Ecology of Food and Nutrition

ISSN: 0367-0244 (Print) 1543-5237 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gefn20

Nutrient Composition of Bee Brood and its

Potential as Human Food

Mark D. Finke

To cite this article: Mark D. Finke (2005) Nutrient Composition of Bee Brood and its Potential as
Human Food, Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44:4, 257-270, DOI: 10.1080/03670240500187278

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03670240500187278

Published online: 25 Jan 2007.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 739

View related articles

Citing articles: 22 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gefn20
Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44: 257–270, 2005
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 0367-0244 print / 1534-5237 online
DOI: 10.1080/03670240500187278

1534-5237
0367-0244
GEFN
Ecology of Food and Nutrition
Nutrition, Vol. 44, No. 04, June 2005: pp. 0–0

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD

AND ITS POTENTIAL AS HUMAN FOOD

MARK D. FINKE
Nutrient
M.D. FINKE
Composition of Bee Brood

Mark D Finke Inc., Scottsdale, Arizona, USA

Bee brood serves as a food source to humans in many countries although lim-
ited data exists concerning its nutrient composition. Bee brood (pupae and lar-
vae) were analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, ash, fiber, minerals, amino acids,
fatty acids, and vitamins. Bee brood was high in protein, fat, and carbohydrate.
While low in calcium, bee brood was a good source of phosphorus, magne-
sium, potassium, and the trace minerals iron, zinc, copper, and selenium. In
addition, bee brood was a good source of essential amino acids with methion-
ine being first limiting. While bee brood contained none of the fat soluble vita-
mins (vitamins A, D, and E) it was a good source of most of the B-vitamins as
well as vitamin C and choline. The fat was composed mostly of saturated and
monounsaturated fatty acids with only 2.0% being polyunsaturated fatty acids.

KEYWORDS bee brood, mineral, vitamin, amino acid

INTRODUCTION
In addition to being important pollinators of many of our domestic food
plants, honey bees provide a number of important products for humans
including honey, beeswax, and pollen. Traditionally, bee brood has been
used as a food source in many countries including Ecuador, Mexico,
Thailand, and China (Onore, 1997; Ramos-Elorduy et al., 1997; Yhoung-
Aree et al., 1997; Zhi-Yi, 1997). In some places, excess honey bees and

I would like to thank the USDA laboratory in Tucson Arizona for kindly providing the
bee brood used in this study. I also thank Ellen Dierenfeld and Judith Marlett for reviewing
an earlier draft of this manuscript.
Address correspondence to Mark D. Finke, 6811 E. Horned Owl Trail, Scottsdale,
AZ, 85262. E-mail: mdfinke@cox.net
258 M.D. FINKE

bee brood exists which during certain parts of the year is usually dis-
carded. Previously, several investigators have evaluated the potential of
bee brood or adult honey bees as a human food source. Hocking and
Matsumura (1960) analyzed bee brood for several nutrients and also
evaluated methods for preparing the material for human consumption.
They showed that bee brood was a good source of protein, fat, and vita-
mins A and D. More recently, both dried honey bees and a honey bee
protein concentrate were analyzed for amino acids and the protein qual-
ity of this material was evaluated using both a chemical scoring tech-
nique and a rat bioassay (Ryan et al., 1983; Ozimek et al., 1985). Their
data showed both dried honey bees and honey bee protein concentrate to
be first limiting in the amino acids methionine and cystine with protein
quality indices inferior to casein. Aside from these data, little information
is available regarding the nutrient content of bee brood despite popular
press reports concerning its use (Robson, 1991). For this reason, bee
brood was analyzed for a number of nutrients including vitamins, miner-
als, amino acids, and fatty acids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bee brood were obtained from the USDA bee laboratory in Tucson,
Arizona. The brood consisted mostly of bee pupae but also contained
some mature larvae (less than 10%). They were manually extracted from
their comb, frozen for 48 hours, packed in dry ice, and shipped to a com-
mercial analytical laboratory (Covance Laboratories, Madison, Wisconsin)
for nutrient analysis. The data presented is from a single analysis and is
expressed on an as-is basis. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was calculated as
100 minus the sum of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, and acid
detergent fiber. Metabolizable energy was calculated using standard cal-
culations [(g of protein x 4.0) + (g of fat x 9.0) + (g of NFE x 4.0)]. Protein
recovery was calculated as the sum of the amino acids plus taurine and
ammonia divided by total crude protein (nitrogen times 6.25). Fatty acid
recovery was calculated as the sum of the fatty acids divided by total fat.

