Irony
Explained
The Ultimate Guide for Storytellers

Brought to you by StudioBinder

 Copyright © 2022 by StudioBinder Inc.

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 CONTENTS

Introduction 4

What is Irony? 7

Verbal Irony 12

Sarcasm 20

Understatement 26

Overstatement 34

Socratic Irony 41

Situational Irony 46

Cosmic Irony 54

Poetic Irony 59

Structural Irony 65

Historical Irony 71

Dramatic Irony 77

Tragic Irony 92

Conclusion 98

More Books 100

Foreword

The impetus behind StudioBinder was simple — to create a

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But once this was done, it became clear that creating the software
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and millions of readers every month, and our YouTube Channel,

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of this goal to educate.

StudioBinder’s business and educational aspirations have aligned

in ways that I am continually inspired by. And it has been a true
honor and joy to watch the StudioBinder community grow.

Which brings us to this latest resource: Irony Explained — The

Ultimate Guide for Storytellers. Like a painter looking for the
perfect hue or a composer searching for the perfect instrument,
writers too are constantly exploring the various techniques and
devices to enhance their craft.

Irony is one such device that can turn simple dialogue into
something rich with subtext; it can add white-knuckle suspense to
both thrillers and comedies alike; and it can be used to craft
endings that resonate with an element of poetry and justice.

Irony is a commonly misunderstood concept so our main goal

here is to set the record straight and provide examples that make
all types of irony clear and approachable. We hope you enjoy the

Irony Explained 2

 book and that it might just be the secret weapon in your next
story.

Robert Kiraz, CEO

StudioBinder

Irony Explained 3

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

We encounter irony every day: in our favorite movies, TV shows,

books, and in our own lives. Most people have a general
understanding of irony but there are also a lot of misconceptions
about it. For example, were you aware that there are three
different types of irony?

Whether you’re writing a short story or a screenplay, irony can be

a powerful storytelling tool. In this book, we’re going to define
irony in all its variations. In the end, you’ll be able to recognize
the different types and sub-types of irony and understand how

Irony Explained 4

they work. The next step is to carry this understanding straight

into your next writing project.

Irony and storytelling

Irony is all about “what appears to be” and how that clashes with
“what is.” Think of any story in which everything happens exactly
as expected. Doesn’t sound like a very interesting story, does it?

A good story needs obstacles, twists, surprises, reversals, setbacks,

and struggle. One of the ways writers have been able to bring
these elements into storytelling is with irony.

When what we expect to happen doesn’t happen, it

creates  conflict. When we know the truth about a dangerous
situation and we watch someone else get close to that danger, it
creates  suspense. When someone says one thing but means
another, it creates subtext.

Irony Explained 5

All of these elements (conflict, suspense, subtext) are fundamental

building blocks in storytelling. You don’t need to be an expert on
irony to be a good storyteller. But it sure helps. Let’s officially
define irony before we move on to the various types.

Irony Explained 6

CHAPTER 2

What is Irony?

Irony is a literary device in which the reality of a situation is

opposite of expectations. The key here is “opposite,” not just
different. This incongruity can be found in language (what we say
vs. what we mean) or circumstances (what we expect to happen
vs. what actually happens).

Irony Explained 7

 Irony de nition

Irony is also one of the most misunderstood concepts. Most

people call something “ironic” when it’s surprising, different, or
coincidental. In other words, the concept as we know it has
expanded outside of its actual definition.

For example, if it rains on your wedding day, that would be

unfortunate but not ironic. That’s just plain bad luck.

Irony Explained 8
fi

 Sorry but it’s not ironic

However, if you planned your wedding in a desert that hasn’t seen

rain in 100 years specifically to avoid a soggy ceremony and
THEN it rains, that’s pure irony.

Irony Explained 9

 Now it’s ironic

Irony can be sad and tragic, or it can funny and satirical. In other
words, there are limitless ways you can wield irony in your stories.

But what does irony actually bring to the storytelling table?

Irony Explained 10

 Why writers use irony

Irony is born when “what seems to be” is the opposite from “what
is.” This contrast between expectation and reality is what makes
irony such a rich device to use in storytelling.

Irony adds a layer of complexity and richness to the conflict and a

layer of resonance to your story that might not have been there
before.

Life is constantly surprising us and we are presented with

shattered expectations and twists of fate all the time. Therefore, it
makes sense that irony in storytelling resonates so much. It
expresses that confounding yet very real aspect of life where our
own expectations misalign with our realities.

Beyond pure, traditional irony, there are many variations. There

are three main types of irony: verbal, situational, and dramatic.
Each type fulfills a different function in storytelling — as do each
of the various sub-types within those categories. So, without
further ado, let’s jump into our first main type of irony.

Irony Explained 11

CHAPTER 3

Verbal Irony

Verbal irony is the most common type of irony because it’s tied
directly to language — which we use every day. In our everyday
conversation, do we always say exactly what we mean? No, there
is always instances when we exaggerate the truth or downplay a
feeling. If everyone said exactly what meant all the time, we’d be
talking like robots.

That is where techniques like verbal irony come in.

Irony Explained 12

 Verbal irony de nition

For example, when you get an "F" on your term paper and say,
"Wow, I did a really good job on my term paper!"

That is verbal irony.

There is a key difference between verbal irony and lying or

hypocrisy. When you lie to someone, you intend for the listener to
understand the lie as truth. But when using verbal irony, the
speaker intends for their statement to be understood as ironic.

Irony Explained 13
fi

 In Mean Girls, Regina gives a classmate a glowing compliment on

her skirt. But as the classmate walks away, Regina admits her true
feelings, “That is the ugliest f-ing skirt I have ever seen.”

Lying is not verbal irony • Mean Girls (2004)

In other words, Regina lied. This isn’t sarcasm and it isn’t verbal

irony.

Irony Explained 14

 Within verbal irony, there are 4 sub-types:

1. Sarcasm

2. Understatement

3. Overstatement

4. Socratic irony

Each one brings a particular element so understanding which one

to use and for what purpose is essential. In the following chapters,
we’ll dive into each of these verbal irony subtypes individually.

