WRITE BRAIN

The University of Glasgow Psychology Society

The future of
psychology
Glasgow University Psychology society
The Glasgow University Psychology Society is a society for
all those passionate about the subject; our members can
be either students studying Psychology or non-psychology
students interested in the subject. Our society is made up of
both academic and social events. We host many social events
throughout the year, with our larger ones including a sub crawl,
ceilidh and end of year ball. We host a variety of academic talks
throughout the year from speakers we find interesting and have
larger events including an all day conference annually and a
panel discussion at the end of second semester.

Meet the team

EMMA STRANG Rhoda von Below Elisa Serra jacqueline borgstedt

President Vice President Publicity Social
Officer Convenor

Boglarka Dely Amelia Hilton Scott Moore Lola Leving

2nd Year 1st Year Magazine Illustrator
Representative Representative Designer
Letter from the editor
As the world is ever changing so is psychology. We live in an
age where our field is in turmoil, not only through the ongoing
replication crisis which forced us to rethink the way we conduct
research and teach psychology, but also through an increase in the
use of technology. It is time to think about how to transform the
field of psychology in order to welcome the changes the future will
bring.

I am delighted to write the editorial for our 2nd edition of Write

Brain, this time with the theme “The Future of Psychology”. This
year we have submissions from all over the UK, spanning topics
from improving social skills with the help of social robotics, making
customer service more efficient through AI to the efficacy of online
counselling.

I would like to thank all of our authors for their outstanding

contribution, as well as the artists who are bringing this edition to
life. This would not have been possible without everyone involved
in the process of editing and production, thank you! Finally a special
thanks to the School of Psychology without whom this magazine
would not have been printed.
Contributors
Yours sincerely, Editorial team
Emma Strang, Rhoda von Bellow,
Elisa Serra, Boglárka Dely,
Amelia Hilton
Rhoda von Below
Designer
Vice President Scott Moore
GU Psychology Society
Cover image
Lola Leving

