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    i ui = PREFACE This book has been written for an advanced undergraduate course in electricity and magnetism offered to students majoring in physics and in related fields, It presupposes a year’s course in general physics and one in calculus. It is based on the lectures in electricity and magnetism given by the author for the past nine years and is designed to be readily understood by even the student who will receive only a minimal guidance from the instructor The book has three main objectives. The first objective is a presentation of the fundamentals of electromagnetic theory reflecting recent developments and applications of the subject. To achieve this objective, considerable amount of modern material is included in the book; operational definitions are introduced for all fundamental electric and magnetic quantities; cur- rent and voltage are used as the basic measurables (mksva system of units)"; vector analysis is used as a standard mathematical tool; and, which is most important, the theory is presented in a logical rather than in a historical sequence ‘The second objective of the book is a rigorous but simple pre: of electromagnetic theory, with emphasis on the internal unity and har- mony of the mathematical description of electric and magnetic phenomena. To achieve this objective, the basic structure of the theory is first deter- mined. With the aid of general physical considerations it is made plausible that the theory must be based upon three types of experimental laws: the field laws, the energy laws, and the constitutive laws. At the same time it is deduced from Helmholtz’s theorem of vector analysis that a complete set of electric or magnetic field laws need not contain more than two ex- perimentally established correlations, which may be either in a differential form (curl and divergence laws) or in an integral form (circulation and flux laws). On the basis of these considerations the theory is then presented rigorously and simply in a systematic, coherent, and logical manner ‘The third objective of the book is to develop in the student a creative ability in the application of electromagnetic theory. For this purpose, detailed solutions to a large number of illustrative examples demonstrating various methods and applications of the theory have been incorporated in the book entation +The formulation of the concepts of electric current, voltage, charge, and electric and magnetic fields is based on ideas developed by R. W. Pohl in his famous lectures on gen- eral physics. The electricity and magnetism section of the lectures is described in R. W. Pohl, “Elektrizititslehre,” XIX Auflage, Springer, Berlin (1964), v 42216 : vi PREFACE Furthermore, each chapter, except Chapter 3, has been supplemented by a number of carefully selected problems which should help the student to build up the skill and initiative in practical application of the presented material. In agreement with modern curricula, the book deals primarily with a detailed exposition of the theory of macroscopic electric and magnetic fields, ‘The book is, however, sufficiently flexible to allow the instructor to add supplementary topics to the course. With this in mind, much subordinate material has been relegated to starred section, which may be omicted without loss of continuity, and to illustrative examples. The instructor can easily substitute additional material for these sections and examples. In writing the book, the author has attempted a complete rethinking of the subject matter. The book contains therefore an appreciable amount of original material, most of which has evolved in the process of developing the theory in accordance with the principles outlined in connection with the second objective of the book The author is grateful to many of his former studehts tor their encouraging attitude and helpful suggestions. He owes a great det to his wife Valen- tina, who patiently typed and proofread the numerous drafts of the manuscript and assisted in the preparation of the lines-of-force photographs appearing in this book. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION The numerous unusually favorable comments that the author has been receiving about the first edition of the book from many students and teachers have convinced him that the book does not require an extensive revision ‘Therefore, in preparing the second edition for publication, the author has limited the revision mainly to an improvement of the presentation As it was mentioned in the preface to the first edition. the book contains a substantial number of original derivations, formulas, and problems. Even more such original material appears in this edition, This kind of material is always more difficult to present and to verify than that which has repeatedly appeared in many textbooks and other publications over a period of many decades. The author can only hope therefore that both the presentation and the accuracy of this new material are as good as they can be. He also hopes that the fact that new correlations and methods can be continually found in even such well explored branches of physics as the classical elec- tromagnetic theory will be an inspiration for readers and users of this book to search for new relations and ideas in all branches of physics, no matter how well established Oleg D. Jefimenko CONTENTS Preface Part I MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION 1 Physical Quantities and Properties of Physical Equations LL 12. 