Stable vs. unstable irony 

One important aspect of verbal irony that we should explain is the
difference between  stable and unstable irony. This aspect has
more to do with literature where the tone and delivery of verbal
irony is more difficult to convey.

Irony Explained 15

 Stable vs. unstable irony is an important part of deducing

an author’s voice, which is how we interpret as the author’s true
feelings on their work.

Stable irony occurs when readers are  able to infer the author’s
voice. Their perspective and purpose of using irony is clear.

Unstable irony when readers are  unable to infer the author’s

voice. Their perspective and purpose of using irony is unclear.

All of this is subjective — and tucked under the umbrella of

literary criticism. Many literary scholars suggest that we can’t
interpret an author’s voice based solely off the things they write.

Others say we can only interpret an author’s voice based on the

things they write. There isn’t necessarily a “right” or “wrong”
perspective on the difference between stable irony and unstable
irony. 

The most important thing to remember is that the words you

write will have an impact on the reader. That doesn’t mean you
have to agree with what you write — particularly in fiction – but

Irony Explained 16

 you do have to acknowledge that some people might interpret it

that way.

Now, let’s jump into some examples of verbal irony and the
various applications of this dialogue technique.

Verbal irony examples

In Tommy Boy, Tommy leaves an open bag of M&Ms on the
dashboard of Richard’s vintage car. When the car turns and a
bunch of M&Ms slide across the dash and into the air vents,
Richard gives us a gem of verbal irony.

“Oh, that sounds good! Melted chocolate inside the dash, that
really ups the resale value.”

Richard is an extremely insecure character as we later find out. A

large part of how he communicates is with verbal irony and
sarcasm as a passive aggressive way to express his frustrations.

Irony Explained 17

 In Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Han Solo has just returned to
his beloved Millennium Falcon. His reunion is cut short when
some unsavory characters he’s been avoiding have found him. In a
very typical Han Solo delivery, he says, “Oh, great. It’s the
Guavian Death Gang.”

Han Solo’s verbal irony • The Force Awakens (2015)

Obviously, Han is not excited to see the Guavian Death Gang and
his underplayed delivery of the line makes it clear that he is being
ironic.

Irony Explained 18

Why writers use verbal irony

Verbal irony can be a powerful tool in writing dialogue. When a
character says exactly what they mean, that can be uninteresting
both for the actor delivering the lines and for the audience
watching them.

Interesting dialogue has nuance and  subtext  — and it leaves a

little (or a lot) of room open for interpretation. This type of irony
can be used for any number of situations, from comedy to
romance to suspense. It can be used to add depth and complexity
to what characters say.

Irony Explained 19

CHAPTER 4

Sarcasm

What is sarcasm? As it turns out, it isn’t exactly what most people

think it is. In some cases, what we think is sarcasm is really just
your garden variety of verbal irony. For writers, it is crucial to
have a precise and firm grasp on language, so this is the perfect
opportunity to clear up any misconceptions.

Sarcasm is an ironic statement meant to mock or ridicule

another person. The amount of cruelty can range from light-
hearted joking to downright nasty.

Irony Explained 20

The term has its origins from the Greek root word “sarkezein”
meaning “to tear flesh, bite the lip in rage, sneer.” According to
Merriam-Webster, sarcasm is “designed to cut or give pain.”

Basically, sarcasm is verbal irony when used to belittle or ridicule

someone else. Not yourself, someone else.

For example, let’s say you baked a pie that tasted horrible and
said, “Wow, I’m such a good baker!” With the right tone of voice,
everyone listening would know you were using pure verbal irony.

When someone else bakes a similarly inedible pie and you say,
“Wow, you’re such a good baker!”

That is sarcasm.

The difference between irony and sarcasm is quite simple: if no

one is being insulted, it’s NOT sarcasm.

Remember:  all sarcasm  is  verbal irony, but  not all verbal
irony  is  sarcasm. There is constant confusion over irony vs.
sarcasm but hopefully you understand the difference now.

Irony Explained 21

 Sarcasm examples 
In Die Hard, Hans Gruber has got to be one of the best villains of
all time. A big part of his charm is his subtle insults in scenes like
this. When Ellis comes to negotiate, Hans is unimpressed to say
the least. 

Ellis is so overconfident that he doesn’t pick up the obvious

deadpan, sarcastic delivery of Gruber’s lines: “You’re very
perceptive,” and “You’re amazing. You figured this all out
already?” Hans’ delivery of these lines is a bit understated, which
is perhaps why Ellis doesn’t pick up on it.

In Stanley Kubrick’s Full Metal Jacket, Sgt. Hartman slings

multiple insults at his recruits. And some of the best examples are
bits of vicious sarcasm.

“Did your parents have any children that lived?”

Irony Explained 22

 Sgt. Hartman unleashes insults • Full Metal Jacket (1987)

One thing that makes The Big Lebowski so great is the dialogue. It

is chock full of puns, repetition, and sarcasm. In one scene, The
Dude is attacked in his home by thugs demanding money, but
they’ve got the wrong man. 

Irony Explained 23

 The Dude sarcastically abides • The Big Lebowski (1998)

As a pacifist, The Dude’s only form of recourse is a sharp tongue.

So, when Thug #2 picks up the Dude’s bowling ball and asks,
“What the &$@* is this?” The Dude’s reply is perfectly sarcastic
jab at his intelligence:

“Obviously, you’re not a golfer.”

As we can see in these examples, sarcasm can used in a myriad of

ways. And how these characters use it reflects their
characterization.

Irony Explained 24

 Why writers use sarcasm

Sarcasm is usually good for a laugh but what else can it add to
your characters and dialogue? Since sarcasm is designed to insult,
it can become a character trait for bullies, siblings, villains, or
anyone with a sharp tongue. But if we think about this on a
psychological level, the sarcasm might be coming from a place of
insecurity. In this way, it can be used to reveal an inner quality to
the characters and how they communicate.