Illustrations
Lola Leving
 The Impact of Technology :
The Doctor is online: The efficacy of online counselling
Sophia Carleton
Robert Gordon University
“It must be hard to live away from your
loved ones in a different country.” says
Helen, my therapist for over 18 months.
“Talking over Skype just isn’t the same as
being with family and friends in person” I
agree, “I don’t feel that same connection,
and I need…” “and sometimes you just
need a hug” she finishes for me, when
in my emotional state I stumble over my
words.
The irony of this conversation is that
Helen is over 900 miles away, and
we are connecting over one of the
many platforms that offer online video
counselling. So, while Helen can see and
hear me, she is not able to offer me that
physical connection she can see I need.
But does this mean that online counselling
is just an inferior stand-in for traditional
on-the-couch-based therapy? That, just like
the emotional emptiness and alienation
we feel scrolling through our Facebook
feeds, connecting online with a therapist
is just a band-aid in place of a true
connection with them? Or is it a triumph
of the modern age, linking therapists with
people who would not otherwise be able
to access a counselling service?
Even back in 1997, Sampson et.al saw
the therapeutic potential for the new
technology of file transferring between
interconnected computers, which
was used then only by academics, the
military, and US government officials.
They suggested that “the low cost of
this technology allows individuals to
communicate and to interact who could
not do so other-wise.” (Sampson et al
1997. Pp 203). With great foresight,
amongst the suggestions for counselling
applications of this technology were email
correspondence with counsellors, websites
advertising counselling services, and online
audio and video supportive resources.
They did, however, and with good
reason, warn of the potential for problems
creating a good relationship with so much
distance between counsellor and client.
This is something that over 20 years later,
many psychologists and professionals are
still discussing.
Mallen et al (2011) found in a study
of trainee counsellors using instant
messaging with clients that the service
was nearly as effective as face-to-
face sessions. The trainee counsellors
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successfully diagnosed the confederate
posing as a client 86-90% of the time from
just one chat. However, part of the appeal
of therapy is the connection to another
person, and not just a diagnosis, and the
study did find that the counsellors did feel
some distance from their clients through
the chat system and had to adapt their
technique accordingly.
Jane Evans (2009) in her book Online
counselling and guidance skills: A resource
for trainees and practitioners, discusses
the adaptions necessary in online
counselling. As well as the usual practical
considerations such as what internet
connection and software to use, Evans
offers advice on other parts of online
therapy that are already well known by
therapists but take on new challenges
when tackling virtually. This includes how
to express listening behaviour while the
client is typing long texts, (even more
vital during asynchronistic methods of
online therapy such as email). Another
technique concerns reaching out to
reserved and reluctant clients, and those
who display resistance to tackling a
certain issue, all of which indicate certain
mental blocks in and painful topics for a
patient. Therapists need to know how
such emotions may be presented online
for example by analysing patient’s typing
behaviour and pauses, and need to be
aware of different ways to reassure the
patients without using welcoming body
language and eye contact. Fortunately,
therapy and counselling are, by their
nature, professions that are able to
adapt and are flexible when overcoming
challenges. If any professionals are willing
and able to adapt their practices to the
new advancements in technology, it is
those who work with the highly mercurial
nature of people.
But how does the experience feel for the
person accessing the services; the person
a counsellor or therapist hopes to help?
King et at (2006) found that out of the
two options provided for a young person’s
helpline in Australia, the phone call was
the most helpful to the client over the
online chat service. However, this doesn’t
mean online counselling is not effective,
especially as all the young people reported
feeling less distressed at the end of the
session whichever method they used. Also,
we have to take into account that some
2006 technology is practically as relevant
to today’s discussion on technology as
the telegram. Considering how quickly
technology advances, the more practical
problems that affected the young people’s
experience have been overcome since this
study took place; King et al theorised the
discrepancy in effectiveness was purely
because typing out messages took longer
than speaking on the phone, and so less
actual counselling could be done in the
same time period. Since video counselling
has taken off with the advent of faster
internet, this should no longer be a
hindrance.
Like many other advancements in
technology, the popularity of online
counselling does appear to have benefits,
but only if approached correctly by both
parties. While it is providing resources
and coping strategies, as well as some
companionship to those unable to pursue
face-to-face counselling, this method of
support will only work when the both
the therapist and client are prepared to
adapt to this new situation and work
at the sessions. The same can be said
for traditional counselling also, but the
effect is somewhat amplified over the
miles. However, if help is reaching those
who wouldn’t otherwise have it, the
psychological community should be
cautiously optimistic about it, and willing
to make the necessary changes to their
practice to make it work.
Acceptance in an Online World: Using Social Media To
Manage Emotions and Identity in Adolescents
Marianna Fanous
University of bath
Social aspects of the internet have become
increasingly important because of the
growth of Social Media (SM) platforms
and e-communities (Chimel et al., 2011).
In a large survey, 92% of 13-17 year olds
reported daily online activity (Lehart, 2015),
however parallel to the growth of SM, is
problematic internet use that is associated
with poor mental health, interpersonal
problems, depression and anxiety (Caplan,
2010). Young people, as native users of
technology, are theorised to instinctively
utilise the internet to communicate and