1-3. 14. 15. Physical quantities and physical equations Ratio requirement. Dimensions of physical quantities Dimensional homogeneity of physical equation Dimensional analysis Dimensional constants ‘Transformation of units and measurables Problems 2 Vector Analysis Qa 22. 23. ' 24 25. 26. 27. 28, j 29, ' 210. 211 Scalars and vectors Addition and subtraction of vectors Multiplication of a vector by a scalar Representation of vectors by means of scalar components Scalar, or dot, product of two vectors Vector, or cross, product of two vectors Multiple products of vectors Differentiation and integration of vectors Scalar and vector fields Gradient Divergence and curl Operator V (“del”) Fundamental properties of vector fields Vector wave fields and retarded quantities Vector expressions in curvilinear orthogonal coordinates Vector identiries Problems rey ret 15 18 19 20 24 26 29 30 35 36 38 40 42 46 a7 59 viii CONTENTS Part If 3 Quantitative Investigation of Electric and Magnetic Phenomena 3-1. 8-2, 3-3. 3-4. 3.5, ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY Landmarks in the history of macroscopic electromagnetic theory ‘Three types of basic electric and magnetic laws Basic measurables in electricity and magnetism Current as a basic measurable Voltage asa basic measurable 4 Electrostatic Field in Vacuum 4, 42, 4-8, 44, 4-5, 4-6. Electric charges Electric field and electric field vector E Displacement field and displacement vector D Fundamental electrostatic field laws Calculation of electrostatic fields from charge distributions Calculation of electrostatic fields from charge inhomogeneities Problems 5 Electrostatic Potential 51, 52. 5-3, bk. 55. Electrostatic potential Capacitance Calculation of electrostatic potential from charge distribution Representation of electrostatic potential in terms of multipole potentials Expansion of electrostatic potential in a series of multipole potentials Problems 65 66, 68 69 2 74 76 80 82 101 106 HI 116 120 125 133 187 6 Special Methods for the Solution of Electrostatic Problems 6-1. 62. 6-3. Poisson's and Laplace’s equations Uniqueness of solution of electrostatic problems Method of harmonics 142 145 152 6-4. 65. 66. 6-7. CONTENTS Method of axial expansion Method of images Method of curvilinear squares Method of configuration coefficients Problems 7 Energy and Force Relations in the Electrostatic Field in Vacuum 71. 72. 7-3. 7A. 7 746. 7-7. 78. 79. 7-10. Tl. The energy of an electrostatic field Energy in terms of charge distribution Energy of a system of charge distributions Energy of a charge distribution in an external field Energy of a dipole in an external field Energy of-a system of charged conductors Correlation between electrostatic energy and electrostatic force Force experienced by a charge distribution in an electrostatic field Calculation of electrostatic force from charge inhomogeneities Force and torque experienced by a dipole in an electrostatic field ‘Maxwell's stress equation and electrostatic pressure Problems 8 Electrostatic Field in Material Media 8-1. Cavity definition of electric field vectors Fundamental laws of the electrostatic fields in material media Electrostatic potential and capacitance of conductors and capacitors in the presence of dielectric media Calculation of electrostatic field and electrostatic potential within dielectric media from charge distribution Boundary conditions at a dielectric interface Special methods for the solution of electrostatic problems involving dielectrics of constant € Polarization Energy and force relations for electrostatic fields with dielectrics present Problems ix 159 161 168 173 180 186, 189 191 194 199 200 203 207 210 213 215 218 227 228 282 2338, 241 245 258 269 x CONTENTS 9 Stationary Electric Field in Conducting Media 9-1. 9-2. 9-3. 9-4, 9-5. 9-6. 9-7. 9-8. Electric fields in conductors. Current density field Fundamental laws of the stationary electric fields in conducting media Some consequences of rhe fundamental laws. Conductance and resistance Special methods for the solution of stationary electric field problems Displacement field and static charge in current- carrying conductors Electric field outside a current-carrying conductor Dissipation of energy in current-carrying conductors Stored energy and forces associated with the electric field of current-carrying conductors Problems 10 Stationary Magnetic Field in Vacuum 10-1, 10-2. 10-3. 4. 10-5. 10-6. 10-7. Magnetic field and magnetic field vector H Induction field and induction vector B Magnetic fields as a property of moving electric charges Fundamental magnetostatic field laws Inductance Calculation of magnetostatic fields from current distributions Calculation of magnetostatic fields from current inhomogeneities Problems 11 Magnetic Potentials 11-1. 11-2. 11-8. 114. 