Dowalnedby PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on Jl 7, 2017 hts. | DOK: 1028146.2008-2225 46th AIAN/ASMEJASCEIAHSIASC Structures, Structural Dynamics & Materials Conforence 18-21 Apri 2008, Austin, Texas Optimization of Performance and Failure Predictability in Composite Laminates Undergoing Progressive Failure Satchi Venkataraman’ and Pablo Salast Department of Aeraspace Engineering & Engineering Mechanics San Diego State University 5500 Campanile Drive, Mail Code 1308 San Diego, CA, 92118-1308 Increasing robustness of structures with non-linear history dependent behavior requires that their response to be very predictable. Predictability is made difficult by lack of good physical models (e.g. material failure), inaccurate ‘analysis models, and insufficient resolution used in the discretized solutions. In complex structures the problem is compounded because numerous bifurcation events in non-linear response lead to competing failure paths Introducing small changes to designs parameters or loading in designs having competing failure modes significantly alters the failure paths, reducing predictability. Progressive failure of a composite laminate is a system with many failing components (plies) and multiple failure modes (plies can fail by shear, matrix and/or fiber failure) that exhibits this behavior. This paper demonstrates that deterministic optimization makes predictability poor due the ‘coalescence in failure modes. A deterministic approach is developed to overcome this problem and simultaneously ‘optimize the laminate to maximize energy absorption (performance) and improve failure predictability. The approach is contrasted with traditional reliability-based optimization. The approach developed for eliminats competing failure modes is effective in increasing predictability and robustness, requiring very small computational effort compared to traditional non-deterministic methods used for such problems. Nomenclature e N= Shear force resultant inthe x plane a tin atthe failure event Viz = Poisson's ratio ‘Aéqig=Minimum strain separation desired between P.,_—_= Sirnin separation penalty function failure events Paz = Load drop penalty function ir Eneray absorbed by a given design ee eta eee Eqqy = fith percentile vale of energy absorption Pz Penalty parameter for strain separation E Elastic Modulus inthe fiber direction HS Fee eae for load drop consinaint E, Elastic Moduls inthe matrix diretion ane : Maximum relative lod drop AN,/N, Faas ~ manimomenery absorbed by opinizd Aim = Mariner rei od dp AN, /M, sien ~ Ply level stress al retin FiFssFystge Fig ~ TaiWacterionconsans i, PI vel teal i det Gg a tance eden of py 12 place \° = Maximum compressive stes inthe Fiber 1k, = Reference surface curvature in the x rection ee 6," = Maximum tensile stress in the fiber diretion cy ~ Reference surice twisting curvature inthe, Ply evel stress transverse tober direction sry plane 2° = Maximum compressive stress inthe matrix Reference surface curvature inthe = diretion dirction 7 = Maximum tensile stress inthe matrix direction 1N, = Maximum loa reached before failure at eS eran the faite event ety N, = Normal force resultant in the x direction Ty," = Maximum shear ses inthe 1-2 plane AN, = Load drop at the # faiture event ‘ANggx = Maximum allowed load drop at any failure event lant Professor and AIAA Member (corresponding author, emi satchi@enginecring.sdsu.edu). * Graduate Student and AIA Member. 1 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Cony © 2008 y 8. Venkataraman and P. Salas. Published bythe Armcan Ines of Aenean Arona, ne. wih perms,owned by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on ey 7217 ipsa} DO: 1025146200828, Introduction Nimizes tus promene such as post buckling of branched shells, progressive failure of composite ‘structures, and erash response of vehicles have been shown to exhibit large variations in their response due to Small changes introduced to designs or loads. The response of the above mentioned problems are often both path land history dependent. Obtaining reliable performance in such problems requires that the non-linear failure path be ‘able and repeatable in the presence of small imperfections and/or small changes in design and loading conditions. Systems or structures that have low predictability often exhibit large uncertainty in their performance. Failure predictability or the lack of itis encountered in various structural problems. For example, in fully stressed designs and homogenous structures predicting failure progression is ible because itis difficult to predict the failure initiation location. Murri et. al (2003) ' present an example in their work on fatigue life analysis of hybrid ‘composite tapered flex beams, In this case, although it was possible to predict the crack growth accurately, it was not possible to predict the location and onset of the cracks. Blumhardt, 2001 * demonstrated a crash problem in ‘which even small perturbations result in substantial changes to the crash response. Thole et al. 2003” presented