtec
extraction unit, Sweden). Two hundred millilitres (200ml) of petroleum ether through
condenser to the weighed solvent beaker was added into each of the previously and the
condenser were placed to the ring that is hand tightened as much as possible. Turn on the
water to the condenser. Adjust the hot plate until they are contact with beaker or flask and
turn on the heater, the extraction was carried out for 4h. After this the petroleum ether was
recovered from the soxhlet with only small amounts left in the flasks. The flasks were then
removed and placed into an oven and closed carefully for an hour for the ether to completely
evaporate. The flasks were cooled in desiccator to room temperature for 30minutes, weighed
immediately after it is taken out from desiccator and the fat content was then calculated.
W a- W b
Crude fat (g/100g)= X 100
W
Where:
Wa= weight of extraction flask after extraction;
Wb= weight of extraction flask before extraction;
W= weight of sample.
3.4.4. Crude fiber

Crude fiber contents was determined according to AOAC official method 2000 (6865) by
using the steps of digestion, filtration, washing, drying and combustion were involved.
Briefly, clean empty crucible and about two 2g of dried okra flour sample was accurately
weighed and transferred into beaker containing 150 mL of H2SO4 (0.15 N) was added, and
boiled gently exactly for 30± 1 minutes the and the residues were washed 5 time, each time
with 10ml hot water and transferred to crucible. During boiling, the level of the sample

36 | P a g e
solution was kept constant with hot distilled water. After 30 minute boiling, 50ml of 0.23%
KOH was added and boiled gently for a further 30± 1 minute, with occasional stirring.

The bottom of a sintered glass crucible was covered with 10 mm sand layer and wetted with a
little distilled water. The solution was poured from beaker into sintered glass crucible and
then the vacuum pump was turned on. The wall of the beaker was rinsed with hot distilled
water several times; washings were transferred to crucible, and filtered.

The residue in the crucible was washed with hot distilled water and filtered (repeated twice).
The residue was washed with 1% H2SO4 and filtered, and then washed with hot distilled
Water and filtered; and again washed with 1% NaOH and filtered. The residue was washed
with hot distilled water and filtered; and again washed with 1% H 2SO4 and filtered. Finally
the residue was washed with water- free acetone.

The crucible with its content was dried for 2 hours in an electric drying oven at 130 ºC and
cooled for 30 min in the desiccators with granular silica gel, and then Weighed. The crucible
was transferred to a muffle furnace (Gallenkamp, Hope, S20 England) and incinerated for 2h
at 550 ºC. The crucible was cooled in the desiccators and weighed. Then the fiber was
calculated as a residue after subtraction of the ash.

Where:
W 1 = weight of (crucible +sample) befor drying
W 1−W 2 W 2 = weight of (crucible +sample) after ashing
Crude fiber (g/100g)= x 100 W 3 = weight of sample
W3

3.4.5. Ash Content

Total ash content of the samples was determined according to AOAC: 2000: official method.
Briefly, clean porcelain dish used for the analysis was washed by dilute hydrochloric acid on
boiling. Then dried the dish at 120 ºC in an oven and ignited at 550 ºC in (Hope, Sheffield s30
2RR, England) furnace for 30 minutes. The dish was then removed from furnace and cooled in
desiccators. The mass of the dish was measured using (ARZ140, SNR=1203290469, USA)
analytical balance (M1). About two 2g of dried samples were added into dish (M2). The dishes
were placed on a hot plate under a fume hood and the temperature was slowly increased
ceases and the samples become thoroughly burned. The samples were placed inside the
Muffle Furnace and ashes at 550oC for 30 minutes and the samples were removed from a
Muffle Furnace and cooled for 1hour, seen to be clean and white in appearance. Then

37 | P a g e
checked until traces of carbon are fully ashed or whitish color appears. Finally, taken out of
the Muffle Furnace placing immediately in a desiccators till cooled to room temperature and
each dish plus ash was reweighed (M3). Weight of total ash was calculated by using the
following formula:
Where:
W 1 = Weight of the dish
W 3 −W 1 W 2 = Weight of fresh sample and dish
Total Ash (g/100g )= x 100
W 2 −W 1 W 3 = Weight of ash and dish

3.4.6. Total Carbohydrate Content

The total carbohydrate content was calculated by adding the total values of crude protein,
crude fat, crude fiber and total ash contents of the sample and subtracting it from 100%
according to the equation by Habtamu, (2017). The mathematical expression of gross energy
is as follow:
Total carbohydrate (%) = 100-(% protein + % ash + % fat + % crude fiber)

3.4.7. Gross energy value

The gross energy value (kcal/100 g) of the samples was determined by calculated by
difference Emmanuel, (2019). The mathematical expression is as follow by multiplying the
protein content by 4, carbohydrate content by 4 and fat content by 9
Energy value = Crude protein × 4_
+ _Total carbohydrate × 4
+ (Crude fat × 9).

3.5. Mineral contents

3.5.1. Preparation for standard solution

The first step for determination of minerals is to prepare the standard solutions for the
determination of minerals content, it was used for calibration by diluting stock solutions
(1000 mg/L) of each element mixed with 69% of nitric acid and add calibration curve
standard. The serial dilutions for each of the elements analysed were freshly prepared on the
day of analysis. Samples were measured by taking 0.5 g of each (wegee) okra flour and put
into white digestion tub holed through digester cracker, then added 8ml from 69% of citric
acid and added 1ml from 30% of hydrogen peroxide used pipet and tire with lead, this

38 | P a g e
percentage of citric acid is used only for preparation of standard. The cracker were put into
the microwave oven for 1 hour for radiation, heat, and pressure, after cooled for 30 minutes.
And added 25ml of distilled water.