But every character has their own way to wield sarcasm. The Dude
is a pacifist so he uses sarcasm as a form of recourse. Sgt.
Hartman uses sarcasm to harden up his recruits. And Hans
Gruber seems to use it to satisfy his boredom suffering such fools
as Ellis.

Now that we've got sarcasm down, it's time to use this element in
your own scripts. How can you use it to create character or punch
up dialogue? You'll find that it (and all forms of irony) can be a
rich and nuanced way to create memorable and layered
characters.

Irony Explained 25

CHAPTER 5

Understatement

Verbal irony can take many forms, each with its own
characteristics and purpose. Understatement is a type of verbal
irony that turns language into an opportunity to say a lot with a
little. But let’s define it formally.

Understatement  is when you say something to intentionally

downplay what you actually mean. If verbal irony is saying the
"opposite" of what you mean, understatement is simply saying
"less" of what you mean.

Irony Explained 26

When it comes to dialogue, having a character say  exactly what

they mean can be boring. Sure, there are plenty of moments when
clarity is the best way to go but verbal irony provides
opportunities for subtext.

One way this is done is with understatement, which can applied in

many different ways for many different reasons.

There is also a sub-type of understatement called litotes, which is

briefly defined as verbal irony that uses a double negative to
describe a positive intent (e.g., "This hamburger isn't terrible!"). 

Now that we've covered an understatement definition, let's look at

some examples to see the myriad of ways it can be used — from
comedy to threats and fear.

Examples of Understatement
Understatement is an ideal vehicle to deliver jokes and one-liners.
An understated retort or a snappy comment can really add to the

Irony Explained 27

humor. And there is perhaps no better example of this than King

Arthur's clash with The Black Knight in  Monty Python and The
Holy Grail.

”Your arm’s off!” “No, it isn’t!” • Monty Python’s Holy Grail (1975)

When things start going really bad for The Black Knight, his self-
assessment is understated to a ridiculous level. What is
understatement? Saying, "it's just a scratch" when you arm has
just been chopped off.

Irony Explained 28

Everyone knows the fantastical tale of Dorothy Gale who was

transported from a simple Kansas farm to the wonders of Oz. As
she steps out into this strange new world, her shock is perfectly
captured in her iconic line, "Toto, I've a feeling we're not in
Kansas anymore." 

Somewhere over the rainbow • The Wizard of Oz (1939)

The fact that she downplays this statement suggests the enormity
of her wonder. If she had stated the obvious, it just wouldn't have

Irony Explained 29

been that interesting — added to that, it adds a layer of humor as

well. It is nuance like this that makes Dorothy's line so iconic. It is
#4 on AFI's Top 100 Movie Quotes, after all.

“I’m gonna make him an offer he can’t refuse” is a chilling line

from The Godfather. The exterior meaning of this line is that Don
Corleone will simply negotiate with Woltz but the interior
meaning is much more sinister: if Woltz doesn’t agree, he will be
murdered.

Understated threats in The Godfather (1972)

Irony Explained 30

The way Don Corleone downplays this action with such casualness
is what gives it its power. 

This type of verbal irony can also be used to add a sense of

urgency. In this iconic example from  Jaws, Brody's line ("You're
gonna need a bigger boat") is a perfect example of
understatement.

It suggests his internal panic without him actually panicking. He

could run around the boat yelling, "We're in trouble! We need
help! Oh, my God!" but that's not in his character.

Understated fear in Jaws (1975)

Irony Explained 31

We've seen him calmly dealing with his fear of sharks and the
ocean for most of the movie, which makes this understated
moment layered with meaning, in line with his character, and
perfectly delivered.

Why writers use understatement

As we’ve seen in these examples, understatement can be an
extremely effective tool when writing dialogue. It can serve many
purposes in many situations.

It is the opposite of exaggeration, a more subtle way to

communicate how you really feel. And, yet, sometimes an
understated thought of feeling can signal just how important or
powerful it actually is.

Think of Dorothy’s awestruck wonder as she steps into the Land

of Oz. Think of the fear in Sheriff Brody as he confronts the
enormity of the task at hand (and of the shark, of course).

Irony Explained 32

A perfectly understated line of dialogue suggests the interior of a

character that plain speaking might not be able to capture.
Mastering this type of verbal irony is a great tool for any writer
looking to bring sophistication and nuance to their dialogue.

Irony Explained 33

CHAPTER 6

Overstatement

Sometimes you just can’t find the words to express how you feel.
To match the depth or intensity of what you’re trying to
communicate, you need something like overstatement.

Overstatement  is when you use language to exaggerate your

intended meaning. These statements count as figurative language
and are not meant to be taken literally. Also known as hyperbole,
overstatement is used to emphasis the importance of your
statement.

Irony Explained 34

If verbal irony is saying the "opposite" of what you mean,

overstatement is simply saying "more" of what you mean.

Now, let’s look at some examples of overstatement to see how this

technique is deployed.

Overstatement examples
Overstatement can amplify anything a character is feeling. In this
scene from Titanic, Jack has just won tickets aboard the ship. We
know very little of his character at this point but it's clear that this
is a spectacular moment in his life. So, how does he communicate
this exuberance? With an exclamation of unbridled joy.

“I’m the king of the world!”

Irony Explained 35

 Overstated joy in Titanic (1997)

It can be difficult to put emotions into words, especially passion

and romance. That's why the expressive and abstract qualities of
poetry are often used instead of straightforward language.

For an overstatement example that nails this idea, look no further

than Bram Stoker's Dracula.

When the title character meets Mina, he is reminded of the

woman he loved and lost centuries earlier.

Irony Explained 36

Romance is perfect for overstatement • Dracula (1992)

To express the longing and the power of this reunion, Dracula

says, "I have crossed oceans of time to find you.” Granted, as a
vampire, he might actually be telling the truth but you can see
how a line like this is to be taken as exaggeration.

Just like romance, negative emotions are also fit for

overstatement. When your character is overwhelmed and pushed
off the edge, simply language will just not do.

Irony Explained 37

In  Rebel Without a Cause, Jim has had enough of his parents'
dysfunctional marriage. And in a drunken outburst, he lets fly
with an overstatement that rang true for an entire generation.

“You’re tearing me apart!” • Rebel Without a Cause (1955)

This is just a friendly reminder that you also need a great actor to
deliver such over-the-top dialogue.

Irony Explained 38

 “You’re [also] tearing me apart, Lisa!” • The Room (2003)

Case in point, Tommy Wiseau takes the same line from Rebel but
delivers it with drastically different results.

Why writers use overstatement

Sometimes, it can be difficult to explain how you really feel. This
is where overstatement comes in — it is a chance to emphasize the
"quality" of your feelings by increasing their "quantity."

Irony Explained 39

Writers use overstatement because sometimes there just aren’t

the right words to describe your internal state. No matter the
emotion, there is always an opportunity for exaggeration and
hyperbole.

Emotions are intangible and to quantify them is a fool’s errand.

This is where the power of language and dialogue comes in.
Literary devices like metaphor, simile, and overstatement are able
to express the inexpressible.

You can also think of overstatement as a way to be more

economical with your dialogue. In other words, you can take an
entire paragraph of meaning and condense it into a single,
powerful line.

Do we need Jim to say anything more than, “You’re tearing me

apart” or do those four words speak volumes on their own?

Irony Explained 40

CHAPTER 7

Socratic Irony

Socratic irony is one of the more manipulative types of irony. It’s a

tricky way to get information out of someone that can be used
against them later. This type of irony is perfect for courtroom
scenes but can applied in any sort of verbal confrontation.

Socratic irony occurs when you feign ignorance in order to get

someone to admit something. In other words, 'playing dumb' to
catch someone in a lie or to confess to something they wouldn't
otherwise concede. It is a verbal chess match that gives your
opponent a false sense of security that lures them into a trap.

Irony Explained 41

 This is where the whole concept of irony was born, named for a
Greek character type called an “Eiron” who used wit disguised as
ignorance to defeat his opponents.

Let’s look closer at Socratic irony with examples from both drama
and comedy to give you an idea of how it may be used in your own
scripts.

Examples of Socratic irony

This type of irony is ideal for courtroom dramas. For lawyers,
using rhetorical tricks like Socratic irony are part and parcel of the
job.

And in one of the most memorable results of this type of

questioning comes from A Few Good Men.

“You can’t handle the truth” instantly became a classic and

quotable line but pay attention to the questions leading up to that
moment.

Irony Explained 42

 Socratic irony in action • A Few Good Men (1992)

By asking the right questions, Lt. Kaffee is able to lead Col. Jessep
into a trap, getting him so riled up that he confesses.

Of course, this type of irony isn't relegated to the court system, it

can be useful in an office setting as well.

In this classic moment from  The Office, Dwight lies about a

dentist appointment so he can secretly meet with Jan with a
proposal to take over Michael’s job. Jan calls Michael immediately
with news of this attempted coup.

Irony Explained 43

When Dwight returns, Michael pretends he doesn’t know and uses

a clever ruse to catch Dwight in his lie. Michael offers him some
M&Ms and then drops the bomb:

“Hey, I thought you weren’t supposed to eat anything for a couple

of hours after you’ve had a crown put in?”

Dwight falls right into Michael’s trap • The Of ce (2005)

Michael Scott is by no means the sharpest knife in the drawer and

has been manipulated himself on numerous occasions. But, on

Irony Explained 44

fi

 this day, Michael executes perfect Socratic irony to catch Dwight

red-handed.

Why writers use Socratic irony

If your character need to get answers from someone unwilling to
give them, Socratic irony is certainly an option. Ignorance can be
a clever trick to get what you want. In certain situations, giving
someone the impression that you are not a threat will lower their
guard. And that's the time to strike!

It’s also a great way to showcase the intelligence of a character but

it’s also an opportunity to entertain the audience who know the
truth.

Courtroom narratives are ideal for Socratic irony but they are no
means the only venue for a little clever deception. When dealing
with a hard-nosed and intimidating character like Col. Jessep in A
Few Good Men, you can’t attack from the front — you’ve got to
circle around and flank him with intellect.

Irony Explained 45

CHAPTER 8

Situational Irony

Situational irony is a major type of irony with near-endless

applications. At a fundamental level, every story has some
discrepancy with reality and expectation. The plan doesn’t go as
planned; there’s a last-minute snag in wedding preparations; the
villain throws a curveball that makes the hero question
everything.

Not all of these types of scenarios qualify as situational irony but

you can see how stories need these kinds of setbacks and
surprises. Situational irony just brings an extra layer of fate or
poetry to table.

Irony Explained 46

 Situational irony de nition

A really great example of situational irony comes in  Terminator

2: Judgment Day. Sarah Connor is attempting to break out of a
mental institution when she encounters the same Terminator that
was out to kill her in the first film.

The irony is that, this time, the cybernetic killing machine is there
to protect her.

Irony Explained 47

fi

 Within situational irony, there are 4 subtypes:

1. Cosmic irony

2. Poetic irony

3. Structural irony

4. Historical irony

Each one brings a particular element so understanding which one

to use and for what purpose is essential. We will dive into each of
these sub-types in the following chapters.

Situational irony examples

In Iron Man 2, Tony Stark is dealing with a very ironic situation.
In the previous film, Tony is critically wounded and ends up with
metal shards dangerously close to his heart. To prevent those
shards from killing him, he has an electromagnet implanted in his
chest.

Irony Explained 48

Now, in the sequel, Tony discovers that instead of keeping him

alive, the palladium core in his chest is slowly killing him. Pure
situational irony.

Killing and saving at the same time • Iron Man 2 (2010)

Another classic example of situational irony comes from writer O.

Henry and his story “The Gift of the Magi.” In the story, a poor
husband and wife plan Christmas gifts for each other. Della cuts
off her long, beautiful hair and sells it to a wig maker in order to
buy her husband, Jim, a chain for his pocket watch.

Little does she know, Jim has sold his pocket watch in order to
buy Della ornamental combs for his hair. There’s often a negative

Irony Explained 49

connotation to irony but in this case, the end result becomes quite
romantic. By selflessly selling their prized possessions for each
other, it illustrates the strength of the bond.

Our final example takes this combination of romance and

situational irony in the opposite direction. In (500) Days of
Summer, Tom is still heartbroken over his failed relationship with
Summer. Time passes and they run into each other again and
reconnect.

In Tom’s eyes, he thinks maybe there’s a second chance with

Summer, especially when she invites him over to her apartment
for a rooftop party. In the film, we get a literal visualization
between “expectations” and “reality.”

Irony Explained 50

 Expectations vs. Reality • (500) Days of Summer (2009)

Tom expects an intimate and romantic evening that ends with a

blissful reunion with Summer. In reality, he discovers that she is
engaged to someone else.

Irony Explained 51

 For more, watch our video breakdown of the iconic "Expectations

vs. Reality" scene.

Why writers use situational irony

Situational irony is a great tool for upsetting character
expectations. Consider this powerful this moment from a galaxy
far, far away. At the end of The Empire Strikes Back, Darth Vader
reveals to Luke a devastating piece of situational irony.

Darth: “Obi-Wan never told you what happened to your

father.”

Luke: “He told me enough. He told me you killed him.”

Darth: “No, I am your father.”

Not only is this one of the most famous scenes in film history, it’s
a fantastic example of how situational irony can be applied. This
revelation throws everything into doubt for Luke and now he must
reconcile the truth.

Irony Explained 52

 That sets up the conclusion between father and son in the next
film where Vader is redeemed and Luke makes peace with his
lineage.

This is the kind of resonant and powerful developments that

situational irony brings to storytelling.

Irony Explained 53

CHAPTER 9

Cosmic Irony

In this chapter, we’re going to specifically talk about this most

“fateful” form of irony. Cosmic irony belongs under the situational
irony category and has its own specific quality that separates it
from the other types.

Cosmic irony  occurs when a higher power (e.g., God, fate, the
Universe) intervenes to create an ironic situation. Otherwise
known as “irony of fate,” this idea of “interference” can either be
actual or inferred. In other words, there are clear cosmic irony
examples when a 'mystical meddler' was involved.

Irony Explained 54

 But there are also examples that only  seem  to be supernaturally

influenced, or are ambiguous enough for the argument to be
made.

Naturally, the presence of cosmic irony in these different genres

serve different purposes. For example, cosmic irony is used for
humor, commentary on the human condition, or to teach valuable
lessons. With these cosmic irony examples, we can understand its
complexities, and how valuable it is in storytelling.

Examples of Cosmic irony

One of the most common applications of cosmic irony is to push
the character into learning a valuable lesson.

How about one of Jim Carrey’s early classics, Liar Liar (1997)? He

plays Fletcher, a lawyer who is constantly lying, especially to his
own son. He is then “cursed” by some unnamed higher power
during his son’s birthday wish and loses the ability to lie.

Irony Explained 55

By the end of his “day of truth,” Carrey’s character has been put
through the wringer but becomes a more honest man. Again, this
type of irony doesn’t always have to be so obvious but it's a great
example for our purposes here.

Lessons learned through cosmic irony • Liar Liar (1997)

Cosmic irony can also inspire change in a character’s entire

worldview. For example, in Pulp Fiction, Jules assumes that “God
stopped the bullets” when he and Vincent are shot at from a few
feet away but don’t get hit.

Irony Explained 56

 ”This was divine intervention” • Pulp Fiction (1994)

After this near-death experience prevented by “divine

intervention,” Jules decides to quit being a hired gun and connect
with his newfound spirituality.

Why writers use cosmic irony

As we saw with these examples, a device like cosmic irony can
have a massive impact on a character. Character arcs are almost
always focusing on a change within them. Sometimes those

Irony Explained 57

changes are negative or neutral but, more often than not, the
change is positive.

There are various means by which to push your character through

their positive change but sometimes natural forces aren’t enough.
Sometimes it requires a little supernatural push.

If we consider Fletcher in Liar Liar, it was apparent that it would

take a miracle for him to change. Without the “curse,” he might
never have learned that telling the truth was the only way to
repair the relationship with his son.

Irony Explained 58

CHAPTER 10

Poetic Irony

Karma can be a very satisfying element in storytelling and that’s

exactly what poetic irony can provide. There is a risk that the
attempt at poetic irony might come across as trite or unrealistic
but when it works, it works.

Poetic irony (a.k.a. poetic justice) occurs when a crime or

transgression is unexpectedly resolved positively, often due to a
‘twist of fate.’ In other words, karma — you get what you deserve.

This is very closely related to cosmic irony because there is a sense

that the Universe stepped in to balance the scales. But with poetic

Irony Explained 59

 irony, that idea is much more subtle and completely up to

interpretation.

Examples of Poetic Irony

In Parasite, we have a parable between the “haves” (the Park
family) and the “have nots” (the Kim family). Led by their son Ki-
woo, the Kims manipulate their way into jobs working for the
Kims.

The Kims revel in their newfound positions, dreaming of one day

owning a house like the Park’s. In the end, the Park’s youngest has
a birthday party that turns to tragedy. Ki-taek, the Kim’s
patriarch, ends up killing Mr. Park and escapes to hide in the
basement.

Irony Explained 60

 Mr. Kim seals his fate • Parasite (2019)

In the end, Ki-taek finally gets to live in the house of his dreams.
But in a poetically ironic twist, he must hide in the basement like
the “parasite” he was at the beginning.

In  The Shawshank Redemption, Andy Dufresne is falsely

imprisoned for decades. During that time, he and his fellow
inmates also endured horrific treatment from Warden Norton.

So when he finally breaks out and delivers some satisfying

comeuppance to a truly wicked warden, we have a one-two punch
of poetic irony.  Andy gets his freedom and Warden Norton gets
what’s coming to him.

Irony Explained 61

 Poetic justice is served • The Shawshank Redemption (1994)

Goodness is rewarded and evil is punished. The irony of the whole

situation comes from the Bible that Norton gives to Andy early in
his sentence. “Salvation lies within,” Norton said and it turns out
he couldn’t have been more right. Andy used the Bible to conceal
the rock hammer he used to carve a tunnel to freedom.

In Aladdin, the villain Jafar lusts for ultimate power and seeks to
control the powers of the almighty genie in the lamp. After his

Irony Explained 62

various dastardly deeds, Aladdin reminds Jafar that as powerful

as he is, he’ll never be as powerful as a genie.

Karma comes around for Jafar • Aladdin (1992)

And, so, Jafar makes his third wish: to become an all-powerful

genie. But what Jafar failed to realize is that there is one little
caveat to being a genie — being trapped inside the lamp. Jafar’s
quest for power led directly to a situation in which he essential
becomes powerless.

Irony Explained 63

 Why writers use poetic irony

Poetic irony  just might be the most satisfying for the audience.
Real life doesn’t always deliver this type of satisfying harmony and
resolution. It's not that realistic so we don’t see poetic irony all
that often outside of films and television designed for kids.

When we see poetic irony, justice is served and our faith that the
universe will reward the righteous and punish the wicked is
restored.

All irony has a bit of “fate” built-in but poetic irony leans on that
aspect for an extra layer of justice.

With variations like cosmic and poetic irony, writers can bring in
grander ideas like fate and the divine. In doing so, even the most
grounded stories are given an element of the “bigger picture” of
the human experience.

Irony Explained 64

CHAPTER 11

Structural Irony

Structural irony is a subtype of situational irony that is a foolproof

recipe for comedy but it also works in drama as well. Whereas the
various other types and subtypes of irony are often “moments” of
irony, structural irony can last for the entire duration of the story.

Whether used in comedy, drama or any other genre, this type of

irony is a great storytelling tool. We'll get started with a definition
and then jump into the examples.

Irony Explained 65

 Structural irony occurs when the perspective of an unreliable

narrator or naive protagonist is different from the reality of the
situation.

In some cases, the unreliable narrator may simply be lying to the

audience or they may have convinced themselves of a faulty truth.

In other cases, the character’s intellectual abilities might not be

sufficient enough to grasp the reality of a situation. Either way,
when the entire story is built around this ignorance or deception,
you get irony at a structural level.

The best way to think about structural irony is that the entire
story is based on an ironic situation. Specifically, the foundation
(or structure) is built upon a lack of intelligence or a misguided
perspective.

Irony Explained 66

Examples of Structural Irony

Perhaps no movie gives us a narrator more clearly unreliable
than  Fight Club. If you haven’t seen it, spoilers are coming fast!
The film follows an unnamed Narrator as he struggles with
insomnia and a general apathy for modern living. That is until he
meets a vivacious rebel named Tyler Durden who embodies
everything the Narrator wishes to be.

Narrator and Tyler • Fight Club (1999)

Irony Explained 67

Eventually, the Narrator realizes that Tyler is just a figment of his

warped mind. In fact, he is Tyler Durden and everything Tyler did
is now laid at his feet.

So, we get a great example of structural irony. The Narrator’s

compromised perspective on reality made him unable to
comprehend the truth. And the audience, who was subjected to
the story through the Narrator, was likewise mislead.

Learn more from the  Fight Club  screenplay  where you can
download a complete PDF of the script.

The classic "fish out of water" trope is rife with structural irony.
As the newcomer blindly navigates this new world, we often end
up learning about ourselves.

In Elf, we have a character who is completely removed from the

life of “normal” humans. Buddy, who was raised as an elf at the
North Pole, returns the NYC to find his long-lost father.

Irony Explained 68

 Buddy in the city • Elf (2003)

As Buddy navigates the city, he clashes hysterically with our

everyday customs and behaviors. And much comedy is pulled
from this example of structural irony.

Why writers use structural irony

Not every story uses structural irony quite like Fight Club. Many
times, unreliable narrators can mislead the audience but it’s

Irony Explained 69

usually intentional. Most of the time, structural irony is used for

comedic purposes. This either manifests in protagonists who lack
the intelligence required to understand the situation, like in
Dumb and Dumber. Or we get completely foreign characters who
struggle comprehending our world, like in Elf.

Despite the obvious comedy that comes from this ironic

situations, there is a secondary benefit stories like this provide.
We learn about our own world through these characters and their
ignorance. A character like Buddy exposes what we take for
granted and their innocence just might give us hope that we just
might figure it all out ourselves one day.

Irony Explained 70

CHAPTER 12

Historical Irony

Historical irony  is our final subtype of situational irony. As the

name suggests, it can have more to do with actual history than
fiction but can still be used for deep and profound reasons in your
storytelling.

The future is unwritten — at least that’s what they say — but the
past is very much written. From a present-day perspective, we can
learn about what was done and whether or not it worked. In
storytelling, historical irony gives your characters perspective.

Irony Explained 71

 Historical irony  is when hindsight provides an ironic

perspective on an action or stance made in the past. This type of
irony is perfect for a character who ends up in an ironic situation
they would never expect.

Here’s a real life example: on Macquarie Island, cats were

imported to handle the overpopulation of rats and mice. The cats
eliminated the rodents...along with several species of birds,
becoming the new invasive species.

Examples of Historical Irony

At the end of The Social Network, Mark Zuckerberg finds himself
alone, reaching out to someone he once had a connection with.
The metaphor and use of irony in this scene is exquisitely
executed.

This final glimpse of Mark ("the youngest billionaire in the

world") soundtracked to “Baby, You’re a Rich Man” by The
Beatles is nothing but pure poetry.

Irony Explained 72

But the inter-titles that tell us the rest of the story are what bring
this idea of historical irony full circle.

Baby, you’re a rich man • The Social Network (2010)

It's clear that screenwriter Aaron Sorkin and director David

Fincher saw the richness of historical irony in this story. It's
almost too good to pass up. You'll find a closer examination in
our analysis of The Social Network screenplay, including a PDF of
the script. 

In his formative years as a director, Guillermo del Toro made a

movie called  Mimic — a gloriously '90s, giant bug thriller.
Remember the example above from Macquarie Island? If you

Irony Explained 73

switch out "rodents and cats" with "cockroaches and genetically-

altered mantis/termite hybrids,” you'd have the premise
for Mimic. 

In the film, cockroaches are spreading a deadly disease

throughout the city and killing children. To combat this plague,
the lead characters create a hybrid insect that will successful kill
off the cockroaches — which they do.

So far, so good.

Scientists always have the best intentions • Mimic (1997)

Irony Explained 74

 A few years later, these hybrid insects have evolved and become
even deadlier than the cockroaches they were meant to eradicate.
In order to save lives, they created monsters that are now taking
lives. An ironic development created from decisions made in the
past, aka historical irony.

Why writers use historical irony

Hindsight is 20/20 and the perspectives we get from looking back
provide many options in storytelling. Since we've all been touched
by nostalgia at some point in our lives, historical irony becomes a
universal idea.

In this subtype of irony, we look to the past to see how decisions

made with a specific outcome in mind panned out in the opposite
direction.

One of the goals of historical irony is the lesson meant to be

learned. All stories in their own way provide lessons on life,
relationships, politics, you name it. Much of what we learn about

Irony Explained 75

how to approach the future is from what can glean from our past
triumphs and failures.

This same process of learning and growth can be applied to

characters in a story. In our example from The Social Network,
Mark sits and waits for Erica’s reply. Optimists might see this
scene as a moment of deep reflection for Mark. Pessimists might
see the scene as a moment for the audience to do the reflecting
and that Mark still hasn’t learned his lesson. Either way, you can
see how a powerful device like historical irony is a fantastic way to
provide context and perspective in your next story.

Irony Explained 76

 CHAPTER 13

Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony is an integral element of storytelling. The power a

writer or director can yield with a firm grasp of dramatic irony is
huge.

Dramatic irony is actually very similar to situational irony where

the reality of a situation is the opposite of what we expected. But
there is one key difference that sets these two apart and that
involves timing.

Irony Explained 77

In situational irony, we learn this new reality at the same time as

the characters. But in dramatic irony, this timing is offset between
the audience or readers and the characters.

So, what exactly is dramatic irony?

Dramatic irony de nition

For example, in Jaws, just before the attack on little Alex Kitner,
we know the shark is lurking underneath otherwise oblivious
swimmers. We know the truth for a terrifying few seconds before
the characters do. This is dramatic irony.

Irony Explained 78
fi

 Dramatic irony is when the audience understands more about a

situation than some of the characters do. Oftentimes, this
understanding leads to an element of suspense because we know
the character(s) will learn the truth eventually — but we don’t
know when or how.

Dramatic irony can be deployed for many purposes in many film

genres. Comedy, horror, suspense, and dramas all benefit from
the use of dramatic irony.

There are also distinct  stages of dramatic irony, or the order of

operations when deploying it. Dramatic irony needs to be
introduced, it needs to develop over time, and then it needs to be
released.

To successfully incorporate dramatic irony, these stages are

essential.

Irony Explained 79

The Stages of Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony requires time to work effectively. And, in the best
examples, dramatic irony unfolds over the course of minutes, an
hour, or even the entire film.

For example, in Alfred Hitchcock’s legendary Psycho, we can see

someone enter the bathroom while Marion is oblivious in the
shower. We only wait about 12 seconds for Marion to realize
what’s happening…but what a 12 seconds it is!

Marion never saw it coming • Psycho (1960)

Irony Explained 80

Dramatic irony functions just like suspense: both take time and
both need to result in the release of tension. The longer we let the
tension boil, the greater the explosive reveal will be.

Deploying dramatic irony has a structure all its own. Dramatic

irony unfolds in steps or in 'stages.' Just like a traditional three-
act structure (beginning, middle, end), also known as Preparation,
Suspension, and Resolution. The stages of dramatic irony are very
straightforward but let's see what it looks like in action.

We’ll use The Godfather and the restaurant assassination scene as

our primary example.

Stage 1: Preparation  — When the audience is given this

privileged information. 

In The Godfather, Michael discusses his plan to murder Sollozzo

and McCluskey for their role in his father’s attempted
assassination.

Irony Explained 81

 Michael proposes murder • The Godfather (1972)

Stage 2: Suspension — How long it takes the character to know

the truth we’ve known all along.

We know what Michael’s plan is but Sollozzo and McCluskey do

not. We wait in suspense as Michael finally retrieves the gun from
the bathroom and returns with it. Now, it’s just a matter of pulling
the trigger.

Irony Explained 82

 We wait for Michael to make his move • The Godfather (1972)

Stage 3: Resolution  — When the truth is finally revealed and

the consequences are presented.

Michael finally executes both Sollozzo and McCluskey and flees

the scene.

Irony Explained 83

 The dramatic irony is resolved • The Godfather (1972)

We really feel the effects of dramatic irony here. All in all, it’s a
perfect example of how to use dramatic irony from laying the
groundwork to execution.

Now that we have a firm understanding of this concept, let's look

at some examples of dramatic irony. As we'll see, it is a very
versatile and useful storytelling device — perfect for comedy,
drama and suspense.

Irony Explained 84

 The Opposite of Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows more than the
characters — but what is the opposite of dramatic irony?

When the character knows more than the audience. 

An example might be Sherlock Holmes, who often withholds

important information from the audience until the opportune
moment.

Sherlock knows more than we do • Sherlock Holmes (2009)

Irony Explained 85

Sherlock is a master at using deductive reasoning to make sense of

situations; oftentimes before the audience is able to do so. Now
that we have a better understanding of what dramatic irony is and
how it works, let's go a little deeper into the subject.

Dramatic irony examples

When the audience knows something the characters don’t, tension
is created. We lean in closer and our engagement increases. Of
course, for dramatic irony to really be effective, we need to build
sympathy for the characters and establish stakes that the audience
will care about. 

