doi 10.
1515/ijfe-2014-0079 International Journal of Food Engineering 2014; 10(4): 625–632
Fakhreddin Salehi* and Mahdi Kashaninejad
Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction
from Wild Sage Seed
Abstract: Wild sage seed (Salvia macrosiphon) has prac-
tical amounts of gum with good functional properties. In
this work, extraction of gum from wild sage seed was
studied. Effect of pH, temperature and water/seed ratio
on the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters and
entropy, enthalpy and free energy of extraction were
investigated. The maximum gum yield was 12.5% at 55°
C for pH ¼ 7 and water/seed ratio 40:1. In this study, the
experimental data were fitted to a mathematical model of
mass transport and constants were obtained. The kinetic
of wild sage seed gum extraction was found to be a first-
order mass transfer model. Statistical results indicated
that the model used in this study will be able to predict
the gum extraction from wild sage seed. It is also found
that ΔH and ΔS were positive and ΔG was negative indi-
cating that the extraction process was spontaneous, irre-
versible and endothermic. The ΔH, ΔS and ΔG values
were 0.52–14.99 kJ/mol, 6.3–52.2 J/mol K and 0.14–2.44
kJ/mol, respectively.
Keywords: Salvia macrosiphon, entropy, enthalpy, hydro-
colloid, kinetic, mass transfer
*Corresponding author: Fakhreddin Salehi, Faculty of Food Science
and Technology, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and
Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran, E-mail: FS1446@Yahoo.com
Mahdi Kashaninejad, Faculty of Food Science and Technology,
Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources,
Gorgan, Iran, E-mail: Kashaninejad@Yahoo.com
1 Introduction
Gums are defined as high weight macromolecules which
could dissolve or disperse in water and give viscous
solutions or gels [1]. They are known as complex poly-
saccharides from various sources, e.g. endosperm of
plant seeds (guar gum), plant exudates (tragacanth),
tree or shrub exudates (Arabic, karaya and tragacanth
gums), sea weed extracts (agar), bacteria (xanthan gum)
and animal sources (gelatin, chitin and chondroitin sul-
fate) [2].
According to the increasing demand for hydrocol-
loids, with specific functionality in the recent years,
finding new hydrocolloid sources with appropriate prop-
erties is an active area of study. A large number of plants
can produce the complex polysaccharides commercially
known as plant-based gums. The plant gum exudates and
seed gums are the complex polysaccharides/carbohy-
drate polymers commonly used as a dietary fiber, thick-
ening agent, foaming agent, film, emulsifier, stabilizer
and drug delivery agent. The hydrocolloids from seeds
can be used extremely in food formulations because
of their appropriate price, easy availability and proper
functionality [3, 4].
The genus Salvia (Labiatae) is mucilaginous endemic
plant containing more than 700 species. Wild sage seeds
(Salvia macrosiphon) are round small seeds, with a muci-
lage layer which could swell in water, giving viscous
suspension properties which are comparable with com-
mercial food hydrocolloids [4–6]. The effect of tempera-
ture, water to seed ratio and pH on the yield, apparent
viscosity and emulsion stability index of wild sage seed
hydrocolloid have been investigated by Bostan et al. [6].
The extraction conditions had significant effects on the
yield and apparent viscosity and hydrocolloid solutions
showed shear thinning behavior in different extraction
conditions, consistency coefficient and flow behavior
index varied from 4.455 to 9.435 (Pa sn) and 0.317 to
0.374, respectively.
Farahnaky et al. studied the effect of various salts,
NaCl (0.5–3%), CaCl2 (0.5–3%) and Na2HPO4 (0.2–0.6%),
and pH condition (3–9) on rheological properties of
Salvia macrosiphon hydrocolloid solutions. They reported
that all variables had significant impacts on rheological
parameters [5].
Extraction process is one of the most widely used
unit operations in food industry [7]. Aqueous extraction
is one of the most common techniques applied for the
extraction of the seed mucilaginous material. The extrac-
tion yield of gum from seeds is influenced mainly by