an ‘xample where for the same model without any perturbations, substantial changes in deformation patterns were ‘observed in crash analysis due to small changes in the parallel implementation scheme. These examples point out problems that are due to predictability in the computational models. Predictability of failure can be influenced by ‘many factors including (i) lack of good analysis models that represent physical phenomena, (li) lack of affordable ‘analysis capabilities for use in design, (iil) insufficient resolution (temporal and spatial) used in numerical models, (Gv) complex and chaotic interactions between failure events and (v) presence of competing failure modes and multiple bifurcations paths. A survey of various factors contributing to predictability (also called computability) was presented by Belytchko and Mish (2002) os \oz os for os}o2 es ayy ho Figure 4: Failure event diagram of a hypothetical failure sequence in the crash of a composite structure with four bifurcations along any path. These four bifurcations are sufficient to reduce the probability of observing the simulated failure mode to 41%. Bifureations in non-linear failure response Significant variations observed in the response effected by small variations in geometry, loading or material properties in nonlinear problems are caused by the presence of bifurcation paths in the failure response. The bifurcation paths that are introduced by nonlinearities inthe problem result in multiple and competing failure paths. Roux et al. (2005) presented an example of head form impacting a pillar in an automotive crash analysis. They showed how small changes to design parameters trigger bifurcation modes that lead to large differences in crash response. Lyle etal’ conducted a study using non-linear transient analysis of the debris impact on the carbon-carbon feading edge of the shuttle space transport vehicle to understand the effect of various uncertainties. The results indicated that the bifurcation events in the failure path led to significant displacements and energy response. In ‘nonlinear problems where the failure response is sensitive to small perturbations, it may not be possible to attain a high degree of predictability by improving the accuracy of analysis models alone. Improving predictability requires strategies to identify and eliminate bifurcation, thereby eliminating non-desirable failure sequences. Missoum etal,” demonstrated that controlling bifurcations ean help increase robustness for transient dynamic response of a tube ‘subject to crash. The global buckling of the tube in crash significantly reduces its energy absorption capability. 2 ‘American Insitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics‘Downend by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY only 7, 2017 | api | DOL 10.251462005.225 ‘They obtained a more robust energy absorption behavior in the optimized design of the tube in which the global buckling mode is eliminated . Predictability becomes an even greater issue for large, complex assemblies because they are more prone to bifurcation events and exhibit complex interactions among these events, Complex engineering systems that exhibit ‘multiple bifurcations in progressive failure can be described using failure event trees (Figure 1), For the hypothetical system shown in the figure, at each bifurcation point there are two failure modes (one superior to the other), At each ifurcation path, the failure can choose one of the modes depending on small stochastic variations to design Parameters, geometry, loading, or material properties. Let us assume thatthe failure in the superior mode (say more ‘energy absorption) is dominant (probability of 80%) compared tothe less desirable failure path that has a probability, ‘9f 20%. The probability of failure with the desired modes for a failure sequence with four bifurcation events is only 41%, If the number of failure sequences increases, say to 10, then the design failure sequence has a probability of (0.8)" or 11%. This indicates that in the presence of a complex failure sequence, in order to achieve @ reasonable probability for the desired failure sequence, itis critical to ensure high probability of each preferred branch and to devise mechanisms to eliminate undesired failure paths. Large composite structures are examples of such complex systems. Failure predictability of composite structures in progressive failure and crash situations is significantly complicated due to the large number of material failure ‘modes they introduce, in addition to structural failure modes. Composite materials offer the advantage of light weight, high stiffness and high strength properties, and the increased design freedom to tailor properties. In crash applications, composite materials can increase energy absorption and dissipate a significant amount of the impact energy through material failure. These advantages are often offset by limitations introduced by the complexity ofthe ‘material analysis, design, testing and manufacture. In recent