3.5.2. Microwave Digestion procedure

Sample digestion was performed prior to analysis and minimize the effects of the organic
matrix. Briefly, 0.5 g of dried Okra sample was digested with 8mL HNO3 (69% v/v) and 1
mL H2O2 (30% v/v) using a Multivalve microwave closed system (Anton Paar, Germany). A
blank control was digested in a similar manner. The digestion program began initially at
500W, ramped for 1 min, and was held for 4min. The second step began at 1000 W, ramped
for 5 min, and was followed by a hold period for 5 min. The third step began at a power of
1400 W and then ramped for 5 min with a hold period of 10 min. The digested samples were
diluted to a final volume of 50mL with double deionized water for the analysis of all mineral
types. After accomplished of this process, the samples were taken for the determination of
minerals.
3.5.3. Determination of minerals
Determination of Sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P), Calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and
zinc (Zn) contents was determined according to the method of Association of Official
Analytical Chemists AOAC: 2000: by using flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(240FSAA). The absorbance was read on atomic absorption spectrophotometer at different
wavelength for each mineral element. All values were expressed in mg/100g.After removal of
organic material by digested; the residue was dissolved in dilute acid. About 0.5g of sample
was treated with 10ml of concentrated HNO3 70% and 4 ml of 30% HClO4. The resulting
solution was evaporated to a smaller volume by careful heating and transferred to 50ml
volumetric flask. About 1ml of SrCl2.6H2O was added and made up to volume with distilled
water. The sample was mixed with 8ml of 70% HClO4. The sample was quantitatively
transferred into 50ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark with distilled water. Using
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Agilent technology -240FSAA, Germany) a calibration
curve was prepared by plotting the absorption or emission values against the metal
concentration in mg/100g for all of the above minerals. Thus reading was taken from the
graph which depicted the metal concentrations that correspond to the absorption or emission
values of the samples and the blank. Standards used were 0ppm, 1ppm, 2ppm, 3ppm and
4ppm. The metal contents were calculated by using the formula:-
Metal Content (mg/100g) = (A – B) x V

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 10W

Where, W = Weight of sample in (g) V = Volume of extract (ml)

A= Concentration of sample solution (μg/ml) B = Concentration of blank solution (μg/ml)

3.6. Anti-nutrients constituents

3.6.1. Phytate
The phytate contents of dried leave okra sample and pod was determined according to
method described by Latta and Eskin (Bhandari & Kawabata, 2006). About (0.5g) dried
sample of leaves and okra pod was extracted with 10 mL 2.4% HCl for 1 h at room
temperature and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min. the clear supernatant was used for the
phytate estimation. One ml of Wade reagent (0.03% solution of FeC13·6H2O containing
0.3% sulfosalicylic acid in water was added to 3 mL of the sample solution and the mixture
was centrifuged. The absorbance at 500 nm measured used UV–VIS spectrophotometer. The
phytate concentration was calculated from the different between the absorbance of the control
(3 mL of water + 1 mL Wade reagent) and that of assayed sample and expressed as mg/100g.
Phytic acid (μg/100g) = [(absorbance - intercept)/ (slope * density * weight of sample)] *

{10/3}

3.6.2. Tannin
Tannin contents of dried leave sample of okra and pod was determined used the method of
Burns. Zero point five (0.5g) of each sample was weighed in a screw capped test tube and 10
mL of 1% HCl in methanol was added to each test tube containing the samples. Then the
tubes were put on mechanical shaker for 24 h at room temperature. After 24 h of shaking, the
tubes were centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 min. One millilitre of the clear supernatant was
taken and mixed with 5 mL of vanillin–HCl reagent in another test tube and this mixture was
allowed to stand for 20 min to complete the reaction. After 20 min, the absorbance was read
at 500 nm used spectrophotometer. The tannin concentration was calculated from the
different between the absorbance of control and that of the sample and expressed as mg/100
g.

40 | P a g e
 Where:
A s is sample absorbance
A b is blank absorbance
( A s -A b )-Intercept d is density of solution (0.791g/ml)
Condensed Tannin (mg/100g ) =
Slope x d x W W is weight of sample in gram
3.6.3. Oxalates
Oxalates content was determined used the method described by (Day and Underwood et.al,
2007). A sample (0.5 g) of dried okra powders was homogenized in 75 ml of H2SO4 (3M).
The mixture obtained was put under magnetic agitation during 1 H at the ambient
temperature (28 C). The whole was filtered on filter paper. Twenty-five (25) ml of filtrate
were titrated hot by a permanganate solution of potassium (KMnO4) to 0.05 M until the turn
with the pink persisting. The content oxalates were obtained by the equation.
Oxalate (mg/100g) =T *V1 *Df *10

V2 *W Where
T is normality of potassium permanganate
V1 is volume of potassium permanganate
Df is dilution factor which is 26.8
V2 is volume of extract oxalate
W is weight of sample in gram
3.7. Functional properties
3.7.1. Bulk density
Bulky density was determined by modifications of the gravimetric method by Asoegwu,
Ohanyere, Kanu, and Lwueke, (2006). Two grams (2 g) of okra leaves and pod flour sample
was weighed into 100 ml measuring cylinder. The bottom of the cylinder was tapped
repeatedly on a firm pad on a laboratory bench until a constant volume was observed. The
packed volume was recorded. The bulk density (BD) was calculated by using a ratio of
sample weight to constant volume obtained as:

Bulk Density= Weight of sample (g)

Constant volume (ml)

3.7.2. Water absorption capacities

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Water absorption capacity was determined by the method of Beuchat et. al, (1977). Two
gram (2g) of okra flour sample was mixed with 20 ml distilled water for 30s. The samples
were then allowed to stand at room temperature (25 ± 2°C) for 30 min after which they were
centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 30 min. The volume of the supernatant was noted in a 10 ml
graduated cylinder. Water absorption capacity (mg.mL-1) was calculated as the difference
between the initial volume of water added to the sample and the volume of the supernatant.
The same procedure was carried out to determine the oil absorption capacity as below;

Water Absorption Capacity=Bound water∕Weight of sample×100

3.8. Statistical Analysis

The completely randomized design was employed with two replicates. The result which
collected from proximate composition, some phytochemicals, Minerals and functional
properties was subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Minitab Statistical Software
(Version 20). The mean separation value was determined using a Least Significant
differences (LSD) and Duncan’s test. Significant differences was defined at (p <0.05).
Appendix: 3 3. Photo during analysis.

Figure: 3. 7. Picture of author, Analysis of Protein content used Kjeldhal

Digestion Unit.

42 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Proximate composition
Proximate analysis including moisture (%dwb), Protein, Fat, Ash, Fiber, and gross energy
value was carried out on dried leaves flour GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50 pod flour of landrace
Okra as presented below.
Table: 4. 1. Proximate composition (g/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of Okra landrace.

Sample Moistur Protein Fat Ash Fiber CHO Energy

name and e (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) kcal/
Code (%Wb) (100g)
Lea GLO 9.41±0.0 27.16±0. 4.31±0. 1.96±0. 17.56±0. 39.53±0. 305.60±0
ve 48 5c 34a 0a 02c 58a 13c .91a

GLO 12.67±0. 19.51±0. 1.99±0. 4.69±0. 12.06±0. 49.06±0. 292.27±2

49 68a 57c 0b 07a 12c 03a .92b
Pods

GLO 10.25±0. 25.29±0. 1.95±0. 5.06±1. 11.94±0. 45.46±0. 300.96±4

50 08b 97b 07b 20a 05c 08b .31b
The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).