115. Magnetic vector potential Neumann's formula Magnetostatic scalar potential Special methods for the solution of magnetostatic problems Current dipole Problems 12 Motion of Bodies and Particles in Magnetic and Electric Fields 12-1. Dependence of magnetic and electric fields on reference frame 276 277 279 286 295 299 306 310 312 320 325 $27 $28 337 348 350. 358 363 370 378 376 380 383 12-2. 12-3. 12-4. 12-5, CONTENTS Motion of bodies in magnetic and electric fields Minkowski’s equations for moving media Method of harmonics for fields of moving bodies Motion of charged particles through a magnetic and electric field Problems 13 Energy and Force Relations in the Magnetostatic Field in Vacuum 13-1, 13-2. 13-3. 13-4. 13-5, 13-6. 13-7. 13-8. ‘The energy of a magnetostatic field Energy in terms of current distribution Energy of a system of current distributions Energy of a current distribution in an external field Energy of a system of filamentary currents or circuits Correlation between magnetic energy and magnetic force Energy and force relations for a current dipole Maxwell’s stress equation for a magnetic field Problems 14 Magnetostatic Field in Material Media 141, 14-2. 14.8, 144, 14-5. 14-6. 14-7, 14.8. 14.9, Cavity definition of magnetic field vectors Fundamental laws of the magnetostatic fields in material media Inductance of conducting systems in the presence of material media Calculation of magnetostatic field and magnetostatic potentials within material media in terms of current distribution Boundary conditions for magnetic fields at an interface between two media Special methods for the solution of magnetostatic problems involving media of constant je Magnetization and magnetization charges Magnetization currents Energy and force relations for magnetostatic fields in the presence of material media Problems 891 398 408 47 421 427 429 430 481 433 487 445 446 449 454 456 457 460 461 464 468 476 481 491 xii CONTENTS 15 Maxwell’s Equations and Time-Dependent Electric and Magnetic Fields 15-1. 15-2. 15-3. 15-4, 15-5. 15-6. 15-7. 15.8. Conservation of charge and Faraday’s law of induction 496 Maxwell's equations Boundary conditions for time-dependent electric and magnetic fields Poynting’s vector Maxwell's stress equation for time-dependent fields and the electromagnetic momentum Electromagnetic wave equations Representation of time-dependent electromagnetic ficlds in terms of charges and currents Retarded potentials for electric and magnetic fields Problems 16 Electromagnetic Waves and Radiation 16-1, Electromagnetic waves in free space 16-2, Direction of electric and magnetic field vectors in plane waves 163, Energy relations in plane electromagnetic waves 16-4. Electromagnetic origin of the laws of optics 16-5. Intensity relations in electromagnetic waves ata dielectric interface 16-6. Reflection of electromagnetic waves from a conducting plane 16-7. Guided electromagnetic waves 16-8, Generation of electromagnetic waves 16-9. Hydromagnetic waves Problems Appendix 1, Tables for Conversion of Measurables and Units Appendix 2. Electric and Magnetic Properties of Common Substances Appendix 3, Correct Use of Maxwell’s Stress Equations Appendix 4. Method of Equivalent Currents Index 500 506 508 Si 514 515 518 522 528 530 533 535 549 556, 558 565, 569 583 585 589 ELECTRICITY ayp MAGNETISM T MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION = | | PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND | PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL __| EQUATIONS In physics” extensive use is made of the possibility of mathematical representation of physical phenomena: physical con- cepts are designated by symbols, the relationships between concepts are expressed by formulas, and the correlations between phenomena are represented by equations. Physical formulas and equations are characterized by special properties and form a special class of mathe- matical expressions, The knowledge of these properties is essential for an accurate formulation an intelligent application of physical theories. In the field of electricity and magnetism this knowledge is also needed for the understanding of the relations between different systerns of electric and magnetic measurables used in scientific literature, We shall start therefore with a brief discussion of the nature and properties of physical formulas and equations. 1-1. Physical Quantities and Physical Equations The properties of physical formulas and equations are closely connected with four preliminary procedures which constitute the starting point for a quantitative study of physical phenomena, These procedures are: (1) selection of basic, or primary, measurables (basic objects of measurements) and specification of properties to be used for their identification 4 MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION (2) selection of instruments for the measurement of ba ables (3) selection of standards and units for the calibration of these instruments and (4) selection of derived, or secondary, measurables and specification of rules for their measurement. The first of these procedures defines the conceptual contents of the basic, or primary, quantities, while