RESULTS
Nutrient analysis of bee brood is shown in Table 1. As expected, bee
brood was a good source of protein and fat. Fiber content (both acid
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 259

Table 1. Nutrient composition of bee brood

Macro Nutrients Amino Acids

Moisture (g/kg) 768 Alanine (g/kg) 4.5
Protein (g/kg) 94 Arginine (g/kg) 4.0
Fat (g/kg) 47 Aspartic Acid (g/kg) 7.6
Acid Detergent Fiber (g/kg) 3 Cystine (g/kg) 2.0
Neutral Detergent Fiber (g/kg) 2 Glutamic Acid (g/kg) 12.9
Carbohydrate (g/kg) 80 Glycine (g/kg) 4.1
Ash (g/kg) 8 Histidine (g/kg) 2.2
Metabolizable Energy (kcal/kg) 1,119 Isoleucine (g/kg) 4.3
Minerals Leucine (g/kg) 6.6
Calcium (mg/kg) 138 Lysine (g/kg) 5.8
Phosphorus (mg/kg) 1,790 Methionine (g/kg) 2.0
Magnesium (mg/kg) 211 Phenylalanine (g/kg) 3.3
Sodium (mg/kg) 128 Proline (g/kg) 5.7
Potassium (mg/kg) 2,690 Serine (g/kg) 3.3
Chloride (mg/kg) 870 Threonine (g/kg) 3.1
Iron (mg/kg) 12.9 Tryptophan (g/kg) 0.9
Zinc (mg/kg) 16.0 Tyrosine (g/kg) 4.1
Manganese (mg/kg) 0.6 Valine (g/kg) 4.9
Copper (mg/kg) 4.0 Taurine (mg/kg) 310
Iodine (µg/kg) <100 Ammonia (g/kg) 1.9
Selenium (mg/kg) 0.06 Fatty Acids
Vitamins Lauric Acid (12:0) 0.2
Vitamin A (IU/kg) <1,000 Myristic Acid (14:0) 1.2
Β-carotene (mg/kg) <0.2 Palmitic Acid (16:0) 14.7
Vitamin D (IU/kg) <251 Palmitoleic Acid (16:1) 0.2
Vitamin E (IU/kg) <5.0 Stearic Acid (18:0) 4.3
Vitamin C (mg/kg) 38.0 Oleic Acid (18:1) 18.2
Thiamin (mg/kg) 4.1 Linoleic Acid (18:2) 0.3
Riboflavin (mg/kg) 9.1 Linolenic Acid (18:3) 0.4
Pantothenic Acid (mg/kg) 11.9 Arachidic Acid (20:0) 0.2
Niacin (mg/kg) 36.7 Eicosenoic Acid (20:1) 0.1
Pyridoxine (mg/kg) 1.2 Eicosadienoic Acid (20:2) 0.1
Folic Acid (mg/kg) <0.06 Behenic Acid (22:0) 0.1
Biotin (µg/kg) 0.23
Vitamin B12 (µg/kg) <1.2
Choline (mg/kg) 1,684

detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF)) was low, but
bee brood contained significant quantities of carbohydrate as determined
by NFE. As expected, the ash level in bee brood was low. The metaboliz-
able energy content was 1,119 kcal/kg.
260 M.D. FINKE

Bee brood was a poor source of calcium but a good source of the
other macrominerals phosphorus and magnesium. As a result of the low
calcium content, the calcium:phosphorus ratio was 1:13. Bee brood con-
tained high levels of the electrolytes potassium and chloride but fairly
low levels of sodium. The trace minerals iron, zinc, copper, and selenium
were high in bee brood while manganese and iodine were relatively low.
Bee brood appears to be a good source of essential amino acids, with
the sulfur amino acids (methionine and cystine) being first limiting. Pro-
tein recovery was good; 88.8% of the total nitrogen was recovered as
amino acids plus taurine and ammonia or 86.8% of total nitrogen if cal-
culated as amino acids plus taurine.
Bee brood did not contain detectable levels of the fat soluble vita-
mins A, D3, and E, nor did it contain beta-carotene. Bee brood was a
good source of vitamin C, choline, and most of the B-vitamins. The
exceptions were folic acid and vitamin B12 for which levels were below
the detection limits of the assay.
The three primary fatty acids in bee brood were oleic (18:1), palmitic
(16:0), and stearic (18:1) acids. The fat was composed mostly of satu-
rated (51.75%) and monounsaturated (46.25%) fatty acids, with only
2.0% being polyunsaturated fatty acids.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

There are numerous proximate analyses of a variety of both wild caught
and cultured insects. However, fewer data are available for bee brood or
adult honey bees for comparison to that reported here. Mature larvae
and pupae extracted from Canadian hives contained 770 and 702 g mois-
ture/kg, respectively, similar to the values shown here (Hocking and
Matsumura, 1960). These values are similar to those reported for adult
honey bees (657–724 g moisture/kg), (Pennino et al., 1991, Studier and
Sevick, 1992).
The protein content of bee brood in this study is lower than that
reported by Hocking and Matsumura (1960) of 154 and 182 g/kg (as is)
for mature larvae and pupae, respectively, but the value is almost identi-
cal to that reported by Ramos-Elorduy for bee larvae and pupae of 420 g/kg
and 490 g/kg (dry weight), respectively (Ramos-Elorduy et al., 1997).
Reported values for adult honey bees are both higher (177 to 276 g pro-
tein/kg) and lower (65 to 90 g protein/kg) than those reported for bee
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 261

brood (Pennino et al., 1991; Studier and Sevick, 1992; Kunert and
Crailsheim, 1988). Insects show a wide range of protein contents
depending on the species and life stage (Bukkens, 1997; Finke, 2002).
The fat content of bee brood reported here (47 g/kg as is or 203 g/kg
dry weight) is almost identical to the 190 and 200 g/kg dry weight for lar-
vae and pupae from Mexico (Ramos-Elorduy et al., 1997) and are some-
what higher than the fat for mature larvae and pupae (37 and 23 g/kg as
is, respectively) reported from Canadian hives (Hocking and Matsumura,
1960). Values for adult honey bees range from 20–55 g fat/kg as is
(Kunert and Crailsheim, 1988; Pennino et al., 1991).
The ash content for bee brood reported here (8 g/kg as is or 35 g/kg
dry weight) is identical to that reported by Ramos-Elorduy (30 and 40 g/kg
dry weight) for larvae and pupae but much lower than that reported by
Hocking and Matsumura (30.2 and 21.7 g/kg as is or 131 mg/kg and 73 mg/kg
dry weight). Adult male and female honey bees also had high ash levels
(49 and 60 g ash/kg as is, respectively) (Pennino et al., 1991). The reason
for the high ash content for bee brood and adult bees reported by Hocking
and Matsumura and Pennino et al. is unknown but these values are
higher than those observed for most insect species (Bukkens, 1997;
Finke, 2002).
While Ramos-Elorduy used a different technique to measure fiber
(crude fiber versus ADF in this report), their data (10 and 30 g crude
fiber/kg dry weight for larvae and pupae, respectively) are similar to the
values reported here (13 g ADF/kg dry weight). Neutral detergent fiber
values for adult honey bees of 73 and 76 g/kg (as is) and 265 and 212 g/kg
(dry wt) are much higher than that reported here for bee brood (Pennino
et al., 1991). Dried honey bees contained 111 g chitin/kg using an assay
used to measure chitin in shellfish residue (Ozimek et al., 1985). While
no direct comparison of chitin content and ADF are available for insects,
ADF was an excellent predictor of chitin in shellfish residue (Stelmock
et al., 1985). The low levels of ADF reported here is similar to that reported
for other soft-bodied insects but lower than that of heavily sclerotized
adult beetles (Finke, 2002). It is likely that ADF in insects represents
both chitin and protein since chitin is structurally similar to cellulose and
chitin is probably bound to protein in insect cuticle. In addition, amino
acids have been detected in both the NDF and ADF residue of insects
suggesting that the fiber residue of most insects represents not just chitin
but also contains a significant amount of protein (Finke, unpublished
results).
262 M.D. FINKE

Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) in insects would be expected to be com-