4.1.1. Moisture
As presented in Table 4.1 above, the present research found that the average moisture content
of dried leave of okra was 9.41 ± 0.0g/100g, 12.67 ± 0.68g/100g, and 10.25 ± 0.0 g/100g for
GLO48, GLO49, and GLO50, respectively. This result showed that the leave of okra had a
lower value of moisture when compared with the value of GLO49, and GLO50 in the study.

43 | P a g e
The percentage of moisture content of this study was in the acceptable range when compared
with reported by Ezekiel, et. al, (2020). Also showed that, the moisture is higher in the
samples obtained from Okra pods than the amount of moisture obtained leaves. There was e
significant difference (P<0.05) in the moisture content of leave and no significant difference
(P<0.05) in pods. The low moisture contents of these leaves suggest that the leaves can keep
for a long time without spoilage and can be useful as soups in the dry season when common
vegetables are scarce. Moisture content is a measure of stability and susceptibility to
microbial contamination Ihekoronye, et. al., (2007).
Therefore, the low moisture content remains an asset in the storage and preservation of
nutrients because higher moisture content could lead to food spoilage through increasing
microbial action Onyeike, et. al. (2006). It is noticed that all samples have a low quantity of
moisture, which makes them not susceptible to microbial attack. The value of moisture is
very important when considering food preservation.

4.1.2. Protein
The protein content found in dried leave and pods flour samples of landrace okra was
presented in table 4.1. The averages values recorded for crude protein of dried leaves was
27.16 ± 0.34g/100g, 19.51 ± 0.57g/100g and 25.29 ± 0.97 g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-
GLO50, respectively. The protein content was higher in the leaves which proved that protein
was in more available in the leaves than in the pods flour. However, the study indicated that
the pods samples was least than protein on their own unless incorporated with leaves. The
leave value were lower when compared to other varieties of okra with 30%- 41.11% protein
content reported by Adelakun et al., (2009) while the pods values was in the same ranged
when compared to protein values (25-28.12%) reported by Ubogu, et.al, (2011). Therefore,
the protein content of the landrace okra leave is in the same ranged reported by Agbo et al.,
(2008). Pods had the least protein content while leaves variety had the highest. In this study,
the protein content showed significantly (P<0.05) higher in leaves than in the pods and
mixture.

Protein plays a particularly important role in human nutrition. The amino acid content
proportions and their digestibility of humans characterize Agnieszka, et.al, (2021). The health
implications of protein consumption include the involvement of its essential and nonessential
amino acids as building blocks for protein biosynthesis not only for the growth of infants and
children but also for the constant replacement and turnover of body protein in adults Fawusi,

44 | P a g e
et .al, (2001).Okra is considered a high-protein vegetable in form of leave. Thus, a diet
containing these varieties of okra would be beneficial to health, knowing the important role
played by proteins in the body.

4.1.3. Fat
The crude fat content obtained from dried leave and pods samples was presented in table 4.1.
The average value of fat content was 4.31 ± 0.0g/100g, 1.99 ± 0.0g/100g and 1.95 ±
0.07g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. This result showed that the leave
flour of landrace okra has appreciable amount of fat which’s universal stored forms of
energy, whereas the fat content obtained from the pod, was lower than leaves. The
composition values of dried leave samples obtained in this study were higher compared to
those leaves (0.26-0.30%) reported by Anyika, et. al., (2011). This study reveals that the
leaves of Okra contain more moderate quantities of fat than those of pod flour.

However, the fat content in this okra leave study is lower in comparison with the range of fat
values (4.34-6.25%) reported by (Emmanuel, et. al. 2014). There was a significant difference
(P<0.05) in the fat content of leave flour while no significant (P<0.05) difference in the pod
samples.

4.1.4. Ash
The ash content determined the total quantity of minerals, as presented in table 4.1. The total
ash content of dried leave and pods flour was 1.96 ± 0.02g/100g, 4.69 ± 0.07g/100g and 5.06
± 1.20g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The values obtained from the
pod were higher than the values obtained from leaves. There was a significant difference
(P<0.05) in leave flour. Although minerals represented a small proportion of dry matter, often
less than 7% of the total, they play an important from a physicochemical, technological, and
nutritional point of view. Thus it can be assumed that the Okra flour samples investigated are
richer in minerals than cowpea, pigeon pea, and jack bean flours, which have ash contents of
4.7 3, and 4.58% Olalekan and Bosede, (2010), while these results indicate that these okra
varieties would provide essential valuable and useful minerals needed for body development.

4.1.5. Fiber
The average value of crude fiber obtained from a dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
was presented in table 4.1. The values recorded for crude fiber of okra leaves were 17.56 ±
0.58g/100g, 12.06 ± 0.12g/100g and 11.94 ± 0.05g/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,

45 | P a g e
respectively. The values recorded from each sample were much different. The analysis
recorded that, the leave of okra contained high in fiber content than the record reported in the
value of pods flour. The crude fiber in leaves has a significant difference (P>0.05). The
average fiber obtained from the leaves sample revealed that it can be used as a source of
dietary fiber Caluete et al., (2015). The fiber content of the Okra pod was in the same ranged
from 10.15 to 11.63 g/100 g reported by Adekunle, et.al., (2011) obtained in this study, while
the crude fiber was in the high value of fiber content of okra reported previously (Gemeda.
et. al., 20014).

Dietary fiber helps to stabilize blood sugar by regulating the rate at which sugar is absorbed
from the intestinal tract and fiber also proves the growth and protects the beneficial intestinal
flora. Moreover, the high intake of fiber reduces the risk of colon cancer Ngoc, et.al., (2008).
The high value of fiber reported for this study can improve its digestibility and absorption
processes in the large intestine, helping to stimulate peristalsis, thereby preventing
constipation. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of fiber for children, adults and
pregnant and lactating mothers are 19-25, 21- 38, 28, and 29 respectively Erhabor et al.,
(2010). The fiber in the man diet helps to prevent over absorption of water and the formation
of hard stools which can result in constipation. Besides, fiber lower the body’s cholesterol
level thus reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease Udebuani, (2009). Fiber aids and speeds
up the excretion of waste and toxins from the body, preventing them from sitting in the
intestine or bowel for too long which could cause a buildup and lead to several disease
Nwangwu, et, al., (2012).