the conditions under which the process of liquid–solid
extraction is carried out, using a solvent to separate a
soluble fraction from a permeable solid. Kinetic study of
solid–liquid extraction depends on the nature of the
seed, temperature of the process, solvent pH, reaction
time and the ratio of the solid to the solvent (water/
seed) [8, 9].
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626 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed
The purpose of present study was to investigate the
gum extraction process from wild sage seed. This study
also focuses on determination of the gum yield, effects of
pH and temperature, reaction time and water/seed ratio.
These optimum parameters were applied to a kinetic model
based on mass transfer coefficient. Thermodynamic para-
meters that include entropy, enthalpy and Gibb Free
Energy of extraction of gum were also determined.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Extraction of gum
Wild sage seeds were purchased from a local market in
Gorgan, Iran. The cleaned wild sage seeds were soaked in
distilled water (for 0.5–60 min). In the extraction pro-
cesses, there are multiple independent variables affecting
the gum yield. The effect of water/seed ratio (30:1
and 40:1 at two levels), pH (5.5–8.5 at three levels) and
temperature (25–55°C at three levels) on the wild sage
seed gum extraction was studied. Separation of the
hydrocolloid from the swollen seeds was achieved by
passing the seeds through an extractor equipped with a
rotating plate that scraped the gum layer on the seed
surface. The extracted solution was then filtered and
dried in an air forced oven at 50°C (convection oven,
Memmert Universal, Schwabach, Germany). The gum
yield (gum content) of the wild sage seed was calculated
as below:
Gum collected ðgÞ
Gum yield ¼  100%
Mass of wild sage seed ðgÞ
2.2 Kinetic model
A relevant kinetic data are required to analyze and design
a gum extraction process especially in industrial scale.
In these experiments, we used mass transfer kinetic
model to represent our experiment data. For this model
we assumed that the main mechanism which controls the
rate of extraction of gum is mass transfer of gum from the
seed to the water. Mass transfer rate can be written as [10]
dWA
¼ k  AðCAi  CA Þ
dt
where dWA/dt mass transfer rate of the wild sage seed
gum (g/s); CA and CAi concentration of wild sage seed
gum in distilled water at time t (g/m3) and at equilibrium
(g/m3), respectively; k mass transfer coefficient, ms−1; A
surface area for mass transfer process, m2.
Since the extraction was conducted in a batch
process and the volume was constant throughout the
experiment, eq. (2) can be written as [9]
dWA A
¼ k  ðwAi  wA Þ ð3Þ
dt v
dWA
¼ K ðwAi  wA Þ ð4Þ
dt
where K is volumetric mass transfer coefficient. To solve
eq. (4) by integration, following condition was used where
the mass of wild sage seed gum is zero in liquid (WA) at
the beginning of the extraction process. Considering this
condition, integration of eq. (4) resulted as
h i
WA ¼ WAi 1  expðKtÞ ð5Þ
Rearranging eq. (5) in terms of yield per mass of wild
sage seed gum, the kinetic model used in this study was
h i
YA ¼ YAi 1  expðKtÞ ð6Þ
where YA and YAi is yield of wild sage seed gum in liquid
at time, t (h) and equilibrium; and K volumetric mass
transfer coefficient. To determine the value of K (h−1) and
YAi a nonlinear and multiple regression method was used
to calculate numerically. Curve Expert program version
1.34 was used to fit the data in order to obtain the mass
transfer value and the yield of gum.
ð1Þ 2.3 Mass transfer within the seed
The study of mass transfer within the seed was conducted
to determine that extraction of gum using water was
controlled by the internal diffusion. Thiele modulus was
used to investigate the mass transfer within the seed. To
determine the value of Thiele modulus, effective diffusiv-
ity (Deff), m2 s−1 was calculated. Fick’s second law was
used to determine effective diffusivity by assuming Deff is
constant with the Y, yield at time, t and initial yield of the
gum. Pinelo et al. [7] calculated effective diffusivity using
following equation [7]:
 