posed primarily of glycogen and simple sugars. In bee brood, however,
it’s likely that the NFE fraction also represents a small amount of resid-
ual honey which adhered to some brood during extraction. Adult honey
bees contain little glycogen (Panzenbock and Crailsheim, 1997), and
most species of insects including adult honey bees have low NFE values
(Pennino et al., 1991; Finke, 2002). In this study, bee brood contained
high levels of NFE identical to those reported previously (Ramos-Elorduy
et al., 1997).
Few data of the mineral content of bee brood or honey bees have
been published; however, there is a variety of information available from
other insect species. As expected, the calcium content of bee brood was
quite low but only slightly lower than the 1410 mg Ca/kg dry weight
reported for adult honey bees (Studier and Sevick, 1992). These low val-
ues are consistent with analysis of various insect species (Bukkens, 1997;
Barker et al., 1998; Finke, 2002).
Phosphorus was much higher than calcium in bee brood and is simi-
lar to that reported for other insect species (Bukkens, 1997; Barker et al.,
1998; Finke, 2002). Unlike plant-based phytate phosphorus, the phos-
phorus in insects is likely to be readily available as was shown for facefly
pupa (Dashefsky, 1976).
The magnesium content reported here is only slightly lower than that
reported for adult honey bees (1189 mg/kg and 1770 mg/kg dry weight)
(Studier and Sevick, 1992; Levy and Cromroy, 1972). Magnesium values
are similar to those for various captive bred and wild caught insects
(Bukkens, 1997; Barker et al., 1998; Finke, 2002).
Bee brood contains high levels of potassium consistent with reports
for most insect species (Bukkens 1997; Barker et al., 1998; Finke 2002).
Two analysis of adult honey bees (12750 mg/kg – Studier and Sevick,
1992; 7440 mg/kg – Levy and Cromroy, 1972, both dry weight) are com-
parable to that reported here. Unlike potassium, the sodium content of
bee brood is relatively low but consistent with values for adult honey bees
of 614 mg Na/kg and 184 mg/kg dry weight (Studier and Sevick, 1992;
Levy and Cromroy, 1972). While no published data were found concern-
ing the chloride content of bee brood or adult bees, the chloride values
are similar to those reported for other insect species (Finke, 2002).
Little information is available concerning the trace mineral content
of adult honey bees and none concerning bee brood. Values of 58 mg Fe/kg
and 12 mg Cu/kg (dry weight) for adult honey bees are similar to those
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 263

seen here for bee brood (Levy and Cromroy, 1972). In contrast, Studier
and Sevick (1992) reported that adult honey bees contained much higher
levels of iron (375 mg Fe/kg dry weight). In addition to iron and copper,
bee brood contained fairly high levels of zinc and selenium but low levels
of manganese and no detectable iodine. These values are consistent to
those previously reported for other species of insects (Bukkens, 1997;
Barker et al., 1998; Finke 2002). The mineral composition of insects is
probably a result of the minerals the insect incorporates into its body
from its food as well as minerals in the food retained in the insect’s gas-
trointestinal tract. In addition, the values obtained for adult honey bees
may also reflect any pollen the bee might be carrying. Studies of wild
insects show both seasonal variation (Studier et al., 1992) as well as vari-
ations between different populations of the same species living in the
same general area (Finke, 1984).
The amino acid pattern reported here is consistent with the amino
acid profiles reported for other insect species and similar to those
reported for whole honey bees and honey bee protein isolate (see Table 2).
The analytical data presented here suggests that bee brood is first limit-
ing in total sulfur amino acids (methionine and cystine). This is the same
first limiting amino acid(s) reported for whole bees and bee protein
extract, although in that study neither cystine nor tryptophan were deter-
mined (Ozimek et al., 1985). While no feeding trials have been done to
determine the first limiting amino acid(s) of bee brood or adult honey
bees, studies using mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L.), Mormon
crickets (Anabrus simplex), and housefly pupae (Musca domestica L.) have
all shown that methionine is the first limiting amino acid for growing rats
(Goulet et al., 1978; Finke et al., 1987; Onifade et al., 2001). In contrast,
when a Mormon cricket-based purified diet was fed to growing chicks,
methionine and arginine were shown to be co-limiting (Finke, 1984).
Mammals can synthesize some arginine via the urea cycle while birds are
much more limited in their ability to synthesize arginine. This suggests
that while total sulfur amino acids are likely first limiting for bee brood
when fed to mammals, when fed to uricotelic animals such as birds or
ammoneotelic animals such as fish, arginine also may be important.
It has been suggested that a significant amount of nitrogen from
insects might be from chitin and so estimating protein using nitrogen
times 6.25 might result in an overestimate of true protein. In this report,
however, the protein recovery of 88.9% for bee brood is only slightly
lower than that reported for adult honey bees and honey bee protein
264 M.D. FINKE

Table 2. Amino acid pattern of bee brood, whole honey bees, and honey bee protein
concentrate. Values are reported as mg/g protein

Bee Brood Whole Honey Bees* Honey Bee Protein Concentrate*

Alanine 47.9 87. 54.