4.1.6. Carbohydrate
The proximate composition of carbohydrate content of dried leaves and pods flour of
landrace okra were presented in table 4.1. The amount of carbohydrate detected from dried
leaves of okra was 39.53 ± 0.15g/100g, 49.06 ± 0.03g/100g and 45.46 ± 0.08g/100g for
GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The average values of carbohydrates detected
from the pods flour were higher than the amount recorded for leave while the previous
research reported (53.48 ± 0.02%) carbohydrates in okra leaves Nachana Timothy,et.al,
(2021). The amount of carbohydrate showed that the leaves could be consumed as a source of
carbohydrate food, especially in the tropics where carbohydrate contributes to daily caloric
need Habtamu et al., (2014).The result showed that the incorporated flour could be consumed
as a source of carbohydrate food than leave and pod. There was a significant difference

46 | P a g e
 (p>0.betweene the carbohydrate content of the two okra pod flour samples. However, the
carbohydrates values were generally lower than the value reported by Pacheco-Delahaye, et.
al.,(2008). Carbohydrate provides energy to the cells in the body, particularly the brain, and
the organ whose only energy source is carbohydrate.

4.1.7. Gross energy Values

The energy values of dried leaves sample of okra and incorporated flour was presented in
table 4.1. The average energy value content was ranged from 305.60 ± 0.91kcal/100g, 292.27
± 2.92kcal/100g and 300.96 ± 4.31kcal/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively.
The leave had the highest energy value than pods. The energy values indicate that these okra,
especially the leaves can serve as a good source of energy for the body. The chemical
composition values confirmed that okra is an excellent food source, justifying its direct use in
human nutrition. The results of the energy values showed significant differences (P < 0.05).
The high gross energy values obtained in the present study had indicate that okra leave could
be consumed as a major source of energy.

4.2. Mineral content

Table 4.2 below illustrates the total mineral content of dry Leave Okra and incorporated with
pod flour of landrace okra. The total mineral content of selected element like (potassium,
calcium, iron, copper, Zink, sodium, magnesium, and manganese) for compositional analysis
of the dry leave and pods samples was GLO48 for leave, GLO49-GLO50 pods flour are
presented in Table 4.2. Four different samples were analysed for their concentration.
Table: 4. 2.Total mineral content (mg/100g, dwb) of Leave and pods flour of okra landrace.

Sample name Potassium Calcium Iron Copper Zinc Sodium Magnesiu Manganes
and Code m e
GLO4 147.11±0.1 276.93±0.6 1.55±0.05 0.31±0.02 5.02±0.01 41.92±0.0 364.29±0.0 9.54±0.02a
Leave 8 6c 0a b b a 3a 3b

GLO4 243.16±0.7 96.79±0.30 4.20±0.24 0.56±0.01 5.36±0.03 11.83±0.0 387.88±0.4 2.73±0.01c

9 5a c a b a 3c 7a
Pods
GLO5 243.37±1.0 98.32±1.77 4.14±0.15 0.72±0.21 5.40±0.02 10.95±1.2 388.61±0.5 2.99±0.02c
0 5a c a a a 7c 6a

The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05).
4.2.1. Potassium

47 | P a g e
The potassium content of dried leave and pods flour of landraces okra was presented in table
4.2. The concentration values of potassium content in dried leaves were 147.11 ±
0.16mg/100g, 243.16 ± 0.75mg/100g and 243.37 ± 1.05mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-
GLO50, respectively. The results indicate that the leave of Okra is a good source of total
mineral content with moderate concentrations of potassium. While the potassium content of
the Okra pod was appeared higher than the potassium contents of okra leave. This result
indicates that the content value of potassium within this study was in the same ranged with
the potassium reported by Agnan Marie-Michel Combo1, et. al., (2020). The concentrations
of potassium in leave flour were significantly different whereas, Potassium showed no
significant difference between pod sample (P<0.05). The high amount of potassium in the
body was reported to increase iron utilization Elinge Muhammad, et. al., (2012)
Epidemiological studies indicate that diets high in potassium can reduce the risk of
hypertension and suffer from excessive excretion of potassium through the body fluid
(Arinathan, et. al.,(2017). Generally, potassium has a diuretic nature (Arinanthan et al.,
(2003) that helps improper brain and nerve function thereby preventing stroke. It plays a vital
role in acid-base balance and osmotic regulation. Its deficiency in the diet can lower blood
pressure Mac Gregor, (2008). The observed concentration of Potassium in the study are for
lower than those Adetuya et. al., (2011)

4.2.2. Calcium
The calcium contents okra samples in dried leave flour and pods flour was presented in table
4.2. The concentration of calcium content of dry leave flour was 276.93 ± 0.60mg/100g,
96.79 ± 0.30mg/100g and 98.32 ± 1.77mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The present result showed that the mineral content in the leave of okra was
higher than the mineral content of the pod as reported by Adetuyi et al. (2011). Therefore, the
presence of Calcium shows why the leaves are important in blood clotting (Uzoekwe and
Mohammed (2015).The dried leave flour was significantly (p < .05) higher in calcium
content than both pods flour. The content of calcium in this study was lower compared to the
values of calcium previously reported Kouassi, et. al., (2013).

Calcium plays a significant role in photosynthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and nucleic

acids. Calcium helps in the regulation of muscle contractions transmits nerve impulses and
helps in bone formation Cataldo et al., (1999). Minerals are very important in human
nutrition. Calcium was reported to be responsible for the repair worn-out cells, strong born

48 | P a g e
and teeth, it’s building of red blood cell and body mechanisms Ekwu, et. al., (2014). The high
calcium content in some of the leaves suggests that their consumption can help play an
important role in managing blood pressure and also balances the effects of sodium on blood
pressure because the more potassium you eat, the more sodium you lose through urine
(Institute of Medicine . Dietary, www.iom.edu/Reports/2004). Therefore, this research found
that the okra leave had a high amount of calcium content as well incorporated with pods, and
okra leaves can also be included in the human diet as a nutritionally suitable food.

4.2.3. Iron
The Iron content of dried leave and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The result indicates
that the concentration of Iron in dried leave of Okra was 1.55 ± 0.05mg/100g, 4.20 ±
0.24mg/100g and 4.14 ± 0.15mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. This
result showed that these leave parts were very low when compared to the Iron content of the
pods flour. The concentration of Iron (Fe) is also significant in the leave, it plays a vital role
in many intercellular reactions. The iron content found in this present research was lower than
the value reported Ibanga, and Okon, (2009), but higher than the iron contents of the local
okra varieties from Nigeria (Arapitsas, P.,et. al, (2008). The results of the Iron (Fe) values
showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between each sample of landrace okra.