6 π 2 Deff
ln Y ¼ ln 2  2 t ð7Þ
π r
ð2Þ
where r is the radius of seeds diameter (m).
By using eq. (7), a plot lnY versus time of experiment
was plotted. The value of the slope was used to determine
the effective diffusivity. This equation has been especially
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 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed 627

utilized by a large number of previous works to determine free energy of extraction. The plot of lnF against 1/T is
diffusivity values from experimental drying data [11], used to find the value of ΔH and ΔG from the slope and
leaching experiments [12] or extraction process [7, 9]. ΔS from intercept [9].
To determine the effect of mass transfer within the
seed on the extraction of the gum, Thiele modulus ’ was
calculated based on Giri and Sharma’s [13] equation:
3 Results and discussion
 
dp Kρp 0:5
’¼ ð8Þ
6 Deff In general, the extraction yield was influenced by the
interaction effect of aqueous extraction variables. The
The value dp represents the seed diameter, K is the
maximum value of gum obtained from extraction of
extraction rate, s−1, ρp is the density of the seed. The
wild sage seed was 12.5% at 55°C, pH ¼ 7 and water to
system is assumed to have no internal mass transfer
seed 40 to 1. This value was greater than the extraction
limitation if the Thiele modulus is <2, and the system
yield reported for Flaxseed gum 7.9% [14] and Yanang
suffers from the internal mass transfer limitation if it is
gum 4.54% [15].
above 10 [13].
Although the gum extraction yield was related to the
single main effects of all aqueous extraction variables,
but it was positively proportional to the interaction
2.4 Thermodynamic parameters effects of pH with water/seed ratio and temperature [8].

Thermodynamic parameters (ΔH, ΔS and ΔG) for the gum

extraction of wild sage seed using distilled water were
3.1 Effect of pH
estimated using following equations [10]:
ΔG 1 ΔH 1 ΔS Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the gum extraction yield of wild
ln F ¼  ¼ þ ð9Þ
R T R T R sage seed at water/seed ratio 30:1 and 40:1, respectively,
at different pH and 40°C. The extraction rate was rapid at
YT the beginning of the process and slows gradually because
F¼ ð10Þ
YU when the seed was exposed to the fresh water, the gum
where F is equilibrium constant, YT is the yield percent of on the surface of the seed was solubilized and gum gets
gum at temperature T, YU is the percent unextracted gum extracted quickly. This causes fast increase in extraction
in wild sage seed, R is a gas constant, ΔH (kJ/mol) is rate. At the initial extraction rate, the gum concentration
enthalpy, ΔS (kJ/mol K) is entropy and ΔG (kJ/mol) is a was low in the solution and mass transfer effect causes

14

12

10

8
Yield%

pH = 5.5 pH = 7
2
pH = 8.5 Kinetic model
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 1 Effect of pH on gum extraction process at 40°C and water/seed ratio 30:1, experimental and the predicted values

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628 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed

14

12

10

8
Yield%

pH = 5.5 pH = 7
2
pH = 8.5 Kinetic model
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 2 Effect of pH on gum extraction process at 40°C and water/seed ratio 40:1, experimental and the predicted values

the gum to diffuse quickly from the seed to the water. Table 2 Parameters fitted for gum extraction process of wild sage
When the maximum amount of extractable gum was seed at water/seed ratio 40:1
reached, the gum yield remains the same even after
extending the extraction time. pH Temperature (°C) K (h−1) YAi (wt%) R