to understand themselves and others
(Prensky, 2001). This may be because
adolescents report a less positive mood
orientation and experience more recent
negative ‘life events’ than children and
adults (Larson, Moneta, Richards, & Wilson,
2002; Silk, Steinberg & Morris, 2003; Arnett,
Zukauskiene, & Sugimura, 2014). Whilst
some propose that excessive SM use causes
psychological problems (Davis, 2001), SM
may also supply an avenue for acceptance
and expression of identity, which is
important in development (Wartella et al.,
2016). However, it is likely that adolescents
who need additional support especially
lean on technology to guide them through
their development (Tugade, Fredrickson,
Feldman & Barrett, 2004). As such, this
article discusses how social media can
hinder and help identity and mood
stabilisation as well as immobilisation in
adolescents.
As unhealthy internet use is linked to mood
disorders like depression; SM has been
thought to disrupt emotional regulation
and coping (Hormes et al., 2014; Glover
& Fritsch, 2017). For example, a qualitative
study revealed that hashtags of self-harm/
depression and explicit images triggered
low mood and intrusive thoughts about
cutting, even when adolescents were not
searching for such material (Radovic et
al., 2017). Though these findings illustrate
rather than represents all SM experiences,
encountering online pictures of self-harm
has been found to increase normative
perceptions of self-mutilation and the
urge to cut (Daine et al., 2013; Seko, Kidd,
Wiljer, & McKenzie, 2014). Thus, exposure
to unhealthy and provocative content on
SM can hamper coping and recovery in
adolescents. As young people normatively
use the internet to understand and learn,
without offline support, negative mood
management strategies can have long-
term impacts (Prensky, 2001; Livingstone,
2009). Whilst those with depression report
learning strategies to self-harm on SM
(Jarvi et al., 2013), others with pre-existing
body dissatisfaction report learning dieting
tips and damaging weight loss strategies
online (Crowe & Watts, 2013). As such,
contemporary adolescents may be more
at risk of learning maladaptive coping
strategies which reinforce any pre-existing
mental health condition, as they use the
internet to manage their mood.
SM, however, may offer acceptance and
information about personal issues that
would not otherwise be accessed offline
(Wartella et al., 2016). SM networks can
therefore improve emotional regulation
through receiving acceptance and practical
help (Zaki & Williams, 2013). For instance,
sexual minority youth have reported online
social support to be helpful when offline
support has been absent (Ybarra, Mitchell,
Palmer & Resner, 2015) and when parents
haven’t accepted their gender identity
(Radovic et al., 2017). The option of online
support and the wider online community
therefore may promote a positive sense of
self and validation in adolescents (Madden,
Cortesi & Gasser, 2012). Validation can
be easily offered through hashtags and
images, which is unique to the online
space. A study that sampled depression
hashtags on Twitter found social tagging
forged networks of solidarity amongst users
and achieved empathetic qualities similar to
offline conversations (Zappavigna & Martin,
2017). This suggests individuals’ need for
affirmation can be met online due to the
nature of SM. Though Turkle (2017) argues
adolescents endlessly consume images
and information, it is important to note that
adolescents are not passive recipients of
technology. Instead, adolescents seek out
specific material online to suit their needs
(Radovic et al., 2017). In this sense, SM
can be used with purpose and can have
positive implications for identity in young
people.
Unfortunately, SM has been criticised for
providing superficial acceptance that can
cause deindividuation and lead to mental
health issues (Turkle, 2017). As mentioned,
this is especially true for those struggling
with body dissatisfaction. Pro-Anorexia
websites are forums which invite Anorexic
individuals, who feel stigmatised, to
receive support from others. This support,
however, exploits feelings of isolation and
can promote unhealthy behaviours and
isolation from the offline world (Crowe &
Watts, 2013) through freedom from the
dangers of the adult gaze (Lipsky, 1978).
This hyper-personal communication, which
entices adolescents to swear to secrecy
and partake in unhealthy rituals can
overload the individual and impair coping
(Walther, 1996). Crowe & Watts (2016)
examined these patterns on pro-anorexia
forums and suggested such hyper-personal
communication may lead to the adoption
of a social identity and deindividuation,
which weakens one’s ability to regulate
behaviour (McKenna & Bargh, 2000).
Although studies analysing the content
on pro-anorexia websites offer a more
extreme view of online activity, around
one third of those with eating disorders
have used these websites (Christodoulou,
2012). In this sense, over-reliance on SM for
acceptance can impair an individual’s ability
to cope with their emotions.
In light of the risk factors evidenced in
literature for poor health consequences
of SM use, there is a need for greater
education surrounding vulnerable
adolescents. Fortunately, it is likely that
treating one aspect will positively impact
other aspects of well-being (Zelkowitz et
al., 2017). Whilst a blanket-ban on SM is
unrealistic, simple things like encouraging
users to unfollow accounts that contain
triggering content or educating
adolescents on the dangers of over-utilising
SM may prove helpful (Weinstein, 2017).
Family members and clinicians may ensure
that offline support is available and more
present than online support. For example, it
may be beneficial to encourage individuals
to use SM for social connection with friends
who have been supportive in the past, and
who are also available offline (Radovic et
al., 2017). ​Working with the individual to
help them reflect on their use of SM and
considering what actions have resulted
in poor or beneficial consequences in the
past may best support identity and mood
management.
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 The Future of Clinical Psychology amidst automation
Allen Joseph Shaji
University of bath
Frey and Osborne (2013) proposed
that clinical psychologists had a 0.5%
chance of their job being automated,
which appears low compared to
library technicians and telemarketers,
whose jobs had a 99% chance of
being automated. They suggested
there were bottlenecks to the feasibility
of automation into human activities;
the main identified barriers were