years, a great deal of effort has been invested to develop failure criteria, modeling, and analysis procedures for predicting accurately failure of composite structures under nonlinear transient progressive failure conditions, While efforts must continue toward developing such accurate analysis models and procedures, researchers must also investigate methods to make designs fail in predictable fashions. Effect of optimization on failure predictability ity of failure response in complex structures. When a ied, many failure modes that were orginally well separated in critical loads (and hence their likelinood of occurrence) become less separated. Essentially, the optimization process removes material that provides failure scenarios with large safety margins and employs itt increase the failure margin of failure scenarios ‘with low safety margins. Thus perversely, the process of optimization increases the likelihood of a non-simulated failure sequence manifesting itself in eal lie ‘The nineteenth century poem “One hoss shay” by Oliver Wendell Holmes, is a remarkable example of the recognition of failure predictability in design (Petroski, 1985)%, It describes the spectacular failure of a horse bugey that was crafted so well by the town's deacon that it needed no repairs for over 100 years but then collapsed into a heap, all ofits pats failing simultaneously, without a warning. Holmes satrizes the deacon's position, pointing out ‘that taking logic to the extreme can make a situation worse instead of better. This indicates that no matter how well ‘constructed, designs must be predictable in their performance and failure. [Examples of optimization making structural response more unpredictable have been demonstrated in shell buckling, problems that are highly nonlinear and exhibit multiple bifurcations in their response. For cylindrical shells it has been proven that optimization increases imperfection sensitivity. In the case of shells optimized for stability, optimization makes many different buckling modes possible at the critical load, This makes the design more sensitive to shape and thickness imperfections resulting in an unexpectedly inferior design, That is, the optimization almost behaves as generator of imperfection sensitivity (Thompson, 1973)°. Perez et al. (1998) present an example in which the optimized structures failed in completely different failure modes from that anticipated from the design. ‘They designed and fabricated composite ring frames. The analysis accounted for progressive failure and different ply failure mechanisms. The model prediction was verified with preliminary tests. However, the test of the Optimized design surprised them by failing in a mode not predicted to be dominant by the analysis, 3 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics1.2017 tpi |DOH 10281462005205. Donley PENRSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY 0 Coalescence of the competing failure modes to the same load level in the failure path makes failure prediction ‘difficult for complex structures. In such designs, small perturbations to the design and operating conditions can ‘change the failure sequence, offen leading to poor performance. Given present computational models and resources, itis impossible for applications such as crashworthy design to apply non-deterministic optimization procedures to improve the robustness of the failure response. However, if we understand the nature of the bifurcations in the progressive failure, and develop methods to identify and contol such events, we may be able improve predictability using deterministic methods. Designing for Failure Predictability “The idea of designing for predictability is a well recognized concept that is applied in practice. Structural engineers have understood for years that in addition o superior performance, designs must have high predictability. Predicting failure of structures with homogeneous of uniform strength (fully stressed designs) is a challenging task because it is difficult to predict the failure initiation site and hence failure progression. Designers often introduce features so that failure can originate at designated or known sites and propagate in desired directions. A simple example of a design that embodies this feature is a roll of toilet paper. Because the paper is mostly homogeneous and can tear easily in any direction, serrations are introduced so that the paper will tear in a predictable and desirable fashion. Introducing features into the design to bias failure in certain modes can help improve failure predictability. For example, introducing a small curvature to a column loaded in buckling will bias the buckling direction and will increase the predictability of the region where the maximum stresses occur. There is evidence that nature uses this idea in the design of bones and other structural members. Bertram and Biewener (1988) investigated the curvature present in long bones such as femurs and demonstrated that the curvature improves stress predictability. Since the Sptimum material