the second and third procedures make it possible to associate a definite magnitude with each of these quantities, thus completing their definition, The fourth procedure consists in selecting certain groups of primary measurements in combination with ° specified mathematical operations to be performed upon the results of these measurements and defines the derived, or secondary, quantities. With the aid of these four procedures it is possible to describe various physical phenomena in terms of a few primary quantities (results of single measurements) and a few secondary quantities (results of certain grottps of measurements). The experimentally observed corre- lations between phenomena can then be expressed as correlations between these quantities in the form of algebraic equations. It is clear that such equations reflect two different things. Qn one hand, they reflect correlations inherent in the physical phe- nomena. On the other hand, they reflect our approach to the quanti- tative description of these phenomena—in particular, our selection of measurables, standards, and units. This selection involves a con- siderable degree of arbitrariness. In principle, one can express the same set of correlations by using one, two, or any other number of basic measurables of any reasonable kind, The division of measurables into primary and secondary is also arbitrary. ‘The choice of standards and units of measurements is, of course, arbitrary too. As we shail see, this arbitrariness in the selection of measurables, standards, and units is responsibie for several remarkable properties of the physically meaning- ful mathematical expressions. sic measur~ 1-2. Ratio Requirement. Dimensions of Physical Quantities Let us investigate how physical quantities, formulas, and equations are affected by the possibility of choosing different standards and units of measurements. PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND EQUATIONS 5 Obviously, the correlations between physical phenomena are determined by the very nature of these phenomena and do not depend on our choice of standards or units. Since the correlations between physical phenomena are independent of the choice of standards or units, all equations which describe these correlations must be invariant to a change of the size of the standards or the size of the corresponding units. In particular, the ratio of any two physical quantities each of which represents the same measurable must not depend on the units in terms of which these quantities are expressed (for instance, the ratio of two distances must not depend on whether these distances are measured in feet or in meters). Only those quantities that satisfy this ratio requirement axe considered physically meaningful. The fact that physical quantities must satisfy the ratio requirement is their character istic property. Since the same quantity can be expressed by different numbers, depending on the size of units used, a complete specification of a quantity must contain a statement of the units in terms of which the quantity is measured. If a quantity represents the result of a group of measurements (secondary quantity), it is necessary to state how the number representing the quantity is correlated to each individual unit used for the evaluation of this number. It has been found that if both the primary and secondary quantities satisfy the ratio requirement, then the value of any secondary quantity represents a power product of the values of primary quantities. There~ fore physical quantities may be written as products of two factors. The first factor is a number (or a symbol standing for a number) and is called the numerical value of the quantity. The second factor is a power product of symbols designating basic units or, in a general case, a power product of symbols designating basic measurables; this power product is called the dimensions of the quantity and constitutes a formula which shows how the numerical value of the quantity js related to the units of basic measurables. The dimensions of a basic quantity are, of course, only one symbol designating the basic unit or the basic measurable itself Conceptually different quantities usually have different dimensions, and therefore dimensions are frequently used for identification of quantities. To indicate that only the dimensions but not the numerical value of a quantity are being considered, the symbol designating the quantity is placed between square brackets. For example, [V] means dimensions of the quantity 7. The dimensions themselves are usually written in square brackets too; thus if L — ————— 6 MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION designates length and 7" designates time, the equation (V] = [LT] means: the dimensions of V are length divided by time.t 1-3, Dimensional Homogeneity of Physical Equations. Dimensional Analysis As has been stated in the preceding section, all physical equations must be invariant to a change in the size of units. A detailed investiga- tion shows that the necessary and sufficient condition for this invariance is the dimensional homogeneity (dimensional uniformity) of the equations, which means