perception, creative intelligence, and
social intelligence. However, apps
which offer self help sessions into
mindfulness such as “Headspace”
are on the rise, the necessity of
psychologists in countries with limited
mental health funding seems to be
questioned.
When Frey and Osborne’s study was
published, it was thought that jobs
involving a therapeutic role could not
be easily automated. This is because
The new generation of robot counsellors
Anna Stoyanova
Abertay University
Internet nowadays is as ubiquitous as it
is prevalent in all aspects of our daily life
– from online shopping for clothes, food
and gifts to education, and recently even
online counselling. The latter has grown
in popularity over the past decades with
numerous recent papers beginning to
delve into and investigate the effects it
has (Alleman and Silverman, 2002). On
one side, online counselling benefits
from a lower price, increased accessibility
(requiring only a computer/laptop
and Wi-Fi), as well as being far more
convenient (the counselling session can
be done in the client’s home, at any time
and any location). In addition, the person
who is looking for help is promised an
answer within 24 hours, instead of the
days, weeks or even months-long waitlist
in some cases of face-to-face therapy.
On the other side, several mental health
organisations, such as the American
Counselling Association [ACA], (1999),
American Mental Health Counsellors
Association [AMHCA], (2000) and the
National Board for Certified Counsellors
[NBCC], (2001) have voiced their
concerns about the ethics and safety
6 BPS Conference 2018
they require a complex level of
human interaction that was not yet
possible for computer programmes
to replicate - e.g. soft skills such as
empathetic listening, interpreting
non-verbal cues etc. However, five
years later technologies such as social
robots (i.e. a robot that can adequately
communicate with humans) have
picked up pace in development.
Robots offer several advantages such
as being available 24/7, being mass
produced to fill the labour gap and
being emotionally resilient to the issues
presented to them. Costescu and
colleagues (2014) conducted a meta-
analysis in which it was established
that robotics were beneficial in helping
adults with autism. Similarly, Opriş
and colleagues (2011) also found
advantages of offering virtual reality
exposure therapy to patients with
anxiety disorders. In fact, the US military
of online counselling (Alleman and
Silverman, 2002). Research by Young in
2005 examined clients’ attitudes towards
the counselling provided online. The
research indicates that patient’s fear
being exposed or caught while having a
counselling session.
In recent years, another growing trend
has been the use of robots for cleaning,
museum tours, guides etc. (Arita, Hiraki,
Kanda and Ishiguro, 2005). However,
why limit ourselves there and not
attempt to use them in other aspects of
our life, such as in counselling. Imagine
having a robot counsellor instead of a
human one – a novel idea that might
have been considered science fiction a
couple decades back but nevertheless
holding a lot of merit. The term used to
describe robots capable of this type of
social interaction is “social robots”. They
possess the rudimentary capability to
recognise other robots and humans
and engage in social interactions (Fong,
Nourbakhsh and Dautenhahn, 2003).
Social robots can be used in a variety
of ways - from research platforms,
toys and even in education but not
are using a computer generated virtual
therapist to help soldiers suffering from
PTSD (Parkin, 2017). Such programmes
may be accessible because patients felt
they were less likely to be judged by a
computer programme, and were thus
more willing to explore their sadness
more intensely (Lucas, Gratch, King, &
Morencya, 2014).
For many, such as in the United
States, robots could provide a more
affordable method of care in the future.
As robots continue to become more
versatile, advanced and accessible,
they will continue to grow in ubiquity
in a healthcare setting. Although
psychology may currently be regarded
as a human field, therapy through
robots is yielding efficacious results, and
tomorrow’s picture may be radically
different.
least of which - as a therapeutic aid, as
suggested by Fong et al., 2003. Having
a robot counsellor is right now still in the
distant future due to the vast amount
of prerequisite research advances and
collaborative work needed from multiple
fields - artificial life, developmental
psychology and sociology. Once at
that stage, however, these robots could
be capable of communicating and
having a two-way dialogue, interpreting
emotions – likely by using cues such
as tone and pitch of vocal data, heart
rate, pulse, temperature and a plethora
of other client-specific real-time data,
which cannot be measured in traditional
therapy. A study done by Robinson,
(2018) also delves into adult perception
and acceptance of a social robot as a
conversational partner or behaviour
coach. There is no doubt that there are
many significant obstacles that must be
overcome before a world with social
robots is a reality, but the potential
benefits of them without a doubt
warrant a serious consideration.
The Future of Retail: Artificial Intelligence
Phoebe French
University of bath
The world of retail today is fragmented
and filled with competition as the needs
of consumers continue to diversify.
Shoppers are becoming increasingly
educated about the choices available to
them, meaning competition between
retailers is more prominent than ever
before. This, coupled with an assortment
of consumer lifestyles, cultivates a hive
of activity which retailers are required
to keep up with in order to succeed.
The demand for delivering a more
efficient and diverse customer service
is at the forefront of our attention and
so it becomes essential for companies
to develop a means of coping with
this increased demand. Therefore,
companies are turning to artificial
intelligence (AI) to navigate the maze
of consumers they now face. AI is
becoming increasingly popular and it
seems as if more companies will make
use of AI technologies in the future.
A study conducted by the Frost and
Sullivan Contact Centre argues that by
2030, the growth rate of AI solutions
is set to exceed that of human workers
(Taylor, 2017). Clearly, AI is here to stay,
so it is important to explore what AI
involves and what it means for the future
of retail.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a scientifically
devised system developed into a
computer or robot that aims to recreate
human-like abilities such as reasoning,