microstructure of bone for compression and tension loading are significantly different, having high predictability of stresses is important. Les etal (1997) demonstrated a similar phenomenon forthe equine third ‘metacarpal, where bending is introduced through variation in material properties. FFor years engineers have designed structures that restrict their failure mechanisms or modes to those that can be analyzed. Engineers have devised different strategies to control failure sequence and enhance predictability. Prevalent in engineering is the use of mechanisms (e.g. local dents, curvatures, or small initial cracks or slots) that serve as structural fuses to bias system to initiate failure at desired locations and also fail in desired failure modes. ‘Weak links (fuses) in structures to make failure predictable have been used in building implosions to design very precise and controlled failure sequences. Application of fuses is seen in seismic design of steel deck-truss bridges Wwhere the lateral bracing panels at supports are replaced with special ductile diaphragms to serve as fuses that protect the superstructure and substructure from damage during earthquakes. Structural fuses in the form of {riggering dents introduced in frames of car underbodies and frames have been investigated for improving crash performance. These dents are used to initiate localized buckling leading to plastic failure at desired locations and to provide a stable crash response. Despite the numerous methods employed by engineers and designers to enhance lure sequence predictability, we are unaware of a formal design methodology for doing so. For complex problems is difficult or even impossible to identify a priori the failure paths that can provide good performance for crash protection and exhibit high predictability, Formal methodologies need to be developed to explore bifurcation paths, desirable paths, and introduce features to bias failure in such paths to simultaneously improve the predictability of performance and predictability in quantifiable ways. Quantitative methods for improving failure predictability Improving failure predictability could perhaps be achieved indirectly by formulating the problem as a probabilistic ‘or non-deterministic design problem. In recent years, a great deal of effort and emphasis has gone towards developing non-deterministic design approaches such as reliability based design optimization (RBDO). A large body ‘of work exists in the area of reliability based design optimization of structures. However, in progressive failure ‘analysis of complex structures or systems, it is impossible to identify al possible failure sequences and optimize for ‘maximum reliability. Often a subset of the dominant failure sequences is identified and the reliability for failure in those failure sequences is optimized (Liu and Mahadevan, 1998). The shortcoming of this approach is that the ‘optimization can turn failure sequences that were not dominant or active into dominant ones. Te analysis of nonlinear, history, and rate dependent problems are difficult and computationally expensive. Even with the most efficent methods available for RBDO it is not possible to optimize complex structures that require 4 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics_Downlned by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY aly 72017 pasion | DOK 10.2514 2008-2225 nonlinear transient analyses". At present, performing deterministic optimizations for crash optimizations still requires the use of simpler surrogate models such as response surface approximations [e.g., Craig et al, (2002)"', Kurtaran etal. (2002)", and Sobieski-Sobieszczanski etal, (2001)"] Reliability based design optimization for crash problems has been attempted using response surface models, ¢.. Gu etal, (2001), However, itis unclear whether simplified models that cannot capture the physics and the complexity ofthe erash response are capable of produci robust optimum designs that can overcome the chaotic response resulting from bifurcations in failure paths. Even ‘we can develop computational resources to be able to perform REDO for crash problems, itis not clear whether we ‘can overcome the predictability problem. Optimizing design variables in rel based optimizations may not be able to increase predictability of crash response unless it can also eliminate the multiple failure paths and competing, ‘modes present in the complex failure response ofthe system. We expect that the investigation and use of methods for identifying competing failure paths and designing with known failure sequences (controlled bifurcations) can greatly improve the predictability of crash response in complex composite structures. In the next section we use a simple example of composite laminate progressive failure to demonstrate how eliminating bifurcations leads to better predictability. Predictability of Progressive Failure for a Composite Laminate ‘The progressive failure analysis of a 48 ply symmetric and balanced composite laminate subject ut strain