Iron (Fe) is well known, and is an essential element for hemoglobin formation and proper
functioning of the central nervous system as well as oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats Kermanshah et al., (2014) ; Mlitan et al., (2014). The relatively higher concentrations of
iron compared to other elements might be due co-participation of green vegetables in the
synthesis of ferredoxin, a well-known factor for attributing green vegetables as useful sources
of iron Hart et al., 2005). The main role of iron is the transport of oxygen to the tissues which
is the active constituent of hemoglobin in red blood cells. Iron also enhances the body’s
immune system thus reducing infections and fostering proper functioning of other organs of
the body Whitney,et. al., (1999).

4.2.4. Copper
The copper content of dried leave and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The results
indicate that, the concentrations values of copper content was 0.31 ± 0.02mg/100g, 0.56 ±
0.03mg/100g and 0.72 ± 0.21mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
result of copper content of Okra pod showed high amount than the copper contents of okra
leave. Therefore, the concentrations of copper in leaves and pods flour samples were not

49 | P a g e
(P>0.05) significantly different. These levels of copper are however low detected for the
sample analysis which is below the National Agency for and Drug Administration and
Control because the levels of copper in the samples were found to be below the detection
limit. Therefore, the presence of copper in the dried samples was the lower detection limit
and the RDI of 1 mg/100g was recommended by National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control, (2010)

4.2.5. Zinc
The Zinc content of the dried leave samples and pods flour was presented in table 4.2. The
amount of Zinc content recorded at the dried leave sample was 5.02 ± 0.01mg/100g, 5.36 ±
0.03mg/100g and 5.40 ± 0.02mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
Zinc content of okra leaves was noted the good concentration of Zinc when compared other,
while Zinc was the highest value at pod. In this result, the concentrations of zinc in leaves
and pods flour was (P>0.05) significantly different.

Zinc is also part of many enzymatic reactions including protein synthesis and it is essential
for sperm production, normal growth, and sexual maturity as well as the healthy immune
system Mlitan et al., (2014). Zinc deficiency can result in hyperthyroidism and gum disease.
Zinc has also been reported to be beneficial in the treatment of viral infections, diabetes
mellitus as well as those, and prostate gland enlargement Kermnsha et al., (2014). Zinc is a
nutritional supplement. It is needed for the catalytic activity of several enzymes as well as the
proper functioning of the taste and smell organs. It also participates in several cellular
processes such as metabolism, immune response, protein synthesis, wound healing, DNA
synthesis, and cell division. Since the body requires a sophisticated zinc storage unit, zinc
must be absorbed continuously to maintain a steady condition. The zinc content as observed
by this study is far higher than those reported by Adetuya,et. al., (2011) whose values varied
between 0.383 and 0.63mg/kg.

4.2.6. Sodium
The sodium (Na+) content in different samples of dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
was presented in table 4.2. The amount of concentration of sodium content in leave samples
was 41.92 ± 0.03mg/100g, 11.83 ± 0.03mg/100g and 10.95 ± 1.27mg/100g for GLO48 and
GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The concentration of sodium was higher in okra leave than in
pods flour. And the sodium (Na+) contents in dried leaves samples were closed to those value

50 | P a g e
found in a similar Ezekiel Tagwi Williams, et. al., (2020). This showed that the leaves could
be a good source of sodium. The leave of okra has a higher content of sodium in comparison
to the pod of okra (Adelakun et al., 2012). These result of leave flour was significantly
different (p < .05) and higher in content than both pod samples flour.

Sodium (Na+) is needed for proper fluid balance, nerve transmission, and muscle contraction.
However, sodium concentrations as observed by the leave study were higher compared with
those of Adetuyi et al, (2011) who reported values that varied between 3.330 and 8.310
mg/100g. Sometimes, the effects of sodium on plants are similar to those of exposure to
drought. Increasing the concentration of sodium in plants can amount to toxic levels that
cause poor growth and arrested cell development. Sodium (Na+) can be beneficial to plants in
many conditions, particularly when potassium (K+) is deficient. As such, it can be regarded a
‘non-essential’ or ‘functional’ nutrient (Maathuis, 2013).

As described above, Chlorine in form of chloride is needed for proper fluid balance and also
plays a role in photolysis. Its deficiency can cause wilting, chlorosis, and the death of some
leaves Soetan et al., (2010). The concentrations of chloride ions are subject to variation than
that of sodium because another anion especially in bicarbonate form in the system can
exchange for chlorine. As a major negative ion in extracellular fluid, it has been found to play
important role in the production of acid in the stomach. Deficiency disease may occur in
infants if the salt-free formula is more often used. In chloride-deficit diet, the excretion of
chloride in urine or sweet is remarked reduced Hays and Murray et al., (2000). However,
with the observed concentrations in this study, levels may be safe for the Okra management
practices to be applied.

4.2.7. Magnesium
The concentration of magnesium level in dried leave sample and pods flour was presented in
table 4.2. The contents values of okra leaves that presented in magnesium content was 364.29
± 0.03mg/100g, 387.88 ± 0.47mg/100g and 388.61 ± 0.56mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-
GLO50, respectively. The leaves of okra were noted to contain the least composition of
magnesium, whereas the concentration of pods flour were higher than the value reported from
leave. The values of manganese in this present study was far higher than those found by
Nkuba and Mohammed, et. al.,(2017) whose reported concentrations in high at 58.81 to 84.08
mg/100g. These result revealed that there were also significant variations (p>0.05).

51 | P a g e
Magnesium is an essential mineral involved in various metabolic reactions. It is a part of
many enzymes and its widespread in foods especially plant foods. Manganese helps with
photosynthesis and is also freely available in the North Coast’s acid soil, often in toxic
amounts in very acidic soil. However, its toxicity can be remedied with time.
Magnesium is required for extracellular fluid to help maintain osmotic balance. It is also a
requirement for certain enzymatic reactions with regard to nucleotides by Nkuba and
Mohammed, (2017). Its deficiency could result in abnormal irritability of muscle and
convulsion, while depression of the central nervous system can also be an inevitable
consequence if it is in excess. Phosphorus contents as shown in table 2 differ to a large extent
from those of Adetuya (2011) which varied between 6.005 and 6.217mg/kg. Phosphorus is
essential for acid-base balance in every cell and is required for healthy bone and teeth
development.

4.2.8. Manganese
The manganese content of okra from dried leave flour and pods flour was presented in
table4.2. This result showed that the dried leave samples of okra was ranged from 9.54 ±
0.02mg/100g, 2.73 ± 0.01mg/100g and 2.99 ± 0.02mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50,
respectively. The leave of okra has higher concentrations of this elements than the pod flour
has moderate concentration of manganess. Manganese contents of these study leave are
greater than that reported by Alexis Drogba Sahoré, et. al, (2014). These results revealed that
there were significantly different (p>0.05).