Arginine 42.6 51. 59.
Aspartic Acid 80.9 95. 106.
Cystine 21.3 NR NR
Glutamic Acid 137.2 126. 139.
Glycine 43.6 70. 41.
Histidine 23.4 24. 23.
Isoleucine 45.7 53. 58.
Leucine 70.2 93. 95.
Lysine 61.7 56. 86.
Methionine 21.3 17. 27.
Phenylalanine 35.1 39. 46.
Proline 60.6 75. 49.
Serine 35.1 53. 49.
Threonine 33.0 43. 46.
Tryptophan 9.6 NR NR
Tyrosine 43.6 37. 41.
Valine 52.1 52. 54.
Taurine 3.3 NR NR
Ammonia 20.2 NR NR

*Values from Ozimek et al., 1985.

NR – Not reported.

concentrate of 97.1 and 97.3%, respectively (Ozimek et al., 1985). In

most cases, when insects are analyzed for amino acids and where all
amino acids are reported the relatively high recovery of nitrogen as
amino acids suggests the nitrogen from chitin is a relatively small fraction
of the total nitrogen content of the insect. Since chitin is present only in
the insect’s exocuticle and endocuticle, this is not surprising. So while
detailed amino acid analysis is preferred, in general it appears that nitro-
gen times 6.25 may provide a reasonable estimate of total protein for
most insects.
Most feeding trials using insects or insect meal have used poultry as
a model since their presumed use would be as a feedstuff in poultry
rations (Calvert et al., 1969; Ichhponani and Malik, 1971; Finke et al.,
1984; Landry et al., 1986). Protein quality evaluations of insect protein in
rats are limited to studies using mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor L),
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 265

Mopanie worms (Conimbrasia belina), Mormon crickets (Anabrus sim-

plex), termites (Macrotermes falciger), dried honey bees (Apis melifera)
and honey bee protein concentrate, and housefly pupae (Musca domestica
L) (Phelps et al., 1975; Goulet et al., 1978; Dreyer and Wehmeyer, 1982;
Finke et al., 1984; Ozimek et al., 1985; Onifade et al., 2001). In general,
these studies show good growth of rats and suggest that insect protein is
readily available although protein digestibility is somewhat lower than
that of the reference protein (usually casein).
In addition to determining the biological value of insect protein,
feeding studies are important in evaluating an ingredient or food for
safety. While no adverse effects were reported when either dried honey
bees or honey bee protein extract was fed to rats (Ozimek et al., 1985),
consumption of insect meals in some studies has resulted in adverse reac-
tions. This includes studies when dried silkworm pupal meal was fed to
poultry (Ichhponani et al., 1971; Rao, 1994) and when dried eastern tent
caterpillar meal (Malacosoma americanum) was fed to rats (Finke, 1984).
Feeding frozen eastern tent caterpillars was shown to cause reproductive
loss syndrome in mares and in this case the likely cause were the caterpil-
lar’s setae (Webb et al., 2004). In addition to insects causing an adverse
reaction due to toxicity, consumption of insects has also been reported to
cause a hypersensitivity reaction in one individual (Freye et al., 1996).
Honey bee larvae and pupae contained high levels of vitamin A
(165,400–517,400 IU Vitamin A/kg dry matter) when analyzed using the
Carr-Price assay (Hocking and Matsumura, 1960). This single report has
led to the suggestion in numerous articles that bee brood would be an
excellent source of vitamin A and that consumption of bee brood may
have been responsible for the hypervitaminosis reported in a 1.5 million-
year-old Homo erectus skeleton from East Africa (Skinner, 1991). Using a
more specific HPLC method for vitamin A, the lack of vitamin A
reported here (<1,000 IU/kg) is consistent with an earlier report that
found no vitamin A in bee brood (Skinner et al., 1995). Commercially
raised adult honey bees were shown to contain low levels of vitamin A
(2,800–3,100 IU Vitamin A/kg dry weight) when analyzed by HPLC
(Pennino et al., 1991). Of note is the fact that the alkaline extract of adult
honey bee heads (but not thoraxes or abdomens) was purple, presumably
due to the presence of the visual pigment in the eyes (Ryan et al., 1983).
These data are in agreement with a report that adult fruit flies, but not
larvae, contained hydroxyretinoids (Giovannucci and Stephenson, 1999).
The Carr–Price method, which is a colorimetric assay, is susceptible to
266 M.D. FINKE