is chosen as a demonstration example (Fig. 2). In general, composite laminates can carry substantial loads after the frst ply failure event. When designed appropriately the residual strength and stiffness of laminates loaded above first ply failure limit ean be significant. Determining the load carrying capacity of the laminate from onset of ‘material failure to ultimate collapse requires progressive failure analysis. In the progressive failure of a laminate ‘multiple plies fail progressively and each ply has several different models of failure. For example, the ply can experience fiber failure, matrix failure, or fiber-matrix shear failure. In this respect, this example has the same characteristics exhibited by more complex non-linear history dependent problems but is relatively inexpensive to analyze and therefore can be used with computationally intensive probabilistic and global optimization methods. A progressive failure analysis procedure was developed to compute the load versus strain history and energy dissipated by the progressively failing laminate. The analysis uses a classical lamination theory 10 calculate laminate properties". The Tsai Wu criterion (Ea. 1) is used to predict failure of the plies. Fa, + Fay + Ryo) + Fy! + Fast’ —VFuFaoo, =1 a In the above equation, @,, o, r\: are the ply level stresses along fiber direction, transverse to fiber dire shear stresses, respectively. The terms with superscripts T and C are the ply strengths in tension and compression in the direction indicated by the subscript. The failure mode is determined by identifying the dominant term (Eq. 2) in the failure criterion, Fiber Failure: Fo, + Ryo? we: Fy, + Foy 2 Shear Failure: Furs? Matrix F A simple discrete ply discounting method'*". is used to degrade ply properties when failure is detected. For ply failure by shear, Gi and viz are degraded (o almost zero); for failure by matrix, Ex, vz, are reduced to zero; and for fiber failure (E}, Es, via and Giz) are all reduced to zero. The progressive failure analysis is performed by strain increments up to a maximum strain of 10% for all cases. We used the properties of AS4/3501-S graphite-epoxy material for our calculations. The stiffness properties of this material are E, ~ 126 GPa, Ey = 11 GPa, vj. = 0.28, G,,= 6.8 GPa. The ply thickness was assumed to be 0.125 mm. The strengths ofthe ply materials are o = 1738.8 MPs, of = 1486.8 MPa,o} = 48.4 MPa, of = 220 MPa, rf = 136 MPa. 3 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauticsownlnded by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY an 7,207 pear | DOL 1025186 200825, ‘Ail Load (Nm) — Stain Figure 2° Schematic of the unexially loaded laminate with boundary conditions and the resulting load versus strain plot. The shaded area indicates the energy dissipated (absorbed) by the laminate during ‘progressive failure. ‘This example will be used to investigate the effect of different optimizations on predicta progression). To assess variability inthe failure response, we perform a Monte Carlo analysi ‘The samples are obtained by introducing small perturbations to the ply orientation angles of laminate. The random variations are assumed to be normally distributed with a standard deviation of 0.1*. The change in the failure path is {quantified by the energy absorbed or dissipated during progressive failure. Statistical measures of the mean and Standard deviation and the fifth percentile value of the energy absorbed are computed. The 5 percentile value of the nergy absorption corresponds tothe fiftieth smallest energy absorption from the 1000 samples. A design constraint specified for energy absorption, namely (E > Enos ) will have 95 % reliability, where Eoos isthe fith percentile ‘Value of the enerey absorption from the random sampling, $400 ergy abeorbe by baseline deni: 70.02 Kn? 4500] J nae vrais (1000 seme co} oer caagy aoe Tass Kun Stonderd doar: tem? _ Energy abortion for 6% rolabity: 7847 Ram | =m e 8 aan a ‘with ply ange variations board (100 random samples) 100 1000} | 5007 7 — 0 a (ru Figure 3: Progressive failure (load versus strain) history for a quasi-isotropic {(0/30/60/90/-B0/-30)4}, Iaminate under uniaxial tension toad. 6 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsDowalded by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on uly 7,217 | hpi | DOH: 10251416200.2225 A, Progressive Failure of a quasi-isotropic laminate ‘We choose a 48 ply quasi-isotropic laminate with ply stacking sequence [(0/30/60/90/—60/~30),], to perform an initial progressive failure analysis. Figure 3 shows the load versus strain behavior for a quasi laminate undergoing progressive failure under uniaxial loading, In Figure 3, the progressive otropic laminate without any ply angle variation (baseline design) is shown in red. The progressive failure of 100 laminates obtained by introducing small perturbation tothe ply angles in the baseline design are shown in blue. The random ply angle variations are assumed to have a normal distribution of zero mean and 0.1° degree standard deviation (i.e, 99% of ply angles are with in +0.3° from its nominal value). When stnall random variations are introduced to ply angles, the designs take a somewhat different path in progressive failure. However, the variability ofthe failure path and the energy absorbed remain small. B. Optimization of Laminate Stacking Sequence for Maximum Energy Absorption ‘One goal of this study is to understand the effect of deterministic optimization on predictability of the failure sequence. The ply stacking sequence of the laminate is optimized to achieve the maximum energy absorption. A. 48 ply laminate is restricted to be balanced and symmetric. The ply stacking sequence [+/+ /../ 0/28) ] optimization problem has 12 variables. The ply angles are restricted to a discrete set between 0° and 90° with 15° angle increments (7 possibilities). This makes the optimization an integer programming problem that has a total of 7 possible discrete designs. Figure 4: Reliabiliy of genetic algorithm in finding a practical global optimum with parameters tuned for the laminate optimization problem. The ply stacking sequence optimization is performed using a genetic algorithm developed by McMahon et .(1998)"*". Genetic algorithms are stochastic search methods that mimic biological evolution and have been ‘extensively used for composite laminate optimization”. The designs are encoded by strings (chromosomes) and subjected to reproduction in which these chromosomes are combined to improve the characteristics of the design. ‘The optimization was performed using two-point cross-over uniform mutation operators. The reproduction procedure used a roulette wheel selection and employs an elitist strategy of keeping the best individual for the next generation. The two point cross-over operator splits the parent chromosome at two random locations and exchanges ‘one of the sections between the parents to create new child designs. The optimization was performed with a population size of 25 for 1000 generations. Since the optimization is a stochastic search method, the optimization is epeated five times to increase the probability of finding a global optimum. ‘The cross-over and mutation probat reas the algorithm's reliability (Fig. 4). Reliability is calculated {as the fraction of the 100 repetitions in which we find a practical global optimum (an optimum design with fitness function within 2% of the best known design). The laminate representation is coded such that every ply of angle 0 also has a ~8 counterpart. Only one half is coded; the other half is generated by symmetry. 7 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics‘Downloaded by PENASYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY al 7,207 pian og | DO 102546 208.2225 000 000 — ——_____- Energy absorbed by optimum design: 116.8 Ksfm* ‘woth phy angle varlatlons (1000 samples) nae te 7 me Foon oe i . [ie eecee eee Soe g Renee meets on ‘2000 - Optimum stacking Seen seoff 1 7 f jae eao meant 0.012 0015 031 & (rm) Figure &: Progressive failure (load versus strain) history for laminate optimized for maximum energy ‘absorption under uniaxial tension foad. The numbers 1 to 4 indicate the different paths the design fails in when small ply angle variations of 0.1° standard deviation are introduced. wp — ‘00 & }owee (ature pate 234) Group A (allure path 1) i ae 8 Energy Absorbed (Kit) a 8 Ca a a1 (em) Figure 6.Energy absorption history at each strain level for optimum design with and without ply angle ‘perturbations. The bifurcation events in progressive failure are clearly evident in this energy history plot. C. Effect of optimization on failure predictability Te optimization for maximum energy absorption produced a laminate design having a stacking sequence of {15,2:30/445] , The optimum energy absorption was found to be 116.8 Ki/m’. The sensitivity of the performance of the optimum design is analyzed by a Monte Carlo simulation of 1000 samples in which the ply angles are given small variations. The ply angle variations are generated by a random number generator for zero mean and 0.1° Standard deviation. The progressive failure (load versus strain) history of the optimum design (in red) and the 100, ‘American Insitute of Aeronauti and Astronautics7.2017 nae og DOF 1028146 2005.22, Download by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on random perturbations to the optimum (in blue) are plotted in Figure 5. The statistics of the Monte Carlo simulation ‘with 1000 samples are also indicated inthe figure ‘The failure paths of the optimum design change significantly when small perturbations (0.1° standard deviation) are introduced. The failure progression of the design with small ply angle variations exhibits bifurcation in the failure s leading to four different failure progressions (Fig. 5). ‘The statistics from the random ply variations show a significant decrease in the mean energy absorption ofthe laminate. The energy absorption that can be satisfied with 95% reliability ($1 KJ/m")is less than half the deterministic prediction for energy absorption