The graph illustrates that more carbohydrates were 5.5 25 5.03 11.11 0.99
extracted in neutral water. The highest value of gum was 5.5 40 14.78 9.58 0.96
obtained in the pH ¼ 7. The gum yield decreased on 5.5 55 14.29 10.57 0.94
average from 11.77% to 10.82%, with decrease in pH 7 25 4.70 12.56 0.99
7 40 9.99 11.78 0.98
from 7 to 5.5 (water/seed ratio 40:1).
7 55 14.60 10.39 0.96
Wu et al. [16] also reported that the optimum condi- 8.5 25 6.45 9.90 0.99
tions for the extraction procedure of crude polysacchar- 8.5 40 12.67 10.08 0.96
ides from boat-fruited sterculia seeds were pH equal 7. 8.5 55 15.64 10.51 0.95
Tables 1 and 2 show the calculated values of the mass
transfer coefficients (K) and the equilibrium yield of gum
(YAi) at various temperatures, pH and water/seed ratio using values were 5.42–16.87 (h−1) at water/seed ratio 30:1. The
eq. (6). Parameters of kinetic model, YAi and K, were esti- mass transfer coefficient value (K) increased from 11.45 (h−1)
mated by nonlinear square fit from equation to experimental to 11.84 (h−1), with increase in pH from 5 to 7 but it decreased
data using Curve Expert 1.34. The mass transfer coefficient from 11.84 (h−1) to 11.70 (h−1), with increase in pH from 7 to 9
(water/seed ratio 30:1).
Table 1 Parameters fitted for gum extraction process of wild sage
seed at water/seed ratio 30:1
3.2 Effect of temperature
−1
pH Temperature (°C) K (h ) YAi (wt%) R
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the gum extraction yield of wild
5.5 25 5.42 12.41 0.99 sage seed at water/seed ratio 30:1 and 40:1, respectively,
5.5 40 12.05 10.13 0.95
at different temperature and pH ¼ 8.5. The increase in
5.5 55 16.87 9.88 0.94
7 25 11.11 9.13 0.99
temperature increases the gum yield during extraction
7 40 10.35 11.21 0.96 process. Increasing the temperature causes the reaction
7 55 14.06 10.51 0.94 time to be reduced as extraction occurs faster. The gum
8.5 25 6.18 8.86 0.99 yield increased from 9.96% to 10.90%, with increase in
8.5 40 13.99 8.95 0.95 temperature from 25°C to 55°C (water/seed ratio 30:1).
8.5 55 14.93 10.22 0.97
Temperature as an independent variable increases the

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 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed 629

12

10

8
Yield%

2 25°C 40°C

55°C Kinetic model

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 3 Effect of temperature on gum extraction process at pH ¼ 8.5 and water/seed ratio 30:1

14

12

10
Yield%

4
25°C 40°C
2
55°C Kinetic model
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 4 Effect of temperature on gum extraction process at pH ¼ 8.5 and water/seed ratio 40:1

ability of the solvent to solubilize the compounds and
decreasing the viscosity of the liquid solvent which is
allowing better penetration of the solvent into the solid
matrix [17]. Mazza and Biliaderis [18] reported that tem-
perature was the major factor affecting the extraction
yields of flaxseed gum irrespective of the changes in pH
or water to seed ratio. In addition, Wu et al. [16] found
that the extraction temperature and time were the most
important factors affecting the response variables (extrac-
tion yield, purity and relative viscosity of crude polysac-
charides). This result is in agreement with reports of other
authors in extracting polysaccharides [19, 20]. The extrac-
tion at the elevated temperature resulted in faster and
easier mass transfer of water-soluble polysaccharide from
the cell wall into the extract [8].
Although the extraction yield of polysaccharides was
also high at 100°C, increasing temperature will bring
about the increase in cost for the extraction process
from the industrialization point of view [21].
At higher temperatures, the viscosity of mucilage
decreases and makes the slurry less sticky and the muci-
lage can be easily released. As a result, the mass transfer
coefficient of the extraction process increases with tem-
perature thus effecting the diffusion and viscosity. It is
found that the mass transfer coefficients increase with the
increase in the temperature of extraction (Tables 1 and 2).