interference from sterols and various carotenoids which may explain the
high values reported by Hocking and Matsumura (Tee and Lim 1992;
Skinner, 1995). In general, insects contain little preformed vitamin A/
retinol except for that contained in the eyes which is necessary for vision
and which appears to be synthesized from dietary carotenoids (Smith
and Goldsmidh 1990; Seki et al., 1998). No beta carotene found in adult
honey bees which is consistent with the values obtained here for bee
brood (Dierenfeld et al., 1995).
In the same article, honey bee brood was reported to contain
extremely high levels of vitamin D3 (17,013,400–32,304,300 IU Vitamin
D/kg dry matter) (Hocking and Matsumura, 1960). Again, the procedure
that was used is not specific for vitamin D which probably explains the
high values reported. Since the primary function of vitamin D is the regu-
lation of calcium homeostasis in vertebrates, the detection of high levels
of vitamin D in bee brood seems unlikely. No vitamin D was detected in
this sample which is consistent with values for other insect species
(Finke, 2002).
While no vitamin E was detected in bee brood, low levels (10–27 IU
Vitamin E/kg dry weight) have been reported in adult honey bees
(Pennino et al., 1991). It should be noted that the values reported by
Pennino are below the detection limit of the assay used here (>25 IU
Vitamin E/kg as is). Vitamin E levels in insects vary widely, with wild-
caught insects generally containing higher levels than those raised com-
mercially (Pennino et al., 1991; Cerda et al., 2001; Finke, 2002).
There is little published information concerning the B-vitamin levels
of insects for comparison and no previous data for bee larvae, pupae, or
adult honey bees. Except for thiamin and folic acid, values for the other
B-vitamins are within the ranges reported for various species of cultured
insects (Finke, 2002). The thiamin content of bee brood was much higher
than that reported for six species of cultured insects (Finke, 2002). In
contrast, those same six species contained fairly high levels of folic acid
while bee brood contained little or no folic acid (Finke, 2002). These
B-vitamin results are in agreement with those from other authors
(Kodondi et al., 1987; Bukkens, 1997), although the data are not directly
comparable since much of that data represent analysis of insects that had
been prepared for human consumption using processing methods that
can destroy some vitamins. Of particular interest is a recent report that
pupae of a silkmoth commonly consumed in Africa (Anaphe spp.) con-
tained a heat stable thiaminase (Nishimune et al., 2000). Consumption of
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 267

these pupae along with a high carbohydrate diet appears to result in

thiamin deficiency and is responsible for a seasonal ataxia reported in
southwest Nigeria where the pupae are consumed (Adamolekun, 1993).
Bee brood was also a good source of choline which is consistent with
reports from other insect species (Finke, 2002). This is important since
the first limiting amino acid in bee brood as determined by chemical
analysis is methionine and high choline levels can decrease the need for
dietary methionine.
Unlike most reports of insect fat, bee brood consisted almost entirely
of unsaturated and monosaturated fatty acids with very little polyunsatu-
rated fatty acids being detected. While most species of insects contain a
variety of fats, including high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, there are a
few species that appear to contain mostly saturated and monosaturated
fats. These include larvae of the waxmoth Galleria mellonella a pest of bee
hives, Acanthomyops claviger (Roger), and several species of Hompotera
(Barlow, 1964; Fast, 1966; Finke, 2002). In most cases, the fatty acid
content of the insect is probably a reflection of the diet the insect con-
sumed (Schaefer, 1968).
The present data suggest bee brood to be an excellent source of
many valuable nutrients including energy, amino acids, many essential
minerals, and B-vitamins although it contained none of the fat soluble
vitamins (vitamins A, D3, and E). These data suggest bee brood could be
a valuable source of nutrients to various populations. Future work should
concentrate on animal feeding trials in order to confirm the first limiting
amino acid as well as determine the bioavailability of key nutrients. In
addition feeding trials would help determine if bee brood contains any
toxins or anti-nutritive factors that would lessen its value as a food or
feed ingredient.

REFERENCES
Adamolekwun, B. (1993). Anaphe venata entomophagy and seasonal ataxic syn-
drome in southwest Nigeria. The Lancet, 341, 629.
Barlow, J.S. (1964). Fatty acids in some insects and spider fats. Canadian Journal
of Biochemistry, 42, 1365–1374.
Barker, D., M.P., Fitzpatrick, and E.S., Dierenfeld (1998). Nutrient composition
of selected whole invertebrates. Zoo Biology, 17, 123–134.
Bukkens, S.G.F. (1997). The nutritional value of edible insects. Ecology of Food
and Nutrition, 36, 287–319.
268 M.D. FINKE

Calvert, C.C., R.D., Martin, and N.O., Morgan (1969). House fly pupae as food
for poultry. Journal of Economic Entomology, 62, 938–939.
Cerda, H., R., Martinez, N., Briceno, L., Pizzoferrato, P., Manzi, Tommaseo Ponzetta,
M., Marin, O., and M.G. Paoletti (2001). Palm Worm: (Rhynchophorus palmarum)
Traditional Food in Amazonas, Venezuela - Nutritional Composition, Small Scale
Production and Tourist Palatability. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 40, 13–32.
Dashefsky, H.S., D.L. Anderson, E.N. Tobin, and T.M. Peters (1976). Face fly
pupae: A potential feed supplement for poultry. Environmental Entomology,
5, 680–682.
Dierenfeld, E.S., D. Barker, T.S. McNamara, J.A. Walberr, and H.C. Furr
(1995). Vitamin A and insectivore nutrition. Verhandlungsbericht Erkrankun-
gen Zootiere, 37, 245–249.
Dreyer, J.J., and A.S. Wehmeyer (1982). On the nutritive value of Mopanie
worms. South African Journal of Science, 78, 33–35.
Fast, P.G. (1966). A comparative study of the phospholipids and fatty acids of
some insects. Lipids, 1, 209–215.
Finke, M.D., M.L Sunde, and G.R. DeFoliart (1984). An evaluation of the pro-
tein quality of Mormon Crickets (Anabrus simplex Haldeman) when used as a
high protein feedstuff for poultry. Poultry Science, 64, 708–712.
Finke, M.D. (1984). The use of nonlinear models to evaluate the nutritional quality
of insect protein. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, (dissertation).
Finke, M.D., G.R. DeFoliart, and N.J. Benevenga (1987). Use of a four-parameter
logistic model to evaluate the protein quality of mixtures of Mormon cricket
meal and corn gluten meal in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 117, 1740–1750.
Finke, M.D. (2002). Complete nutrient composition of selected invertebrates
commonly fed to insectivores. Zoo Biology, 21, 269–285.
Freye, H.B., R.E. Esch, C.M. Litwin, and L. Sorkin (1996). Anaphylaxis to the
ingestion and inhalation of Tenebrio molitor (Mealworm) and Zophobas
morio (Superworm). Allergy and Asthma Proceedings, 17, 215–219.
Giovannucci, D.R, and R.S. Stephenson (1999). Identification and distribution
of dietary precursors of the Drosophila visual pigment chromophore: Analysis
of carotenoids in wild type and ninaD mutants by HPLC. Vision Research,
39, 219–229.
Goulet, G., P. Mullier, P. Sinave, and G.J. Brisson (1978). Nutritional evaluation of
dried Tenebrio molitor larvae in the rat. Nutrition Reports International, 18, 11–15.
Hocking, B., and F. Matsumura (1960). Bee brood as food. Bee World, 41, 113–120.
Ichhponani, J.S., and N.S. Malik (1971). Evaluation of de-oiled silkworm pupae
meal and corn-steep fluid as protein sources in chick rations. British Poultry
Science, 12, 231–234.
Kodondi, K.K., M. Leclercq, and F. Gaudin-Harding (1987). Vitamin estima-
tions of three edible species of Attacidae caterpillars from Zaire. Interna-
tional Journal of Vitamin Nutrition Research, 57, 333–334.
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF BEE BROOD 269