Manganese is one of the trace elements and it’s essential for the proper function of the human
body. It plays an essential role in the activation of certain enzymes. It also participates in the
formation of the skeleton, connective tissue, and the elimination of free radicles from the
bobby. The body absorbs manganese inhalation from the gastrointestinal tract. The
manganese intake recommended for an adult is 1 to 2.5 mg is present in many foods Busson
& Jardin, C.et.al, (2014)
4.3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods flour of okra landrace

Mineral ratios are often more important in the nutritional deficiencies and excesses than
mineral levels alone, vegetable are suitable sources of mineral that are essentials and
mminerals are responsible for maintaining electrolyte balance, strengthening teeth and bones,

52 | P a g e
boost energy levels, muscle contractions, trigger immunity, and supports the nervous system
and thyroid functions Prasad et al., (2008). Models were used to examine the associations of
sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc were calculated to evaluate the portion of the total in
food diet that utilized for normal body functions and inhibitory effect of oxalate and phytate
on the bioavailability of dietary minerals. Calculated minerals ratios of dried leave okra and
pods of landrace okra were present below.

Table:4. 3. Mineral ratios of dried leave and pods of okra landrace.

Samples Code Na:K Ca:K Fe:Zn

Leave flour GLO48 0.24 1.88 0.31
Pods flour GLO49 0.05 0.40 0.78
GLO50 0.04 0.40 0.77
Standard values <1 <4 >2

4.3.1. Sodium to potassium ratio

As presented above, the molar ratios of Na/K of dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra
were showed in table4.3. The Na:K ratios of the dried leave and pods were ranged from 0.24,
0.05, and 0.04 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The recommended values of
the Na:K should be greater than (>0.5) for healthy foods to contribute to sodium absorption
in the small intestine Jacob et al., (2015). In the present study, all edible parts of the studied
leave of okra showed high values of Ca:K ratio, which helps calcium absorption, particularly
for growing children who require a high intake of sodium and potassium for bone and this
findings, the Na:K ratios of plant parts were found within the recommended rate of healthy
foods which may help thyroid Adarabioyo, (2016).

4.3.2. Calcium to potassium ratio

As indicated in Table4.3, the Ca/K ratios of the dried leave and pods flour are presented
below. The molar ratios of leave and pods four were ranged from 1.88, 0.40, and 0.40 for
GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This values were the same ranged when compared
to Watts (2010) also reported that the ideal ratio. In this findings, the Ca:K ratios of dried
leave and pods were found within the recommended rate of healthy foods which may help
thyroid activity (Olagbemid, (2017).

4.3.3. Iron to zinc ratio

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The percentage of iron:zinc (Fe/Zn) ratios of dried leave of okra and pods flour of landrace
okra are presented in Table4.3.The amount of Fe:Zn ratio of the dried leave and pods flour
were ranged from 0.31, 0.78 and 0.77 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. Iron did
not impair zinc absorption up to an iron: zinc ratios of 2:1; a dose dependent affect was
observed up to a ratio of 5:1to 10:1, no further zinc inhibition occurred peres et al., (2001). In
other side from this findings, the iron presence in leave and pods of landrace okra did not
impair zinc absorption because the value were lower than the critical molar ratios.

4.4. Antinutrients
Anti-nutritional factors are chemical compounds synthesized in natural food by the normal
metabolism of species which exerts effect contrary to optimum nutrition in humans. It also
reduce the maximum utilization of nutrients especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals, thus
preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a food and decreasing the nutritive
value Oranye, (2006). Anti-nutritional constituent (phytate, Oxalate, and Tannin) of dry
Leave Okra and pod flour of landrace okra are presented below.
Table:4. 4. Anti-nutritional constituent of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of okra landrace.

phytochemical mg/100g
sample name and code Phytate Oxalate Tannin

Leave GLO48 0.26±0.07c 0.19±0.0a 1.99±0.05b

GLO49 3.11±0.18a 0.23±0.0a 1.02±0.0c
Pods
GLO50 3.05±0.35a 0.50±0.0a 1.18±0.0c
The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with the same different superscript letters are not significantly
different (p>0.05).
4.4.1. Phytate

As shown in the present research above, the phytate content of dried leave and pods flour was
presented in table 4.4. The research found that the average phytate content of leaves was
0.26 ± 0.07 mg/100g, 3.11 ± 0.18mg/100g and 3.05 ± 0.35mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-
GLO50, respectively. The leaves of okra were noted a low composition of phytate, whereas
the average values of pods flour were moderate than the value reported from leave. The
phytate contents of this study leave are greater than that reported by Seena et al. (2006) and
lower than the phytate content reported by Ezekiel Tagwi Williams, et, al, (2020) on the
nutritional potential of Okra leaves Abelmoschus Esculentus, Nigeria. There was no
significant difference (P>0.05) in the phytate content of the analysed samples.

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Phytate is the salt form of Phytic acid known as inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6). Phytic refers
specifically to the calcium or magnesium salt form of Phytic acid Mullane.et, at, (2012). It is
the principal storage form of phosphorus in many plant tissues, especially bran and seeds.
Phytate is not digestible by humans or nonruminant animals, so it is not a source of either
inositol or phosphate if eaten directly. Phytate has the ability to chelate and form complexes
with proteins and inhibits the enzymatic digestion of injected protein. Phytic acid chelates
make unobservable certain important micronutrients such as zinc and iron, and to a lesser
extent, also macronutrients such as calcium and magnesium. Then phytic acid has some anti-
nutritional properties due to its ability to lower the bioavailability of some essential minerals
such as zinc and iron, and to a lesser extent, the calcium and the magnesium in the digestive
tract resulting in mineral deficiencies Olawore, et. al., (2008). Therefore, the phytate
composition of the samples analyzed is low in leave and might not pose any health hazard.

4.4.2. Oxalate
The content value of Oxalate obtained from dried leaves and pods flour was presented in
table 4.4. The amount of Oxalate content found on the leaves of Okra was 0.19 ±
0.02%mg100g, 0.23 ± 0.0%mg/100g and 0.50 ± 0.0%mg/100g, and 0.32 ± 0.0%mg/100g for
GLO48, GLO49, GLO50, and GLO56, respectively. This is comparable to the already
reported range by Adetuyi FO and Adekunle AT. (2011) and the oxalate contents of this
study are lower than that reported by Emmanuel et al., (2014). There was a significant
difference (P>0.05) in the oxalate content of the analyzed samples.
Oxalic acid is an organic acid produced in animals and plants when sugar, carbohydrates, and
other carbon sources are metabolized. Oxalic acid does not circulate freely in the body; it
links to sodium or potassium in a soluble oxalate-salt form. But when oxalic acid finds itself
in the presence of calcium, it has the ability to link to it too, forming a particular insoluble
salt crystal known as calcium oxalate. The human could obtain oxalates in two ways, some
of it is absorbed from the diet, and some is manufactured in the body primarily in the liver. In
humans, about 20-50% is thought to come from the diet. Oxalates do not appear to have any
necessary function in the body; they are just metabolic end-product destined to leave the body
through urine as urea. Over consumption of a diet with a high concentration of oxalate causes
kidney stones and the level of oxalate in this study leave was not high to pose any health
threat (Akwaowo EU, Ndon BA, Etuk EU.2000).

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4.4.3. Tannin
The tannin content of dried leave samples and pods flour was presented in table 4.4. The table
revealed that the value of tannin content found in the leave was 1.99 ± 0.05mg/100g, 1.02 ±
0.0mg/100g and 1.18 ± 0.0mg/100g for GLO48 and GLO49-GLO50, respectively. The
analysis revealed that the tannin content was moderate in leaves samples, whereas the pod
sample was lower than leaves part. The leaves were also found content an appreciable
amount of tannin than the study reported Nachana’a Timothy,( 2020).

Generally, these phytochemicals have shown effectiveness in the treatment of cardiac

problems, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrhea, anti-allergic, and anti-cancer
effects. The leaves of okra therefore, have potential sources of drugs Emmanuel et al., (2014)
and these indicated that the bioavailability of Okra leave as well pod have good sources than
other pulse and cereals crops.
4.5. Molar ratios and Bioavailability of the Minerals to phytochemical of dried leave
and pods flour of okra landrace.
The molar ratios for selected minerals of calcium, iron, zinc, to the phytochemicals that
included phytate and oxalate were calculated to evaluate the effects of phytate and oxalate on
the bioavailability of dietary mineral in leave and pods flour of landrace okra grown in Abol
district, Gambella, Ethiopia. The bioavailability is the proportion of the total amount of
mineral element that is potentially absorbable in a metabolically active form. The calculated
Phy:Ca, Phy:Fe, Phy:Zn, and Oxalate:Ca, Phy*CaZn molar ratios of dried leave and pods
flour of landrace okra are showed in Table 4.5. all samples had a significant (p < 0.05) effect
on the molar ratios of phyate to minerals and oxalate to calcium. Phytate to mineral molar
ratio values are indexes of mineral bioavailability than mineral contents alone Habtamu et al.,
(2014).
Table: 4. 5. Calculated mineral ratios to photochemical of dry Leave and pod flour of okra
landrace.

Samples Code (Phytate:Ca) (Phytate:Fe) (Phytate:Zn (Oxalate:Ca)4 (Phytate*Ca:Zn)5

1 2
)3
Leave flour GLO4 0.001±0.12a 0.035±1.40b 0.013±7.00a 0.001±0.00a 0.001±0.21a
8
Pods flour GLO4 0.002±0.60c 0.067±0.75a 0.061±6.00a 0.001±0.00a 0.134±067c
9
GLO5 0.002±0.9c 0.068±2.33a 0.060±17.50a 0.002±0.00a 0.132±0.54c

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 0
Standard values <0.24 >0.15 <10 <1 0.5
Means not followed by the same superscript letters in each column of the pods and seeds are
significantly (P<0.05) different from each other.

Notes: 1mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of calcium/molecular weight of

calcium; 2mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of iron/molecular weight of iron;
3
mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate: mg of zink/molecular weight of zink; 4mg of
oxalate/molecular weight of oxalate: mg of calcium /molecular weight of calcium;
5
(mg of Calcium/molecular weight of Calcium) (mg of phytate/molecular weight of phytate)/
(mg of zink/molecular weight of zink).

4.5.1. [Phytate] to [Calcium] molar ratios

The molar ratios of the dried leave flour and pods of landrace okra presented in Table 4.5.
The molar ratios of Phy:Ca of the leave and pods flour were ranged from 0.001±0.12,
0.002±0.60, and 0.002±0.9 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The amount of
Phytic acids decrease Ca bioavailability and the Ca: Phy molar ratio has been proposed as an
indicator of Ca bioavailabil-ity Jacob et al., (2014) reported that the critical molar ratio of
[phy]: [Ca] of < 0.24 indicating good calcium bioavailability Woldegiorgis et al., (2015). In
this investigation of Phy: Ca molar ratios of the okra were lower than the reported critical
molar ratio of phytate to calcium, indicating that absorption of calcium not adversely affected
by phytate in all fruit Jacob et al., (2015).

4.5.2. [Phytate] to [Iron] molar ratios

As presented in table 4.5. above, the result indicate that the molar ratios of phytate to iron
(Phy: Fe) ratios of the dried leave and pods flour of landrace okra. The percentage of Phy: Fe
molar ratios of the leave and pods study were ranged from 0.035±1.40, 0.067±0.75 and
0.068±2.33 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This result indicated that the
phytate: iron molar ratios of landrace okra are less than 1.0, even ratios as low as 0.20 exert
some negative effect Hurrell et al., (2003).. The highest Phy:Fe molar ratio was reported for
Ziziphus spinachristi (0.1283) which indicates that Fe is less bioavailable. This result showed
low impact of phytate on the bioavailability and absorption of iron.

4.5.3. [Phytate] to [Zinc] molar ratios

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The molar ratios of phytate to zinc (Phy: Zn) of dried leave okra and pods flour were
presented in table4.5. This result showed that, the molar ratios of Phy: Zn of the landrace
okra was ranged from 0.013±7.00, 0.061±6.00 and 0.060±17.50 for GLO48, GLO49 and
GLO50, respectively. The phy:Zn molar ratio is considered a better indicator of zinc
bioavailability than total dietary phytate levels itself. The ratio of phytate: Zn in this study is
much lower than the molar ratio phytate: Zn reported by Emmanuel et al., (2020), while the
molar ratio of Phy: Zn were the same values reported by Habtamu, (2017) and the problem
encountered when the value is greater than 15. Phy: Zn molar ratios >15, is an indication of
poor zinc bioavailability (Morris & Ellis, 1989). The values of leave and pods flour of okra
landrace were lower than the critical molar ratios of Phy: Zn, which indicates the high
bioavailability of zinc.