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630 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed
The K (h−1) value increased from 5.39 to 14.84, with
increase in temperature from 25°C to 55°C (water/seed
ratio 40:1). The increase of the polysaccharides diffusion
coefficient and the enhanced solubility of the polysac-
charides in the extracting solvent at higher temperatures
caused the increase of the polysaccharides mass going
out from the mushroom particles into the solution [21].
The extraction coefficient increased with increasing the
extraction temperature due to the increase of the poly-
saccharides solubility [22].
3.3 Effect of water/seed ratio
Figure 5 shows the effect of water/seed ratio and extrac-
tion time on extraction of wild sage seed gum at 40°C and
pH ¼ 8.5. Water to seed ratio will significantly affect
extract yield. If ratio of water to seed is too small, gums
in wild sage seed cannot be completely extracted up. If
ratio of water to seed is too big, this will cause high
process cost. The gum yield increased on average from
10.52% to 11.06%, with increase in water/seed ratio from
30:1 to 40:1 under same conditions.
Sepulveda et al. [22] reported that when the volume ratio
of water to seeds was increased, a greater mucilage yield
was obtained from Opuntia spp. seeds. Bendahou et al. [23]
reported that the extraction yield of polysaccharides signifi-
cantly increases as the ratio of water to seed was increased,
which could be due to an increased driving force for the
mass transfer of the polysaccharides. Singthong et al. [15]
also reported a higher extraction yield for Yanang leaves
gum at a low ratio of solid to water.
12
10
8
Yield%
4
01:30
2 01:40
Kinetic model
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min)
Figure 5 Effect of water/seed ratio on gum extraction process at 40°C and pH ¼ 8.5
Bostan et al. [6] reported the minor effect of pH on
extraction yield of wild sage seed crude hydrocolloid and
increasing the temperature and water to seed ratio
increased the yield of extracted hydrocolloid due to
enhanced mass transfer rate. The lowest yield of gum
(7.04%) was obtained at lowest water to seed ratio (25:1)
at temperature of 52.5°C and pH of 6.0, while the highest
value (12.2%) was obtained at the highest temperature
(80°C), water to seed ratio of 55:1 and pH of 6.0 [6].
Tables 1 and 2 show the mass transfer coefficient (K)
values of wild sage seed extraction at water/seed ratios of
30:1 and 40:1, respectively, at different temperature and
pH. The availability of high liquid content led to an
increase in the driving force of mucilage out of the
seeds into the extract. Response surface methodology
(RSM) was applied to optimize the extraction of crude
polysaccharides from boat-fruited sterculia seeds by Wu
et al. [16]. They reported that extraction temperature, pH,
extraction time and water to seed ratio were found to
have a significant influence on the yield and purity of
the extracted crude polysaccharides.
3.4 Mass transfer within the seed
Effect of mass transfer within the seed was studied to
determine if the diffusion to the surface controls and
water diffuses well into the seeds. The following data
were used in eqs (7 and 8) in order to calculate the Thiele
modulus, density of wild sage seed: 970 kg/m3, effective
diffusivity data (Table 3) and average value of seed dia-
meter, dp ¼ 1.32 mm.
60 70
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 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed 631