Kunert, K., and K. Crailsheim (1988). Seasonal changes in carbohydrate, lipid

and protein content in emerging worker honeybees and their mortality. Jour-
nal of Apicultural Research, 27, 13–21.
Landry, S.V., G.R. DeFoliart, and M.L. Sunde (1986). Larval protein quality of
six species of lepidoptera (Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Noctuidae). Journal of
Economic Entomology, 79, 600–604.
Levy, R., and H.L. Cromroy (1972). Concentration of some major and trace ele-
ments in forty-one species of adult and immature insects determined by
atomic absorption spectroscopy. Annals of the Entomology Society of America,
66, 523–526.
Nishimune, T., Y. Watanabe, H. Okazaki, and H. Akai (2000). Thiamin is
decomposed due to Anaphe spp. entomophagy in seasonal ataxia patients in
Nigeria. Journal of Nutrition, 130, 1625–1628.
Onifade, A.A., O.O. Oduguwa, A.O. Fanimo, A.O. Abu, T.O. Olutunde, A. Arije,
and G.M. Babatunde (2001). Effects of supplemental methionine and lysine
on the nutritional value of housefly larvae meal (Musca domestica) fed to rats.
Bioresource Technology, 78, 191–194.
Onore, G. (1997). A brief note on edible insects in Ecuador. Ecology of Food and
Nutrition, 36, 277–285.
Ozimek, L., W.C. Sauer, V. Kozikowski, J.K. Ryan, H. Jorgensen, and P. Jelen
(1985). Nutritive value of protein extracted from honey bees. Journal of Food
Science, 50, 1327–1329.
Panzenbock, U., and K. Crailsheim (1997). Glycogen in honeybee queens, work-
ers and drones (Apis mellifera carnica Pollm.). Journal of Insect Physiology, 43,
155–165.
Pennino, M., E.S. Dierenfeld, and J.L Behler (1991). Retinol, alpha-tocopherol
and proximate nutrient composition of invertebrates used as feed. Interna-
tional Zoo Yearbook, 30, 143–149.
Phelps, R.J., J.K. Struthers, and S.J.L. Mayo (1975). Investigations into the nutritive
value of Macrotermes falciger (Isoptera:Termitidae). Zooligica Africana, 10, 123–
132.
Ramos-Elorduy, J., J.M.P. Moreno, E.E. Prado, M.A. Perez, J.L. Otero, and
O.L. de Guevara (1997). Nutritional value of edible insects from the state of
Oaxaca, Mexico. Journal of Food Comp Analysis, 10, 142–157.
Rao, P.U. (1994). Chemical composition and nutritional evaluation of spent silk
worm pupae. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 42, 2201–2203.
Robson, C.H. (1991). Seven health secrets from the Hive (2nd ed). Self published,
Wickenburg, AZ.
Ryan, J.K., P. Jelen, and W.C. Sauer (1983). Alkaline extraction of protein from
spent honey bees. Journal of Food Science, 48, 886–888.
Schaefer, C.H. (1968). The relationship of the fatty acid composition of Heliothis
zea larvae to that of it’s diet. Journal of Insect Physiology, 14, 171–178.
270 M.D. FINKE

Seki, T., K. Isono, K. Ozaki, Y. Tsukahara, Y. Shibata-Katsuta, M. Ito, T. Irie,

and M. Katagiri (1998). The metabolic pathway of visual pigment
chromophore formation in Drosophila melanogaster All-trans (3S)-3-hydrox-
yretinal is formed from all-trans retinal via (3R)-3-hydroxyretinal in the dark.
European Journal of Biochemistry, 257, 522–527.
Skinner, M.F. (1991). Bee brood consumption: An alternative explanation for
hypervitaminosis A in KNM-ER-1805 (Homo erectus) from Koobi Fora,
Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution, 20, 493–503.
Skinner, M.F., K.E. Jones, and B.P. Dunn (1995). Undetectability of vitamin A
in bee brood. Apidologie, 26, 407–414.
Smith, W.C., and T.H. Goldsmith (1990). Phyletic aspects of the distribution of
3-hydroxyretinal in the class Insecta. Journal of Moleculor Evolution, 30–84, 72.
Stelmock, R.A., F.M. Hisby, and A.L. Brundage (1985). Application of Van
Soest acid detergent fiber method for analysis of shellfish chitin. Journal of
Dairy Science, 68, 1502–1506.
Studier, E.H., J.O. Keeler, and S.H. Sevick (1992). Nutrient composition of cat-
erpillars, pupae, cocoons and adults of the eastern tent moth, Malacosoma
americanum (Lepidoptera:Lasiocampidae). Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology, 100A, 1041–1043.
Studier, E.H., and S.H. Sevick (1992). Live mass, water content, nitrogen and
minerals levels of some insects from south-central lower Michigan. Compar-
ative Biochemistry Physiology, 103A, 579–595.
Tee, E.S., and C.L. Lim (1992). Re-analysis of vitamin A values of selected
Malaysian foods of animal origin by the AOAC and HPLC methods. Food
Chemistry, 45, 289–296.
Yhoung-Aree, J., P. Puwastien, and G.A. Attig (1997). Edible Insects in Thai-
land: An unconventional protein source? Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36,
133–149.
Webb, B.A., E.E. Barney, D.L. Dahlman, S.N. DeBorde, C. Weer, N.M. Will-
iams, J.M. Donahue, and K.J. McDowell (2004). Eastern tent caterpillars
(Malacosoma americanum) cause mare reproductive loss syndrome. Journal
of Insect Physiology, 50, 185–193.
Zhi-Yi, L. (1997). Insects as food in China. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36,
201–207.