UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music Beats Phenomenon Linearly superpose (i.e. add) two signals with amplitudes Ax(t) and A2(t), and which have similar/comparable frequencies, 2(t) ~ e(t), with instantaneous phase of the second signal relative to the first of Agai(t): A\()= A, cos(,(0)t) A,(1) = Ay, c08(@, (01+ AG,,(D) Au (1) = A(t) + A, (1) = Ay cos(a,(1)t) + Ay cos (@, (t+ AG.) Note that at the amplitude level, there is nothing explicitly overt and/or obvious in the above ‘mathematical expression for the overall/total/resultant amplitude, Aws(t) that easily explains the phenomenon of beats associated with adding together two signals that have comparable amplitudes and frequencies. However, let us consider the (instantaneous) phasor relationship between the individual amplitudes for the two signals, A(t) and A2(t) respectively. Their relative initial phase difference at time ‘Agai(t=0) and the resultan/total amplitude, Ava(t=0) is shown in the figure below, for time, 1 = 0: Acai) ‘Ax(0) A) From the law of cosines, the magnitude of the total amplitude, Aw) at an arbitrary time, t is obtained from the following: AL (1) = AM) + AR) 24, (NA, (eos[ 2 ((0,(- (1 +.AG,(9) | Al (0) = AN) + AZ(1) + 2A,(A, (1) 608 ((@, (1) — 0, (1))t+ AG) Au (0 = YANO +43 (1) +24, (A, (Dc08 ((@,()— 0, (1) + AG) [a3 cos" (0, (01) + AB, cos" («,(01) +2A As Cos (0,(1)t) cos (0, (2)t + Ags, (t)) cos ((e, (1) — 0, (1))t + AG,,(1)) For equal amplitudes, Ai = Azo = An, zero relative initial phase, Agai = 0 and constant (i.e. time-independent) frequencies, «2 and o, this expression reduces to: ‘Thus, A(t) = A, cos" o,f + cos’ @,1 + 2cos.@,t cos @,t cos ((@, — @,)t) ‘The phase of the total amplitude, Avs(t) relative to that of the first amplitude Ax(t), at an arbitrary time, tis Aw(t) and is obtained from the projections of the total amplitude phasor, ‘Aa(t) onto the y- and x- axes of the 2-D phasor plane: 0) in Ag,,(t) 1 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- Champaign, Mlinois 2002-2017. All rights reserved.UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music The total amplitude, Aw(t) = Au(t) + A2(t) vs. time, tis shown in the figure below, for time- independent/constant frequencies of fi = 1000 Hz. and f2 = 980 Hz, equal amplitudes of unit = 1.0 and zero relative phase, Aga: = 0.0 strength, Aio = Ax Beats Phenomenon Aror(t) = Ar(t)+Aatt) 3.07 an a —— 2.0 ir all | I, al i 1.0 0.0 ] 1.0 i i I r mh | Atot(t) 2.0 3.0 0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125, 0.150 t (seconds) Clearly, the beats phenomenon can be seen in the above waveform of total amplitude, Aca(t) Ax(t) + Ac(t) vs. time, t, From the above graph, it is obvious that the beat period, thes = I/fixa 0.050 sec = 1/20" sec, corresponding to a beat frequency, fim = 1/thex = 20 Hz, which is simply the frequency difference, frea =| fi - f2| between fi = 1000 Hz and f= 980 Hz. Thus, the beat period, thesi= I/fsex = I/| fi ~ fr). When fi = fp, the beat period becomes infinitely long, and no beats are heard. 2 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- Champaign, Mlinois 2002-2017. All rights reserved.UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music In terms of the phasor diagram, as time progresses, the individual amplitudes Ai(t) and A2(t) actually precess at (angular) rates of co: = 2nfi and co» = 2nf? radians per second respectively, completing one revolution in the phasor diagram, for each cycle/each period of t1 = 2n/o1 = Wf; and 12 = 2n/o2 = I/f, respectively. If at time t = 0 the two phasors are precisely in phase with each other (i.e. with initial relative phase Ag2i = 0.0), then the resultant/total