Table 3 Effective diffusivity and Thiele modulus on the internal process of wild sage seed. The values of the enthalpy
mass transfer were in the range of 0.52–14.99 kJ/mol. The value
obtained was in the range 4–13.5 kJ/mol obtained by
pH Temperature 30:1 40:1
other researches for extraction of melon, rubber seed
(°C)
Deff (m2 s−1) ϕ Deff (m2 s−1) ϕ and olive cake oil [25, 26]. Positive enthalpy change
−10 −10 indicates the endothermic nature of the extraction pro-
5.5 25 2.72  10 16.12 2.48  10 16.26
5.5 40 3.03  10−10 22.77 3.07  10−10 25.06 cess and requires energy during the process.
5.5 55 3.18  10−10 26.30 3.16  10−10 24.28 Entropy of the solution increases due to the gum
7 25 2.85  10−10 22.55 2.58  10−10 15.41 molecules extraction. The positive value of entropy change
7 40 3.07  10−10 20.97 3.12  10−10 20.43 describes the process is irreversible [27]. The values of the
7 55 3.14  10−10 24.16 3.15  10−10 24.59
entropy were in the range of 6.3–52.2 J/mol K.
8.5 25 2.34  10−10 18.56 2.54  10−10 18.20
8.5 40 2.94  10−10 24.91 2.87  10−10 23.99
The free energy values lie between 0.14 and 2.44 kJ/
8.5 55 3.16  10−10 24.82 3.22  10−10 25.17 mol. This shows that the energy required to break the
solute–solute and solvent–solvent interactions are less
than the energy released in solute–solvent interactions.
Effective diffusivity values can be strongly affected by
conditions under which the extraction process is carried
out. Temperature, for instance, was reported to signifi-
cantly increase diffusivity [24]. The results show that the 4 Conclusions
effective diffusivity values were 2.34  10−10 m2 s−1–3.22 
10−10 m2 s−1. Extraction of gum from native seeds and its use in
Table 3 also represents the Thiele modulus calculate the formulation of food products has recently become
for the wild sage seed gum solution at 30:1 and 40:1 very attractive. Wild sage seed has practical amounts of
water/seed ratio at temperature 25–55°C and pH of 5.5, gum with good functional properties which is compar-
7 and 8.5. Thiele modulus ranges between 15.41 and 26.3. able with commercial food hydrocolloids. In this study
The value of Thiele modulus indicates water diffuses with the effect of extraction temperature (at three levels, 25, 40
reacting. The reaction increases the internal mass transfer and 55°C), pH (at three levels, 5.5, 7 and 8.5) and the ratio
diffusion limitation [13]. However, the system was of water to seed (at two levels, 30 to 1 and 40 to 1) on
affected by the mass transfer within the seed. This was mass transfer kinetics of wild sage seed gum extraction
due to the value of the Thiele modulus, which was >10. was studied. The results showed that increasing the tem-
perature from 25 to 55°C, increased the gum extraction
about 9.4%. With increasing the ratio of water to seed,
3.5 Thermodynamic parameters the rate of extraction of gum was also increased. The
maximum value of gum obtained from extraction of
Table 4 shows the values of equilibrium constant and wild sage seed was 12.5% at 55°C, pH ¼ 7 and water to
thermodynamic parameters for the gum extraction seed 40 to 1.

Table 4 Thermodynamic parameters for gum extraction process of wild sage seed

1:30 1:40

pH T (K) F ΔH, kJ/mol ΔS, kJ/mol K ΔG, kJ/mol F ΔH, kJ/mol ΔS, kJ/mol K ΔG, kJ/mol

5.5 298 2.57 0.57 6.30  10−3 −2.33 1.77 3.59 1.61  10−2 −1.41
5.5 313 1.72 −1.42 1.51 −1.07
5.5 328 1.73 −1.49 2.03 −1.93
7 298 1.10 14.99 5.22  10−2 −0.24 2.54 0.52 9.47  10−3 −2.31
7 313 2.23 −2.09 2.56 −2.44
7 328 1.89 −1.74 1.79 −1.58
8.5 298 1.06 13.49 4.56  10−2 −0.14 1.36 10.04 3.63  10−2 −0.77
8.5 313 1.30 −0.68 1.69 −1.36
8.5 328 1.75 −1.52 1.98 −1.87

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632 F. Salehi and M. Kashaninejad: Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Gum Extraction from Wild Sage Seed
In this study, the experimental data were fitted to a
mathematical model of mass transport and equations
constants were obtained. The K (h−1) value varies from
4.7 to 16.9. Statistical results indicated that the model
used in this study will be able to predict the gum extrac-
tion from wild sage seed adequately and is probably
useful for other gum-containing seeds. Thiele modulus
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