that only quantities possessing the same dimensions may be added, subtracted, or equated, and that only pure numbers may serve as exponents or as arguments of trigonometric, hyperbolic, and other similar functions, If equations are dimensionally homogencous, any change of units cancels out and does not influence the equation. Thus the arbitrariness in the choice of standards and units restricts physical equations to equations homogeneous in dimensions. This restriction gave rise to a branch of physics called dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is an aggregate of methods for solving various physical problems on the basis of dimensional considerations by utilizing the property of dimensional homogeneity of physical equations. Dimensional analysis can be used for a variety of purposes, from finding errors in algebraic computations to solving partial differ- ential equations, Two especially useful applications of dimensional analysis are described below. Other applications are demonstrated in Sections 1-4 and 1-5. ‘A very useful application of dimensional analysis is a method for tracing errors in calculations involving physical quantities. Since physical equations must be homogencous in dimensions, the dimensions ofall the terms connected by equality signs must be the same. Further- more, all terms connected by plus or minus signs must have the same dimensions, and all exponents and arguments of transcendental functions must be pure numbers. Consequently, if any term obtained in the process of calculation has dimensions different from those of the preceding term, or if it violates dimensional homogeneity in any other manner, then an error has been made in the calculation of this term, By checking the dimensional consistency of calculations one 1 The symbols Land T are used universally to indicate length and time. Another universally used symbot is 4, indicating mass PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND EQUATIONS 7 can find the term in which the error has occurred, Once it is known where the error is, the error can easily be identified and eliminated. Of course, even if a calculation is dimensionally consistent it still may be wrong for a number of obvious reasons. A dimensional check, however, allows one to detect a surprisingly large number of errors encountered in most types of calculations. Vv Example 1-31 As a result of a certain calculation the following formula has been obtained: Ry RyRy Determine whether or not this formula is physically meaningful, if Ry, Ry and R are physical quantities having the same dimensions [A]. To check the formula, we compare the dimensions of the left side with those of the rightside. The dimensions of the left side are [A], the dimensions of the right side are §R, + Rel/LR] + [Ry] = CR) (RP ® = [RIL Thus the formula in question is dimensionally wrong, which indicates that an error has been made in the calculation. (Note that the dimensions of a sum of a difference of two quantities are the same as the dimensions of each quantity alone since only quantities of the same dimensions may be added or subtracted.) Example 1-3.2 Make a dimensional check of the following calculation 2x x? cos ax dx == — cos ax + — sin ax — a @ where [a] = [x]-1. Taking into account the fact that [dx] = [x], we see that the dimen- sions of the last two terms on the right are the same as those of the term (integral) on the left, namely [x]*. The dimensions of the first term on the right are, however, [x]8, Hence, there is an error in this term (a recalculation would reveal that there should be a? instead of a in the denominator). A Another very important application of dimensional analysis is a method for determining functional dependences between quantities involved in physical phenomena. According to the fundamental theorem of dimensional analysis—the Buckingham, or “z”” theorem—a functional dependence between any physical quantities can always be expressed as my S(t es ay + + 6 Ty) 8 MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION where the 7’s are independent dimensionless power products built from the quantities involved.' In particular, if these quantities are such that only one independent dimensionless power product 1, can be made from them, then the above formula reduces to 7, = constant. In this case one can find the functional dependence between the quantities by building a dimensionless power product from these quantities and setting the product equal to an undetermined numerical constant. Vv Example 13.3 A beam of electrons of cross-sectional area S{m*] and charge density p[amp + sec m=] is ejected from an electron gun and moves with velocity o{m- sec~]. The beam is equivalent to a current J {amp]. Find how this current depends on S, p, and v. We begin by constructing independent dimensionless power products from S, p, % and I. This we do by combining successively the quantity having the most complex dimensions (p in the present case) with other quantities, each time eliminating some of the units from the dimensions of the quantity With which we start. To eliminate famp] from p, we use J, obtaining é [sec - m3]. To eliminate [sec] from