decision making and language skills
(Nilsson, 2005). Technology has
progressed and algorithms and data
volumes have advanced, meaning AI is
becoming increasingly sophisticated. The
results of such sophistication are already
dotted throughout many of our day-to-
day lives in the form of chat bots, fraud
detection, and “assistants” like Siri, Alexa
and Google Assistant. Not only is it being
developed for use in the home, it is also
becoming heavily established in the retail
space. For example, The North Face
employed an Expert Personal Shopper
cleverly developed by Fluid, a digital
commerce technology agency and
software solutions provider. This function
uses a dialogue-based approach to help
shoppers find what they are looking
for, utilising phrases such as “What coat
are you looking for today?” and “What
features of the coat are most important
to you?” The software uses the answers
to tailor a customer’s search, framing
the results to look like recommendations
from a professional and experienced
shopping assistant in a real shop.
This has become hugely successful
among shoppers as it is effective in
its enhancement of the customer
experience. The key to its success relies
on AI’s ability to solve many of the
recurring challenges faced by retailers.
Consumers demand a service that can
keep up with their diverse lifestyles and
so require a service which is available
at all times during the day. Consumers
live a very ‘on the go’ lifestyle meaning
they often demand services at all hours
of the day. Time zones and working
hours are common restrictions faced by
the customer service departments in all
companies. However, the introduction
of AI removes this challenge, as the
technology is available whenever and
wherever, creating a flexible service to
meet the demands of the consumers.
Moreover, consumers are looking for
services which are immediate and
accessible. The busy lifestyle of today’s
consumers also results in them needing
a quick service. It is near impossible
for our brains to keep up with the
gushing stream of information coming
our way every day and so anything
which makes this process of selection
and interpretation easier is favoured.
For instance, some supermarkets have
introduced a service in which you can
scan barcodes as you shop making the
payment process a quick transaction at
the end, providing an efficient service.
Lastly, customers demand a service
which is personally tailored to their
needs. Delivering a personalised
experience is important. Have you
ever been browsing online and a little
note pops up of products “you might
like to try”? Nowadays people are not
simply buying the product, they want
to buy into the whole brand experience
(Ratneshwar & Mick, 2005), which can
be achieved through personalisation.
Impressively, AI has the ability to analyse
browsing patterns, aid navigation
around a website and improve self-
service, making personalisation easy to
achieve.
Ultimately, by harnessing the power of
AI to deliver a customer service which is
readily available, easy and personalised,
customers are likely to leave the
experience feeling highly satisfied. Taking
into consideration how far AI has come
in the last five years alone, it would not
be surprising to see the numbers of
brands and retailers utilising AI solutions
to have dramatically increased in the five
years to follow. Businesses are realising
that this is a trend which is pretty much
guaranteed to reduce costs and improve
overall efficacy and performance
against competitors in future markets.
The use of AI services is not simply a
matter of customers being happier,
it actually affects their commercial
behaviour, making them more likely
to remain a customer, increasing the
supplier’s business. Thus, it seems almost
detrimental to a company to ignore such
an opportunity.
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 The Future of Autism Therapy:
Virtual Reality as a Tool to Improve Social Skills in
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Ana Skolaris
University of Glasgow
The recent rapid development of virtual
reality has strongly influenced the way
training and interventions for individuals
with Autism Spectrum Disorder are
designed. Due to its interactivity and safety,
virtual reality seems to be a promising tool
for enhancing social skills, especially in
children.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a
neurodevelopmental disability, specifically
characterised by persistent impairments in
social skills (APA, 2013). Challenges with
developing these skills can limit children’s
interactions with peers, due to difficulties
with correctly initiating, maintaining
and responding to social cues (Laghi,
Lonigro, Pallini & Baiocco, 2018). Research
has shown that compared to typically
developing peers, children and adolescents
with ASD often experience greater levels
of loneliness and mental health difficulties
(Ratcliffe, Wong, Dossetor & Hayes, 2015).
Addressing social skills challenges in children
with ASD is therefore very important as it
also leads to improvements in their general
well-being (Schiltz et al., 2018).
Given the recent rapid development in
technology, virtual reality (VR) interventions
have been shown to provide innovative
and effective ways of addressing social skills
development (Lahiri, Bekele, Dohrmann,
Warren & Sarkar 2013). According to the
Social Motivation Theory, lack of motivation
to attend to social information is one of the
main reasons for challenges in social skills
development within the ASD population
(Chevallier, Kohls, Troiani, Brodkin & Schultz,
2012). However, due to its novel video-
game like environment, VR has been shown
to increase learning motivation and is thus
an excellent way to facilitate social skills
development (Newbutt, Sung, Kuo & Leahy,
2017). VR involves computer-generated
animations and has become increasingly
popular due to its potential to facilitate
learning beyond the physical dimensions
which humans are confined to (Halabi et al.,
2017). This allows users to actively engage
in a safe, easily customisable environment,
which provides immediate feedback and
has no severe real-life consequences
(Parsons & Mitchell, 2002). There are
three main types of VR systems; desktop-
based VR, projection systems (e.g. Cave
Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE)) and
wearable head-mounted displays (HMD)
(Mihelj, Novak & Begus, 2014). HMDs have
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been employed in interventions as they
improve attentiveness, are lightweight
and small (Cheng et al., 2015). However,
recent studies suggest wearable VR can