4.5.4. [Oxalate] to [Calcium] molar ratios

The molar ratios of oxalate to calcium (Ox:Ca) of the leave and pods flour of okra was
presented in table4.5. The Ox: Ca ratios of the leave and pods flour were ranged from
0.001±0.00, 0.001±0.00, and 0.002±0.00 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. This
result showed that, the amount of oxalate to calcium were no significantly (P<0.05) different
from each other. When the oxalate: Ca is higher than one, dietary calcium availability is
limited Frontela et al. (2009). The oxa-late: Ca molar ratios of this study were below the
critical level. Oxalic acid and its salts can have deleterious effects on human nutrition and
health, particularly by decreasing calcium absorption and aiding the formation of kidney
stones Kawabata, 2004). The finding implies that oxalate may not have any adverse effects
on bioavailability of dietary calcium in the okra leave and pods also.

4.5.5. [Phytate][Calcium]/ [Zinc] molar ratios.

The molar ratios of the Phytate Calcium to Zinc ([Phy] [Ca]/ [Zn]) of the leave flour and pods
of landrace okra are showed in the Table 4.5. This result indicate that, ([Phy] [Ca]/ [Zn])
molar ratios of the dried leave and pods flour of okra were ranged from 0.001±0.21,
0.134±067, and 0.132±0.54 for GLO48, GLO49 and GLO50, respectively. The potential
effect of the calcium on Zinc absorption in the presence of the high phytate intakes has led to
the suggestion that the [Phy] [Ca]/[Zn] millimolar ratio may be a better index of zinc
bioavailability than the [Phy]/[Zn] molar ratio alone. High calcium levels in foods can
promote the phytate-induced decrease in zinc bioavailability Adetuyi et al., (2011), when the
[Ca][phytate]/[Zn] millimolar ratio exceeds 0.5 mol/kg. In this investigation, the values of

58 | P a g e
fruits were lower than the critical molar ratios of [Ca] [phytate]/ [Zn], which indicates the
high bioavailability of zinc in all okra landrace.

4.6. Functional properties

The functional properties of foods and flours are influenced by the components of the food
material, especially the carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, moisture, fibre, ash, and other
ingredients or food. It also describes how ingredients behave during preparation and cooking,
how they affect the finished food product in terms of tastes, and feels O’Connell & Flynn,
(2007); Walstra & van Vliet, (2003).

Table:4. 6. Functional properties of dry Leave Okra and pods flour of okra landrace.

Sample Code
Bulky density (g/ml) Water absorption (g/ml)
Leave flour GLO48
0.30±0.02b 2.10±01b
GLO49
0.44±0.11a 1.01±0.89c
Pods flour
GLO50
0.46±0.09a 0.86±0.80c
The values are reported as a means ± standard deviations of duplicate determinations and
values is in the column with different superscript letters are significantly different (p<0.05)

4.6.1. Bulk density

The result of bulk density of dried leave sample, pods and incorporated flour was showed in
table 4.6. The bulk density of the leave flour was 0.3 ± 0.02g/ml, 0.44 ± 0.11, 0.46 ± 0.09,
and 0.33 ± 0.01 g/ml for GLO48, GLO49, GLO50 and GLO56, respectively. The bulk
density of the leave flour was greater but this was not significantly different (P>0.05) from
pod of okra, whereas the value was the lowest from leave sample but was not significantly
different (P>0.05. The bulk density is low and this might be by the particle size of the flour as
Adebowale, Sanni, and Oladapo (2008) reported that bulk density is mostly decided by
density and size of the flour and it is essential in deciding packaging requirement. Since, okra
leave flour have better lightly bulk density than pod. Therefore, the leave is expected that
high quantity of flour will be package in limited volume of packaging materials.

4.6.2. Water absorption capacity

The value of water absorption capacity of the dried leave of okra and incorporated part flour
of landrace okra was presented in table 4.6. The result of Water absorption capacity of the
leave mucilage was 2.1 ± 01, 1.01 ± 0.89, 0.86±0.8 and 3.15 ± 0.01 for GLO48, GLO49,
GLO50 and GLO56, respectively. The water absorption capacity of mixed flour was the

59 | P a g e
highest than leave but this was lower from pod and was significantly different (P>0.05). The
value of the bulk density showed the same trend with the value of bulk density (0.76 g/ml) of
okra pod flour reported by (Ndamitso , et. al., (2012) and the mean water holding capacity of
mucilage from leave of okra in this study was lower than the water absorption capacity
reported Emmanuel et al., (2014).

CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. Conclusion
In present study, proximate composition, selected micronutrient, and the physico-Functional
Properties has been successfully analysed for okra (Edible Green Leave and pods) grown in
Abol district, Gambella, Ethiopia. Bases on the research findings, the result of the work
revealed that the leaves of okra contain appreciable amount of nutrient, minerals which are
daily requirement for both human and animal. The proximate composition, mineral and
phytochemical and functional properties of the okra leaves was significant (P<0.05) different.
It could be concluded that the leave of okra consumed in Gambella Region have appreciable
amount of protein, fibber, calcium and iron content which are highly favourably comparable
with some traditional vegetable. By promoting the consumption of traditional vegetables, this
Okra leave can provide micronutrients and mineral elements that can improve the nutritional
status, due household food availability is the most important determinant of the nutritional
status of a community and by local food production. However, the study indicated that the
pods of the okra samples was least than protein on their own. The anti-nutritional analysis
showed that all the samples contained low amount of phytate, oxalate and tannin, the values
obtained are lower than the established toxic level. Therefore, promoting the consumption of

60 | P a g e
such nutritious vegetables will be beneficial to human health by providing the necessary
macro-elements and energy to the body. In conclusion, the locally available food ingredients
used in the present study shows that the nutritional contents of leave meet the status for
household food.

5.2. Recommendation
This study provides valuable information regarding nutritional, phytochemicals, and
functional properties of okra leave. However, depth research on okra leave started late and
made slow progress. Therefore, others research are recommend to be address, future research
on okra leave mainly required on development potential and primary product processing, and
functional properties of okra flower and mixing processing with other substance like meat,
and fish is still insufficient. Therefore, to tap the health function of okra leave, is also
recommend that future research are recommended base on the result of the findings,
1. Further study should focus on determination of edible parts of okra flowers with other
indigenous food evolving
2. Research should be undertaken for new product development using okra leave and stock
fish/dried fish or meat
3. Characterizations on the nutritional and phytochemical properties of other indigenous
food crops example maize and sorghum should be encouraged in order to diversify diet
from the okra leave or pod.
4. Evaluation of the mineral content of raw and cooked okra leave should be undertaken.

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Appendices
Appendix: 1. 3. Local farm during sample gathering of Okra landrace.

Appendix: 1. 4.Edible green leave of Okra

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appendix: 3:2. photo of powder sample

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Appendix: 3 3. Photo of author during analysis

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