this expression, we use v, obtaining pu T To eliminate [m~2] from this expression, we use S, obtaining pus 7 ‘The last expression is a dimensionless power product, 7. In building it, we have used all quantities given in the problem, and there are no quantities left from which we could build other independent 7's. By Buckingham’s theorem we then have where (” is a numerical constant, The dependence which we seck is there- fore (we replace C’ by L/C, for simplicity) T= prs, tn power products are called independent if none of the products can be expressed as a power product of any of the remaining n — 1 products. Each product has the form Q7]° Q2- Qj--+, where Q’s are the quantities under consideration, PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND EQUATIONS 9 Example 1-34 Find the functional dependence between the period and the length of a simple pendulum, taking into account that the period # depends on the length of the pendulum / and on the acceleration of Since the dimensions of g are [g] = (£7), we see by inspection that the functional dependence must be where is a numerical constant, 1-4. Dimensional Constants As we have learned in the preceding section, the basic property of physical equations is their dimensional homogeneity. This property originates from the possibility of choosing between different standards of measurement, Another important property of physical equations is the presence of dimensional constants in them. This property arises from the fact that more than one basic measurable is used in the investigation of physical phenomena. Adding one more basic measurable to a given set of measurables results in the appearance of at least one new dimensional constant in the equations correlating this new measurable with those already present, Thus in electricity and magnetism the introduction of current and voltage as new basic measurables in addition to Iength, mass, and time results in the appearance of three new universal dimensional constants: permittivity of space [ current - time ] “ol Voltage - length’ permeability of space [ voltage : time | ol gunent “TengthJ’ and constant of energy mass: (length)? J ument voltage = (time) 10 MATHEMATICAL INTRODUCTION (these constants are not present if electromagnetic phenomena are formulated only in terms of length, mass, and time as is the case when the so-called “electrostatic,” “electromagnetic,” or “Gaussian” systems of measurables are used). Similarly, the reduction of basic measurables by one results in the disappearance of at least one dimensional constant from the equations that correlate the eliminated measurable with other measurables One could, for instance, climinate mass as a basic measurable in mechanics and consider it as a secondary measurable of dimensions [(length)3/(time)?]. As a result, the gravitational constant G would disappear from all equations where it is now present (Newton's ex- pression of the gravitational law would be # = mmsjr* rather than F = Gmym,/r?, as it is usually written). The significance of dimensional constants is frequently under- estimated. Sometimes they are regarded as a nuisance introduced in physics because of the necessity of “taking care of units.” Actually, however, dintensional constants originate from experimentally estab- lished correlations between physical quantities and may well be regarded as concise formulations of physical laws. Physical laws express certain permanent correlations between quantities, These permanent cor- relations are usually implicitly represented by the corresponding di- mensional constants, When a dimensional constant enters an equation, it makes that equation subject to the corresponding law. To illustrate this point, Ict us return to Example 1-3.4. In this example we derived the equation for the period of a pendulum on the basis of dimensional considerations. We know, however, that in order to derive this equation by the usual analytical means, we should start from the law of motion of a particle in the carth’s gravitational field. ‘The question arises: how could we obtain the correct formula by merely using dimensional considerations without any reference to the law of gravity? The answer is simple: we actually did use the infor- mation contained in the law of gravity by including the constant of gravity g in the set of quantities pertaining to the problem? Often the statement of a physical law is equivalent to the statement of the existence of a certain dimensional constant. Consider, for 1 For a discussion of various systems of measurables see Section 1-5, "In fact, in Example 1-3.4 we have determined the correlation between time and length for the general case of the motion of a partic field specified by g. Thus the formula ¢ — C/TIg describes not only the period of a pendulum but also the time of fall as a function of distance for a freely falling body, the time-distance dependence for a particle moving on an inclined plane, etc. in a constant gravitational PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND EQUATIONS — II instance, the well-known Ohm’s law for electric conductors. According

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