cause dizziness, anxiety and sensory
overstimulation (Newbutt et al., 2017).
Unlike HMDs, CAVE has shown significantly
less negative effects following interventions
(Tcha-Tokey, Loup-Escande, Christmann &
Richir, 2017). Furthermore, Lorenzo et al.
(2016) found that improvement in targeted
social skills was higher in the immersive (i.e.
CAVE) compared to the desktop-based
group. Therefore, CAVE seems to present
a good alternative to the use of HMD, as it
still provides an immersive experience but
with fewer negative effects. Despite CAVE
being shown to better improve social skills
in children with ASD, desktop-based VR
is still the most widely used type of VR in
interventions, due to its lower costs and
easier accessibility (Ghanouni et al., 2018; Ke
& Im, 2013). Recently, a lot of emphasis has
been placed upon the development and
implementation of a new type of desktop
VR, called Collaborative Virtual Environment
(Wang, Xing & Laffey, 2018). The main goal
of CVE is to encourage children’s interaction
within VR. Two or more participants usually
work together to reach a common goal.
Group and interaction based interventions
have been shown to be effective in
addressing social skills development in
children with ASD outside VR as well (Gates,
Kang & Lerner, 2017).
Besides the advantages of using VR as a tool
to improve social skills, there is also criticism
surrounding this area. A recent review
(Bozgeyikli, Raij, Katkoori & Alqasemi, 2018)
highlighted the lack of design guidance for
implementing VR interventions in the ASD
population. Firstly, most studies measure
social skills development pre- and post-
intervention, however many fail to track
the progress longitudinally in order to see
whether improvements persist over time
and outside the VR context. This limits the
generalisability of social skills development
from VR into real-life situations (Pan &
Hamilton, 2018). Ip et al. (2018) conducted
one of the rare studies that used a reflective
log provided by parents and teachers to
track improvements of targeted skills in
children’s daily lives. Although this gives
an insight into the generalisation effects
of VR it relies on parent reported data
which may not be very reliable as it is easily
influenced by parent’s expectations (Stokes,
Kornienko, Scheeren, Koot & Begeer,
2017). Furthermore, according to a recent
review (Mesa-Gresa, Gil-Gómez, Lozano-
Quilis & Gil-Gómez, J., 2018) many studies
investigating the use of VR in social skills
training are underpowered and thus more
likely to increase Type II Error. Small sample
sizes and inconsistent male-to-female ratios
also make it difficult to generalise findings
(Thai & Nathan-Roberts, 2018).
Even though most research shows VR as
an excellent tool to improve social skills in
children with ASD, the difference in skills
measures used to assess them, makes it hard
to objectively conclude the optimal protocol
of an intervention plan (Ke & Moon, 2018;
Lorenzo et al., 2016).
Overall, VR seems to be a promising tool in
social skills development for children with
ASD. However, the diversity in type of VR
used, measurement tools and protocol
of the intervention make it difficult to
compare social skills development across
interventions. Projection-based immersive
VR (e.g. CAVE) seems to have the biggest
effect on the development of social skills (Ip
et al. 2018; Lorenzo et. al, 2016). However,
due to its lower costs and easier accessibility,
desktop-based interventions still seem to be
the most popular in ASD VR interventions
(Mesa-Gresa et al., 2018). Furthermore,
due to relatively small sample sizes, the
studies are underpowered and thus likely
to incorrectly report significant effects. It is,
however important to acknowledge the
contribution of this research. Studies in this
field demonstrate that VR systems are an
excellent tool for social skills development
in children with ASD and suggest this
technology could be implemented in
general educational settings to improve the
quality of social interactions in children with
ASD.
A connection between social robotics and the autism
spectrum disorder
Konstantina Chatzispyrou
Abertay University of Dundee
A plethora of robotic technological
advances have been reported over
the past years. Robotic technology
gains more ground every day and
as demonstrated by the number
of social robots that interact with
humans (Weiss, Igelsböck, Wurhofer
& Tscheligi, 2010). First of all, the
term “social robots” can be defined
as the universal longing to create a
model of humans to match personal
desires and essential requirements
(Korn, Bieber, Fron & Michels, 2018).
However, already in Karel Capek’s
play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal
Robots) from the 1920s, where the
term robot is probably first used, the
machines revolt against their creators
(CAPEK, 1920). The first autonomous
robots, those that were able to
employ independently from human
operators, were intended to perform
dangerous duties such as exploring
the deep oceans and the surface of
Mars (Weir, 2018).
Leo Kanner was the person to give
a clinical description of the term
“autism” in 1943. Kanner observed
in a group of 11 children, that these
children tended to be aloof and to
have peculiar behaviour, but at the
same time had a good rote memory
and skills with objects (Kanner, 1943).
The autism spectrum disorders
(ASD) include three fundamental
characteristics; impairments of
reciprocal social interactions,
problems in communication and
a confined variety of behaviours
and interests (Marshall et al., 2008).
Current studies of young children
with ASD are examining the effects
of early behavioural interventions,
designed to raise social engagement
and interaction, on functional cortical
organization and neural responses
(e.g., ERPs to social and linguistic
stimuli). Moreover, recent pathology
studies have presented new insights
into underlying mechanisms that
might assist explaining anatomical
abnormalities, such as enlarged and provide motivation and positive
cerebral volume, and functional feedback upon the successful
impairments, such as reduced completion of a task. Social robots
functional connectivity (Dawson & can provide help to children with
Murias, 2009). autism and play various roles such
as a diagnostic or behaviour eliciting
But what is the real connection agent, a friendly playmate, and a
between social robotics and the personal therapist (Cabibihan, Javed,
autism spectrum disorder ? Ang & Aljunied, 2013).
Social robots acknowledge and In conclusion, social robots can
respond to human social cues be utilised as small, colourful and
with appropriate behaviour. The fun-size toys, making sure that
technology used in their construction children can feel at ease during the
and design, can be distinctively interaction. Furthermore, they can
implemented in the study of autism. A be programmed to modify their
number of researchers have noticed behaviour in line with the specific
that engaging with therapy robots needs of the child with whom it is
increases engagement, attention interacting, therefore customising
and novel behaviours (such as the treatment (Michaud, Duquette &
spontaneously imitating the robot) Nadeau, n.d.) (Robins, Otero, Ferrari
among children with autism. Human & Dautenhahn, 2007). Meanwhile,
behaviour can be overwhelming robots are programmed and thus
for children with autism, yet a deterministic, so they are more suited
social robot can provide a kind of to the needs of predictability and
manageable social experience (Weir, repetition of a child with autism.
2018). Furthermore, a huge project
headed by Scassellati, made an effort
to further explore robotic therapy
for children with autism. Specifically,
it was reported that robots spent
a month in each child’s home in
order to analyse and adapt to their
behaviour, tailoring their interactions
to suit the child’s abilities, preferences
and behavioural goals. It was
concluded that the children who
participated in the research presented
social skills and capabilities that others
may not have seen them perform
before with another human being
(Scassellati, Admoni & Mataric, 2012).
So, why robots? Social robots are
involved in essential parts in the
treatment of children with autism.
Robots in autism treatment are
designed to take up a great many
responsibilities, even within the same
treatment session. Through games
and engaging projects, the robots
can interact with the children in
order to help them develop skills,
elicit specific, desirable behaviours
BPS Conference 2018 9
 Psychology in a Changing World:
Great Expectations: The Future of Psychology in
Medicine
David J. Aikman
University of Glasgow
A patient’s expectation towards a
clinical treatment can often moderate
the treatment’s overall efficacy.
Positive expectations can lead to
an improvement of the treatment
- the placebo effect - and negative
expectations may lead to a deleterious
‘nocebo’ effect (Benedetti et al., 2003).
The efficacy of some treatments, such
as antidepressants and psychotherapies
can be almost entirely attributed to
the placebo effect (Wampold, Minami,
Tierney, Baskin & Bhati, 2005). This
should not tarnish the reputation
of such treatments but bolster our
perception of the power of expectation.
Given the influence of expectancy
on clinical outcomes, is it possible to
influence expectations of treatments
in order to improve those treatments?
Excitingly, it is. Through manipulating
expectations, Bingel et al. (2011) could
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completely diminish, or double, the
effect of an opioid painkiller. Petrie
and Rief (2018) suggest that positive
expectation manipulation (as in the
doubling case) may soon become
common medical practice. In other
words, the placebo effect can and will
be used to help people.
GRAPH - FIND IN ARTWORK FOLDER
Figure 1. A model for the placebo-
enhancement of a drug. Improving
expectations associated with a drug
increases its overall efficacy.
However, in manipulating expectations,
there lies a biting ethical question:
would this line of action require
deception? People were deceived in
the aforementioned case of Bingel et
al. (2011). But, amazingly, ‘inert’ drugs
(or placebos) can still work even when
those taking them are aware of their
true nature. For example, so-called
open-label placebos reduce symptoms
of irritable bowel syndrome (Kaptchuk
et al., 2010) and chronic back pain
(Carvalho et al., 2016). Therefore, we
can predict an awareness of placebo-
enhancement should not interfere
with its function (the improvement of
a treatment). If this prediction is false,
however, and deception is found
necessary in the mass-manipulation of
expectation, there is further debate to
be had around the morality of such an
advancement.
Of course, research may reveal
placebo-enhancement to be impractical
on a grand scale. But if Petrie and
Rief (2018) are right, and expectation
manipulation does integrate into
mainstream medicine, a new avenue
of opportunities will soon open for
psychologists of the future.
Global Mental Health: A Positive Process or A Neo-
Colonialist Force?
Priyanka Chandi
University of Glasgow
I’m sitting at a Trauma workshop in Sri
Lanka, sweating but thirsty to absorb
all the knowledge presented. One of
Colombo’s top counselling psychologists
shares the truth about what happened to
people’s mental health in Sri Lanka after
the Tsunami and civil war. He discusses
the huge cultural differences between Sri
Lanka and the UK, regarding treatment
approaches and counselling. He sheds
light on the countries’ stigma, which still
prevails profusely. As my pen whizzes
across my notebook, writing as much as
possible, I hear a girl ask a question:
“When is Sri Lanka going to catch up to
the NHS in England?”
For ages whenever I thought of that
question my blood would boil. Why did
she think it was an appropriate question?
What makes the NHS and England
superior to Sri Lanka?
DSM criteria and dismissing traditional,
spiritual and cultural methods (Whaley,
2010). Therefore, it is important to be as
culturally sensitive as possible and to work
with the community, and not above.
As future psychologists, we have
a responsibility to exterminate any
fragments of neo-colonialism and
discrimination which may still exist in our
field of research. Fortunately, current
research has been promising. Books like
“Crazy Like Us” by Ethan Watters shed
light on how globalisation has damaged
different cultures in the past and what
we can do to change it. Campaigns like
the Live Laugh Love Foundation in India
highlight the impact awareness has in
reducing the stigma of mental health.
Moreover, organisations such as SLV.
Global provide psychology students with
educational and work placements in Asia,
with cultural awareness workshops run
by service care workers and psychologists
from the country. It’s what spiked my
interest in global mental health.
Colonialism and imperialism have
corrupted continents in the past – let’s
make sure its legacy dies out for good!
Priyanka completed her foundation
placement in Sri Lanka in 2017 and is
now one of the Glasgow Ambassadors. If
you would like to know more about what
SLV has to offer, please contact her at
priyanka.1997@hotmail.co.uk