ofthe optimum design, ‘This indicates thatthe deterministic design is extremely sensitive to small design uncertainties. ‘The energy absorption (dissipation) history during progressive failure is shown in Figure 6. The energy history plot clearly indicates the presence of bifurcation points where the failure path deviates from the failure path of the optimum design. The energy plots show three distinct failure paths, They are classified into two groups based on total energy absorption. D. Investigating the cause for bifurcations and reduction in energy absorption To understand the underlying physics that causes the bifurcations that lead to undesirable failure paths, we investigate the actual failure events in the failure progression of the optimum design with and without random ply ‘angle variations. The failure events in the progressive failure ofthe optimum design without ply angle variations are depicted in Figure 7. ‘The load and energy history reveal thatthe first bifurcation in the failure paths happens at a strain value of 0.012. Investigation of failure events shows that at this strain level there are multiple failure events happening in close succession: the shear failure ofthe 30 plies, matrix failure of 15 plies, and shear failure of the 15 ies. This coalescence of failure events to the same strain level is the underlying eause for the bifurcations that lead to very different failure paths. 8000 7000 6000 5000 ‘1S erly stacking sequence of ‘optimum design [246,130,348], 3000} 2000 LMS ter j 1000 || x { | ° 0 O00 0.08 106 oy a1 2, (vm) Figure 7: Progressive failure (load versus strain) history for laminate optimized for maximum energy absorption under uniaxial tension load. The actual progression of the failure events are also indicated on the load-strain history plot. 9 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsDovmlded y PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY a Jay 7,207| pee aa o| DOL: 1025862082228 EnegyeTodieima | eregy=8072Kim2 a7 Py Faas my Fake orton orerten ‘nase i ea ‘Table 2._ Effect of small random ply angle variations on optimum design. ‘Statistics of energy absorption (Ki/m?) with random Energy shoe ty Seal lanl vans having. sland Design with ply ane variations — ig SS evinion 1000 samples) went Mean—Standard devnton Yate or 99% vali . 168 3 Tis 31 Balanced es 10671 ts ios (000; 00 1183 | 114.2 Kalen? on | | Standard deviation: 0.87 KJim* 1) Sererttetn or s6% nab: 09.2 Ra ‘5000 | E 2 a sooo} om 08 006 08 04 4 (om) Figure 8: Progressive failure (load versus strain) history for laminate optimized for maximum energy ‘absorption under uniaxial tension load with balanced random ply angle perturbations. 10 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsA failure sequence comparison (Table 1) reveals that where small angle perturbations are introduced at any failure event, when the plies of a given orientation fail (e.g, the +30°), the plies that provide the balance (the plies with ‘same but negative ply angles. e. . -30 plies) donot fail. Inthe failure progression ofthe design without any random. ply angle variations, the set of balanced plies fail simultaneously. This pattern seems to be consistent throughout the failure sequence of the laminate. This change in failure events is triggered by the asymmetry and unbalance in the laminate that result from the small random ply angle variations to the stacking sequence. The asymmetry of ply Properties induces bending-extension coupling, and the unbalance induces shear-extension coupling. Bending. extension coupling does not affect the progressive failure here since the boundary conditions enforce pure membrane stress state. 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W., Stress Analysis of Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials, McGraw Hill Co, 1997. of highly nonlinear structures. 8 American Institute of Aeronautics and AstronauticsDownloaded by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY uly 72017 |p ng | DOF: 10281416 2005.2225, "* Padhi, G.S., Shenoi, R.A., Moy, S.S.J., Hawkins, G.L., “Progressive failure and ultimate collapse of laminated ‘composite plates in bending,” Composite Structures, Vol. 40, No. 3-4, pp-277-291, 1998. "" Ambur, D. R., Jaunky, N.; Hilburger, M; Davila, C. G., “Progressive failure analyses of compression-loaded Composite curved panels with and without cutouts,” Composite Structures, Vol. 65(2), pp 143-155 2004, "* MeMahon, M.T., Watson, L.T., Soremekun, G.A., Grdal, Z., and Haflka, R.T., “A Fortran 90 Genetie Algorithm “Module for Composite Laminate Structure Design," Engineering with Computers, 14, pp. 260-273, 1998, McMahon, Matthew T., “A Distributed Genetic Algorithm with Migration for the Design of Composite Laminate Structures,” M.S. Thesis, Computer Science and Applications, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 1998. Giirdal. Z., Haftka, R.T. and Hajela, P., Design and Optimization of Laminated Composite Materials, John Wiley, 1999, 19 ‘American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics