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The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen

concentrations in a rural area

Jane Norris-Hill

To cite this article: Jane Norris-Hill (1999) The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen
concentrations in a rural area, Grana, 38:5, 301-305, DOI: 10.1080/001731300750044528

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Grana 38: 301±305, 1999

The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen concentrations in a rural

area
JANE NORRIS-HILL

Norris-Hill, J. 1999. The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen concentrations in a rural area. ± Grana 38:
301±305. ISSN 0017-3134.
Records of Poaceae pollen concentration from three years of sampling in a rural area of West Wales
have revealed distinctive circadian patterns of variation. Maximum pollen concentrations are typically
recorded between 14.00 and 16.00 hours, on days both above and below an average daily Poaceae
pollen count of 50 grains m23, although later peaks in concentration may be recorded during periods
with no precipitation. Variations in the periodicity of Poaceae pollen are analysed in relation to
meteorological conditions, phenological patterns of pollen release, pollen source area, and the
magnitude of the average daily pollen count. The time of peak pollen concentration in West Wales is
generally earlier than in other studies and this is explained by this study being conducted closer to
Poaceae pollen source areas than most urban-based studies.
Jane Norris-Hill, Department of Geography, University of Wales, Lampeter, Ceredigion. SA48 7ED,
U.K. E-mail: norris@lamp.ac.uk.
(Manuscript accepted 9 December 1999)

Pollen concentrations have been shown to vary markedly in
response to the ¯owering rhythms of plants and the
in¯uence of meteorology on many different time scales. A
knowledge of the time of day likely to produce the highest
pollen count would permit sufferers of seasonal allergic
rhinitis to take evasive action in order to avoid exposure and
further sensitisation to the allergen. The aim of this paper is
to examine the diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen
concentration as an aid to the understanding of this
pollen taxa which is the single most important cause of
allergic rhinitis in the U.K. (Varney et al. 1991).
The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen has previously
been considered by many authors, for example Jones (1952),
Liem (1980), KaÈpylaÈ (1981), Galan et al (1989), Norris-Hill
& Emberlin (1991), Spieksma & den Tonkelaar (1986) and
Trigo et al. (1997). However, most of these studies have
been undertaken in urban areas, at sites some distance from
the main pollen source areas, and so the diurnal patterns
observed will re¯ect not only the timing of pollen release,
but also the mechanisms in¯uencing pollen dispersal and
transport as outlined by Heise & Heise (1957). Work
conducted in a rural area, close to the sources of Poaceae
pollen, will permit further understanding of the timing of
pollen release and will be especially relevant to people living
in rural areas close to pollen sources. Steel (1983) has
compared the diurnal variation of pollen at two sites, one
towards the centre and one on the edge of London, and
found patterns of diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen which
differed between the two sites. She recorded peak concen-
trations of Poaceae pollen earlier in the day at the suburban
site compared to the more central urban site and attributed
this to the time taken for pollen to be transported from the
outskirts of London towards the centre. Likewise, Mullins
et al. (1986) recorded maximum pollen concentrations later
in the City of Cardiff than at a rural site, and KaÈpylaÈ (1981)
observed different patterns of diurnal variation between an
urban site at Turku and a more rural site at JyvaÈskylaÈ.
Pollen counts at rural sites may then differ considerably
from those in urban areas. Understanding variations in
pollen concentrations at locations close to the pollen source
areas may then reveal further information as to the
¯owering, release, and transport of pollen from Poaceae.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pollen concentrations were monitored from January through to
October over three complete growing seasons, 1996 to 1998, using a
Burkard volumetric pollen sampler (Hirst 1952). This instrument
records pollen concentrations continuously and 24 transverse
traverses were counted for each 24 hour period: each traverse
represents a running average of the hourly pollen count as the area
of deposition is slightly wider than the width of the sampling ori®ce.
These hourly samples may then be converted to an average daily
count (KaÈpylaÈ & Penttinen 1985). The collection ef®ciency of the
Burkard sampler varies but averages approximately 80% in normal
wind conditions for particles of pollen size (Gregory & Hirst 1957).
The pollen sampler is located on the ¯at roof of a three-storey
building approximately 8m above ground level in the centre of the
small market and university town of Lampeter (pop. 2500). This
sampling site is situated on a raised river terrace above the Dulas
stream, close to where it joins with the River Tivy (Afon Tei®) and
is hence exposed to air¯ows from all directions within the wide open
valley. The topography of the area is gently sloping without abrupt
changes of slope (Fig. 1). The surrounding area comprises
agricultural land with both rough and improved pasture, and
broad-leaved and coniferous woodland. There is no cereal
production within the immediate vicinity of Lampeter.
Meteorological data were also obtained for the period 1996 to
1998 for use in the analysis of pollen concentrations. The variables
of maximum and minimum temperature, and rainfall were recorded
on a daily basis at a site approximately 120 metres from the pollen
sampler. Unfortunately, hourly meteorological records are not

# 1999 Taylor & Francis. ISSN 0017-3134 Grana 38 (1999)

302 J. Norris-Hill
Fig. 1. A map showing the town of Lampeter and the location of
the pollen sampler.
available in the immediate proximity of the pollen sampling site.
The analyses outlined in this paper are restricted to days on which
no rainfall fell due to the signi®cant and rapid in¯uence rain may
have in removing pollen and spores from the atmosphere
(McDonald 1962, Hjelmroos 1993). Pollen counts from 1998 have
also been excluded from the analyses due to the wet season
experienced and the very few dry days available for analysis (only 7
dry days were recorded during the Poaceae pollen season). All times
used within this paper are British Summer Time which is one hour
ahead of Greenwich Mean Time.
RESULTS, ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION
Diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen during the Poaceae
pollen season
In an attempt to understand diurnal variations in Poaceae
pollen concentration, these are ®rst considered during the
whole Poaceae pollen season (de®ned as 95% of the total annual
pollen sum, Nilsson & Persson 1981). If the average pollen
count for each hour of the day is calculated then a relatively
weak diurnal variation is observable (Fig. 2). This peak
concentration observed in the afternoon is earlier than that
observed by authors working in other areas; for example
Norris-Hill & Emberlin (1991) observed a peak Poaceae pollen
count between 18.00 and 22.00 hours in North London, and
Mullins et al. (1986) recorded at peak at 20.00 hours in Cardiff.
However, this mid-afternoon peak is similar to that recorded by
Mullins et al. (1986) at a rural site where peak Poaceae pollen
concentrations occurred at around 15.00 hours.
Grana 38 (1999)
Fig. 2. Diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen for all dry days
during the 1996 and 1997 seasons.
The differences in the patterns of diurnal variation of
Poaceae pollen between this research and other works might
be accounted for by a number of factors. Firstly, in this
work, there are plentiful sources of pollen close to the
sampling site whereas other studies have tended to
concentrate on urban areas where pollen may take longer
to travel from the source in suburban or rural areas, hence
resulting in later peaks in concentration. Also, Sumner
(1988) states that convection tends to be less well developed
in rural compared to urban areas and so the peak pollen
count associated with the end of convection (Steel 1983) is
less marked. A further factor which may account for this
difference in timing is the height of the pollen sampler. At 8
metres in height, the pollen sampler in this study is located
closer to ground level than many samplers in urban areas
and Hart et al. (1994) found that maximum concentrations
of Poaceae pollen occurred earlier at a sampler 12 metres
high compared to samplers at heights of 24 and 30 metres.
Diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen on high count days
If an equivalent analysis of the diurnal variation of Poaceae
pollen concentrations is conducted on days with average
Poaceae pollen counts above 50 grains m23 then very similar
patterns of variation occur (Fig. 3) although the magnitude
of pollen abundance is greater. This similarity in diurnal
variation is to be expected due to the contribution of high
count days to overall pollen abundance during the season.
These results are also in agreement with Mullins et al. (1986)
who found that the trends of diurnal variation for Poaceae
pollen recorded on days when the average concentration was
between 50 and 100 grains m23 did not differ signi®cantly
from those recorded on days when the average concentra-
tion was greater than 100 grains m23.
Changes in the diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen through
the season
The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen may also be
examined at various times within the pollen season to
Fig. 3. Diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen on high count days
(days with an average daily Poaceae pollen count greater than
50 m23).

determine whether the patterns observed above are con-
sistent through the season. In order to illustrate any
changes, the Poaceae pollen seasons from each year are
divided into quarters and the diurnal variation for each
quarter plotted separately (Fig. 4). As a further aid to
identifying changes, a period of time equal to a quarter of
the pollen season before and after the start of the season
(the `pre-season' and `post-season' periods) are also
included. Although the average pollen concentration for
these periods varies markedly, each graph has been plotted
on an axis of the same size to allow an easy comparison of
the patterns of variation.
The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen in the period
immediately before the start of the season is marked by
relatively low concentrations, but with a peak in the
morning at 08.00 hours, and low concentrations after
13.00 hours (Fig. 4). The ®rst quarter of the pollen season
shows a change in the pattern of variation with a peak at
14.00 ± 15.00 hours, and low concentrations in the early
morning. The pattern observed in the second quarter of the
season is again different with an earlier peak at 09.00 ± 12.00
hours and very low concentrations outside of this period.
However the peak diurnal pollen concentration once again
occurs later in the third quarter of the season and this
period is also marked by a distinctive decline in pollen
concentration at 12.00 hours. In the fourth quarter and
post-season period, a similar pattern of variation is recorded
Fig. 4. Diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen concentrations at six
stages through the pollen season: ± (a) pre-season period,
(b) ®rst quarter, (c) second quarter, (d) third quarter, (e) fourth
quarter, (f) post-season period.
Diurnal variation of Poaceae in a rural area 303
with pollen counts remaining at fairly high levels from mid-
morning into the early evening.
Explaining these changes in the diurnal variation of
Poaceae pollen is not, however, simple. There are at least
two possible reasons to explain why the timing of the
maximum pollen counts should vary through the pollen
season. Firstly, the Poaceae pollen season may frequently
tend towards a bimodal pattern of abundance which results
as different species of Poaceae have different ¯owering
periods which overlap to form the total Poaceae pollen
season (Norris-Hill 1995). The different Poaceae species may
then have different times of pollen release with perhaps
some releasing pollen in the morning, and others tending to
release their pollen later in the day (Liem 1980), thus leading
to different times of maximum pollen counts as the sequence
of grass ¯owering progresses (KaÈpylaÈ 1981). However, it has
not been possible within these analyses to determine whether
this actually occurs or even which Poaceae species are
involved as routine differentiation of Poaceae pollen is
dif®cult, time consuming and was not undertaken in this
study. An alternative hypothesis is that, through the season,
there may be varying quantities of `old' pollen which has
been circulating in the atmosphere for several days. This old
or atmospheric store of pollen would then not be in¯uenced
by the patterns of Poaceae anthesis or pollen release, but its
transport and dispersal being governed by meteorological
conditions. This pollen may be uplifted during the day by
rising warm air currents and would remain aloft until
convection ceases; it would then settle back down towards
ground level and the pollen sampler. An increasing quantity
of old pollen would then mask the release of fresh pollen in
the morning although small increases in the Poaceae pollen
concentration may still be seen in the morning even when
the major peak in concentration is in the early evening.
However, any store of `old' pollen in the atmosphere or on
ground or plant surfaces will become depleted following
rainfall (McDonald 1962, Puls & von Wahl 1991) and so
one would expect that the in¯uence of `old' pollen would be
limited following wet days.
In order to test further this hypothesis, the diurnal
variation of Poaceae pollen may be examined on a day to
day time scale during dry periods to establish whether any
changes in periodicity do occur. During the 1996 and 1997
pollen seasons, three prolonged dry periods of more than 5
days duration occurred: from 18 ± 24 June 1996, 15 ± 22 July
1996, and 3 ± 8 July 1997. Using the longest of these periods,
15 ± 22 July 1996, Fig. 5 illustrates the diurnal variation of
Poaceae pollen over an 8 day period. During the ®rst three
days of this dry period, the diurnal periodicity of Poaceae
pollen is characterised by peak concentrations before
Fig. 5. The diurnal variation of pollen during the dry period of
15 ± 22 July 1996.
Grana 38 (1999)
304 J. Norris-Hill

midday with a further, but smaller, rise in the early evening.

However, the variation observed on 18th July is markedly
different with three peaks in concentration, one of which is
in the early hours of the morning. Night time peaks in
Poaceae pollen concentration have been observed by other
authors and are believed to relate to ground level
temperature inversion (Steel 1983, Spieksma & den Tonke-
laar 1986). On the following night, 18/19 July, a small rise in
pollen concentration occurs at midnight, but this never
develops into a night time peak on the same scale as the
previous evening. Instead, there is a rise in concentration as
usual in the late morning but this is dwarfed by the late
afternoon and evening peak, with a maximum at 19.00
hours, before the concentration declines towards midnight.
This pattern of a minor rise in concentration in the morning
followed by a decline, then a maximum concentration in the
early evening continues until the end of the dry period.
The initial diurnal periodicity of Poaceae pollen during
this dry period closely resembles the pattern of pollen release
hypothesised by Hyde (1952) but, as it progresses, the
morning peak is gradually replaced by an evening peak. One
possible explanation for the recorded change in diurnal
variation of Poaceae is that during dry periods, the amount Fig. 6. A scatter plot of the relationship between the number of
of pollen in the atmosphere will increase and will be days since precipitation and the time of the maximum Poaceae
governed in its dispersal by atmospheric processes such as pollen concentration.
convection, turbulence and wind speed. Therefore as
convection ceases, this relatively `old', or not freshly
released, pollen will settle back down towards ground
level to be recorded by the pollen sampler. Hence in dry
pollen concentrations and the duration of dry periods may
periods, with no rainfall to remove pollen from the
also account for the later peak counts recorded during the
atmosphere, the importance of the early evening peak
®rst and third quarters of the pollen season (Fig. 4). The
increases relative to the morning peak in concentration. The
®rst quarter includes a six day dry period in June 1996,
two other extended dry periods during the two seasons of
while the third quarter of the season includes two dry
sampling show similar, if perhaps weaker, changes in diurnal
periods, in July 1996 and 1997. The high pollen counts
periodicity. Such a change in the diurnal periodicity of
recorded during these prolonged dry spells have contributed
Poaceae pollen may not have been as obvious in an urban
greatly to the average diurnal variation for these periods,
area, where most studies of pollen dispersal are conducted,
and distinguishes them from the other periods with earlier
due to the remoteness of the sampler from pollen source
peak concentrations.
areas, and the transport of pollen from suburban and rural
However, without testing the hypothesis that these
sources into the city producing the typical and frequently
changes in diurnal periodicity relate to changes in the
recorded evening peak in concentration.
predominant species of Poaceae ¯owering through the
As a further aid to understanding the cause of this change
season, it is impossible to be certain that this is also not
in diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen, an analysis of the
in¯uencing the patterns of variation. Indeed, KaÈpylaÈ (1981)
timing of peak pollen concentrations relative to the number
states that the diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen varies
of days since rain fell has been undertaken and a scatter plot
considerably depending on the species ¯owering at the time.
of the relationship included (Fig. 6). A Spearman Rank
This effect may only be analysed further through the
Correlation Coef®cient of this relationship is rs~0.6154
identi®cation of Poaceae pollen to species level and the
(signi®cant at the 95% con®dence level) although a visual
direct observation of grass species as they ¯ower.
inspection of the scatter plot reveals that the relationship is
neither linear nor simple. If the two night time peak
concentrations (at 03.00 and 04.00 hours) are discounted,
CONCLUSIONS
there emerges a weak exponential relationship with a trend
towards a peak concentration during the morning or The diurnal variation of Poaceae pollen in a rural area of
afternoon in days immediately following rainfall, and later West Wales has been shown to vary in relation to a number
peaks, between 18.00 and 21.00 hours, following dry periods of different factors: meteorological conditions such as the
of more than four days. This change in the time of peak number of days since precipitation, and the average daily
pollen concentrations, as well as the slightly higher peak pollen count. Within this analysis, it has been impossible to
concentrations, might be accounted for by the decreasing establish any phenological in¯uence on changes in diurnal
proportion of freshly released pollen in the atmosphere. variation, but instead these appear to relate to weather
This relationship between the time of maximum Poaceae patterns, and particularly the accumulation of pollen in the

Grana 38 (1999)

atmosphere during dry periods. This paper also highlights
the need to bear in mind the possible changes in diurnal
variation when examining the diurnal variation of Poaceae
(or other pollen types) over short time periods. For example,
the diurnal variation recorded during a dry season might be
quite markedly different from that recorded during a
relatively wet season (even if wet days are excluded from
the analyses), especially when sampling within a rural area.
This paper also stresses the importance of considering the
daily maximum pollen concentration (and the duration of
this peak) as these are probably of more relevance to the
diagnosis and prevention of rhinitis than is the daily mean
concentration. Therefore understanding and forecasting
maximum Poaceae concentration may be critical in the
prevention of allergic seasonal rhinitis, or the reduction of
exposure to allergens. This paper has also demonstrated
some advantages of working in a rural, as opposed to an
urban, environment as it allows such variations in the timing
of peak Poaceae pollen concentrations to be detected.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Department of Geography, University
of Wales Lampeter for the purchase of the Burkard pollen sampler,
and also to both John James for pollen counting and Bernard
Roper for the preparation of the ®gures.
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