In  Rope, Brandon and Phillip murder their former classmate

David and place his body in a trunk in the living room. Then, they
host a dinner party in the same room. We know David was
strangled to death, but the partygoers – who largely consist of his
family – do not.

Irony Explained 86

 Rupert starts to suspect the truth • Rope (1948)

As the party continues, Brandon starts to lose his nerve while at

the same time, one of their guests Rupert starts to grow
increasingly suspicious. The tension builds and builds with
exquisite use of dramatic irony. You’ll have to watch the film to
find out how it all ends.

Irony Explained 87

Naturally, dramatic irony is perfect for suspense, horror, and

thrillers but don’t forget comedy, too.

Three Amigos! is built upon a premise that is a perfect example of

dramatic irony. In 1915, the tyrannical bandit El Guapo and his
gang terrorize the citizens of Santo Poco, a tiny village in Mexico.
Carmen, desperate for any assistance against the thugs sees a
silent film with Lucky (Steve Martin), Dusty (Chevy Chase), and
Ned (Martin Short) as a trio of heroic gunfighters.

Actors turned gun ghters • Three Amigos! (1986)

Irony Explained 88
fi

Assuming there are real heroes and not just Hollywood actors, she
sends a letter requesting their assistance. Back in Hollywood, our
three amigos receive the telegram as a request to “put on a show”
for the locals. This is where the confusion starts and it’s not until
they’re face to face with El Guapo that they realize the truth.

Of course, we’ve known the truth the entire time which gives the
audiences a unique perspective on both sides.

The Silence of the Lambs has an incredibly tense ending. Clarice is

an FBI agent who has inadvertently arrived at the home of Buffalo
Bill, the serial killer she’s been searching for.

Irony Explained 89

 Look behind you! • The Silence of the Lambs (1991)

After a quick chase down into the basement, we watch her fumble
in the dark, unaware that Buffalo Bill is standing right in front of
her, stalking her with night vision goggles and in complete control
of the situation.

Irony Explained 90

Why Writers Use Dramatic Irony

The effects of dramatic irony can be seen in any story. Watching a
character operate in circumstances where they don't know the
entire truth can be dramatic or suspenseful.

There is suspense inside every example of dramatic irony. We

know the truth, and it's only a matter of time before the characters
learn it too. Horror movies and thrillers use this suspense all the
time and to significant effect. 

But dramatic irony can also be funny. Misunderstandings are the

bread and butter of comedy, and dramatic irony is a fantastic way
to generate confusion and awkward situations for the characters
while we get to enjoy watching it all happen in front of us.

Irony Explained 91

 CHAPTER 14

Tragic Irony

Tragedy is a powerful storytelling form and we've been using it for

centuries. There is a certain catharsis many storytellers are after
when they tell stories. And one way to make that tragedy even
more effective, is to tell the audience in advance it is going to
happen.

Tragic irony is simply defined as dramatic irony with tragic

consequences. It takes the same basic situation in which the
audience knows more about the situation than the character. But
in this type of dramatic irony, the character’s ignorance has dire
repercussions. 
Irony Explained 92

 Oftentimes, the audience will know about the tragedy in advance

— sometimes even at the very beginning of the story. Then, we
watch as they inevitably succumb to it.

Dramatic irony is a powerful device built for suspense, but, in

many cases things turn out OK in the end. That's not the case with
tragic irony — as the name suggests, things don't turn out OK at
all!

Let's take a look at how it can give your script a healthy dose of
tragedy.

Examples of Tragic Irony

Shakespeare’s tragedies often include tragic irony. There’s
something alluring about watching characters walk directly into a
tragic situation that they unwittingly created for themselves.

In Othello, the title character is manipulated by Iago to believe his

wife, Desdemona, cheated on him — but we know she didn’t.

Irony Explained 93

 Othello and Iago • Othello (1995)

And, so, we watch Othello fall deeper and deeper into jealousy,
resulting in him murdering her for the perceived betrayal. Iago’s
ruse is revealed and Othello, distraught with guilt, takes his own
life.

The classic example, of course, is  Romeo + Juliet.  To avoid

marrying Paris, Juliet fakes her own death. Romeo, who had been
banished from Verona, did not receive the intended news that her
death was only temporary.

Irony Explained 94

Returning to find his beloved Juliet dead, Romeo drinks poison to

join her in the afterlife.

Romeo, heartbroken • Romeo + Juliet (1996)

Just as he swallows it, Juliet wakes up to watch a bewildered

Romeo die. Unable to bear it, Juliet kills herself with a knife (or a
gun in Baz Luhrmann’s version) and joins him in death.

Irony Explained 95

 Juliet joins him in death • Romeo + Juliet (1996)

Why Writers Use Tragic Irony

If it’s good enough for Shakespeare, it’s good enough for us, right?
The power of tragedies lies in their ability to craft an “unhappy”
ending that we can still appreciate. It’s difficult to enjoy these
tragic conclusions but we can recognize their message and their
purpose. For many people, the purpose of tragic narratives is to
push the audience towards catharsis. It’s a way to purge our own
emotions parallel to the suffering in the story.

Irony Explained 96

Tragic irony takes this one step further — so the audience can
anticipate the often self-inflicted doom fall upon the protagonist.
The same connections we make between the “irony of life” can be
even stronger with tragic irony.

Irony Explained 97

CHAPTER 15

Conclusion

Writers are always looking for the best tools with which to tell
their story, and there are many to choose from. Metaphor,
allegory, satire, foreshadowing, and symbolism, just to name a
few. Irony is one such device that can bring an extra layer of
resonance a story like no other technique. Life itself can be quite
ironic and when we see irony in our favorite books and movies, it
hits on a different level.

But which type of irony do you use? We’ve covered 12 types and
sub-types in this book whose applications are endless. Maybe

Irony Explained 98

you’re writing something right now and it doesn’t quite click, but
with a little addition of irony, it will all fall into place.

Go forth, scribes, and wield the power of irony.

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Irony Explained 99

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