amplitude, Aca(t = 0) = A(t = 0) + Ax(t= 0) will be as shown in the figure below, Ault Ai(t=0) + Ao(t=0) Au(t=0) As time progresses, if @1 # 2, (phasor I with angular frequency 1 = 2xfi = 2*1000n = 2000 radians/sec and 2 = 2nfs = 2*980x = 1960r radians/sec in our example above) phasor 1, with higher angular frequency will precess more rapidly than phasor 2 (by the difference in angular frequencies, A@ = (@1 ~ 02) = (2000n ~ 1960n) = 40x radians/second). Thus, as time increases, phasor 1 will lead phasor 2; eventually (at time t = ¥tbea = 0.025 = 1/40" sec in our above example) phasor 2 will be exactly Ag = x radians, or 180 degrees behind in phase relative to phasor 1. Phasor 1 at time = ¥4tsau = 0.025 sec = 1/40" sec will be oriented exactly as it was at time t = 0.0 (having precessed exactly Ni = oit/2 = 2nfi/2n = fit = 25.0 revolutions in this time period), however phasor 2 will be pointing in the opposite direction at this instant in time (having precessed only No = oat/2n = 2nfav/2z = fot = 24.5 revolutions in this same time period), and thus the total amplitude Ara(t = Ytiea) = Au(t = Yerba) + Aa( Varoes’) will be zero (if the magnitudes of the two individual amplitudes are precisely equal to each other), or minimal (if the magnitudes of the two individual amplitudes are not precisely equal to each other), as shown in the figure below. Avo(t = Yate) = Ar(t = Yathoat) + Aa(t = Yattent) = 0 ——, An(t = Yatvea) = ~Ai(t = Vatoeai) As time progresses further, phasor 2 will continue to lag farther and farther behind, and eventually (at time t .050 sec * sec in our above example) phasor 2, having precessed through No = 49.0 revolutions will now be exactly Ap = 2n radians, or 360 degrees (or one full revolution) behind in phase relative to phasor 1 (which has precessed through Ni = 50,0 full revolutions), thus, the nev/overall result is the same as being exactly in phase with phasor 1! At this point in time, Aua(t = thea) = Au(t = thea) + A2(t = thea) = 2An(t = thea) = 2Ai(t = thew), and the phasor diagram looks precisely like that at time t = 0 Thus, it should (hopefully) now be clear to the reader that the phenomenon of beats. ‘manifestly that of time-dependent alternating constructive/destructive interference between two periodic signals of comparable frequency, at the amplitude level. This is by no means a trivial point, as often the beats phenomenon is discussed in physics textbooks in the context of intensity, I(t) = |Awd(t)|? = |Au(t) + Ao(®)?. From the above discussion, the physics origin of the beats phenomenon has absolutely nothing to do with the intensity of the overall/ resultant signal. 3 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- ‘Champaign, Ilinois 2002-2017. All rights reserved.UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music ‘The primary reason that the phenomenon of beats is discussed more often in terms of intensity, rather than amplitude is that the physics is perhaps easier to understand from the intensity perspective — at least mathematically, things appear more obvious, physically: l4,. (Of =|A,)+ AC? Aj,cos" (,(t)t) + AS, cos? ( a(t AG, (0) +2AcAn €08 (0, (08) 08 (0,(8)t+ Abs, (1)) Let us define: I) =a, (t)t 9:(0) = (0+ AG, (0) And then let us use the mathematical identity: cos 9, cos, = +[ cos (9, +9) +cos(9, - 9,)] Thus: T(t) = Aj, cos? (,(1)t) + A3, cos* (@, (t)t + Ag, (0) +AyArg [cos ((0,(1) + 0, (1) +.4b,,(O) + 008 ((@, — 0) AG, ()) | The let us define: 24,1) = (0,9 +O) Ae, (1) = We then obtain: \o,(t)- 0 (0) LA) = \i, COs? (@,(t)t) + Ax, Cos 0,0) + Ady) + AvyArn [608(23\(O1 + AGn\(2)) + 608 (AE, (Ot AG (1)) ] 4[1+c0829] We then obtain the additional relation, which is not usually presented and/or discussed in physics textbooks: M3 [1+ 08? 2(@,(t)t + Ad (1) +A An [C08 (2,,(1+ AGss(0) +608 (A(t Age, ()] This latter formula shows that there are a.) DC (1. zero frequency) components/constant terms associated with both amplitudes, Aio and Azo, b.) 2" harmonic components with 2fi and 2p, as well as ¢.) a component associated with the sum of the two frequencies, Qa1 = fi + fs, and d.) a component associated with the difference of the two frequencies, Afsi =fi — fi. This is a remarkably similar result to that associated with the output response from a system with a quadratic non-linear response to a pure/single-frequency sine-wave input! 4 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- Champaign, Mlinois 2002-2017. All rights reserved.UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music A Special/Limiting Case ~ Amplitude Modulation: When io >> Aon and fi >> f, then the exact expression for the total amplitude, A, = YA (0+ A (1D +24, (A, (2008 ((0,(0) - @,(D) + AQ,(0)) #2AyAn 608 (0 (0)1)c08(, (Dt +Ae,,(1))cos((@,(0)- 0, (D+ A9.(0) can be approximated by the following expression(s), neglecting terms of order m= (Azn/Ato) << | under the radical sign, and, defining A(t) = (x(t) ~ @x(2)), and noting that for fi >> f, Aani(t) = (on(t) ~ en{t)) = anit): Icos* (@,(1)t)+(Ayp/Ay) cos? (w,(0)t) #2(Ay/A,p)cos(@ (01) cos(, (t+ Ag,,(1)) cos((@,()- a(t +A9,()) = Agale0s" (04 (91) +2(An/ A) €05(09(01) c08(@, (Ot AG, (D)e08(A0.(01+A9. (0) = Ao qeos" (04(1)+2(An/Ay)e0s(e(1)e0s 05 (1 +0, (D)e0s(O(O1+ N09) However, when fi >> fs, the relative phase difference Agzi(t) changes by 2 radians (essentially) for each cycle of the frequency, fi. Hence we can safely set to zero this phase difference, ie. Agri(t) = 0 because its (time-averaged) effect in the fi >> fo limit is negligible. Using the Taylor series expansion VI+¢ =1+4e for the case when € << 1, the expression for the total amplitude then becomes: Aus(0) = Ag eos? (09,(0)t) +2( Ayg/A,,) €05( 09 (098) €08 (02,(Ft)e08(« (Ot) 10 cos? (9 (t)t) +2( Arg Avy) 0s? (@,(1)t) cos (,(t)t) ‘Ajgc05(0(0)1) + 2(Ay/Ay)e0s(ox41) = Ag cos(a(0)1)(1+(Ay/n)e0s(@,(0t)) = Ag c08(0, (01) (1+meos(o,(0))) Aut) = Av ‘The ratio m = (Aan/A1o) << 1 is known as the (amplitude) modulation depth of the high- frequency carrier wave Ai(t), with amplitude Ain >> Azo and frequency fi >> fs, modulated by the low frequency wave A2(2), with amplitude Azo and frequency f2. This is the underlying principle of AM radio ~ AM stands for Amplitude Modulation. 5 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- Champaign, Mlinois 2002-2017. All rights reserved.UIUC Physics 406 Acoustical Physics of Music Legal Disclaimer and Copyright Notice: Legal Disclaimer: ‘The author specifically disclaims legal responsibility for any loss of profit, or any consequential, incidental, and/or other damages resulting from the mis-use of information contained in this document. ‘The author has made every effort possible to ensure that the information contained in this document is factually and technically accurate and correct. Copyright Notice: The contents of this document are protected under both United States of America and International Copyright Laws. No portion of this document may be reproduced in any manner for commercial use without prior written permission from the author of this document. The author grants permission for the use of information contained in this document for private, non-commercial purposes only. 6 ©Professor Steven Errede, Department of Physics, University of Ilinois at Urbana- ‘Champaign, Ilinois 2002-2017. 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