As I’ve researched more of cross-cultural

mental health, I’ve come to a realisation.
In a world of globalisation; living in a
privileged, western country which has
produced mass research in psychology
and not fully owned up to its colonialist
past, makes us ignorant. Nevertheless,
this way of thinking can be highly
dangerous, as it brings about prejudice
and discrimination.

The reality of the NHS isn’t all marvellous.

The maximum waiting list time is 18
weeks (Summers, 2018) – yet, many
patients are having to wait longer to
be seen. A Royal College of Psychiatrists
survey found that some patients were
waiting up to 13 years for mental health
treatment (Campbell, 2018). Thus,
comparing the NHS to other countries’
health care seems inappropriate, when
our own healthcare system cannot live
up to its own standards.

Psychology has been predominantly

ruled by western research: 98% of
research published is on the WEIRD
population: westernised, educated,
industrialised, rich and democratic. That
is only 12% of the world’s population
(Arnett, 2008) so this sampling is
problematic to generalisation. Neo-
colonialism still exists in literature.
Misdiagnosis has been rampant in the
past, with psychologists following the

BPS Conference 2018 11

 Mindfulness Interventions from Present to the Future:
Will We All Be Meditating?
Max Korbmacher
Abertay University of Dundee
Over recent decades, mindfulness practices
became widely known and applied in
Western Societies. Aside from the known
spiritual leaders, such as the Dalai Lama,
and famous promoters of meditation,
such as Oprah Winfrey and Steve Jobs,
the Internet gave a platform to promote
mindfulness in a ‘user-friendly’ fashion.
Nowadays, mindfulness practice is not only
used by the general public but also the
military, in education, clinical and business
contexts (van Dam et al., 2018).
However, what mindfulness actually is does
not seem clear. Mindfulness is often referred
to as an umbrella term pointing toward
practices, procedures and characteristics
connected to increased attention, memory
and compassion (van Dam et al., 2018).
Following the Buddhist origins of the term,
mindfulness can be defined as the non-
judgemental awareness of the present
moment (Baer, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2003).
A variety of formal practices (different
meditations) and informal practices (applied
awareness exercises, e.g., the raisin method;
see Crane, 2017) are used to enhance
mindfulness.
In clinical settings the most common
Mindfulness Interventions (MIs) are
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)
(see Kabat-Zinn, 2003) and Mindfulness-
Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) (see
Teasdale et al., 2000). MBSR was first applied
to in support the treatments of physical
conditions (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn &
Chapman-Waldrop, 1988). Recent meta-
analyses show overall medium to large
effect sizes (d = .5) of studies examining the
success of MBSR in helping patients and
non-patients to cope with both physical
and mental health problems (Baer et al.,
2003; Chiesa & Serretti, 2009; Grossman et
al., 2004). MBSR seems to reduce physical
symptoms and improve life-quality in
individuals with fibromyalgia, irritable-bowel-
syndrome and breast cancer (Creswell,
2017). Although often mentioned in the
literature, MBSR’s effects on the immune
system remain unclear (Black & Slavich,
2016; Creswell, 2017). While mindfulness
practice seems to enhance health-related
behaviours such as food choices, previously
proposed influences of mindfulness on
other domains of behavioural change,
such as addictive behaviours, continue to
be debated (Creswell, 2017; Wilson et al.,
2017) while its effect on behaviours such as
smoking are rejected (Maglione et al., 2017).
MBCT seems paritcularly effective in
12 BPS Conference 2018
reducing stress, anxiety and depression
(Khoury et al., 2013) and preventing
depression relapses for individuals with
three or more relapses (Chiesa & Serretti,
2011; Piet & Hougaad, 2011). On the
other hand, evidence shows that MIs can
also induce adverse effects such as re-
experiencing trauma, panic attacks, delusion
and/or increased risk of suicide in individuals
who experienced severe trauma(s), or
who have suicidal tendencies, psychosis
or schizophrenia (e.g., Dam et al., 2018).
Both Goldberg et al.’s (2018) and Khoury
et al.’s (2013) meta-analyses indicated no
differences between therapeutically applied
MIs and established Cognitive Therapy or
medication. Accordingly, MIs might offer a
unique addition to state-of-the-art therapies
and interventions (e.g., Creswell, 2017).
Besides direct health benefits, mindfulness
can improve executive functioning, such
as attention and memory, and thereby
performance on cognitive tasks; as well
as emotion-regulation mechanisms
(Creswell, 2017; Leyland, Rose, & Emerson,
2018). Research on mindfulness using
neuroimaging techniques (also called
contemplative neuroscience; see Wallace,
2009), could support those findings by
showing structural increases in prefrontal
cortex and body awareness regions of
the brain (Fox et al., 2014) or activity in
anterior brain regions, as well as anterior
cingulate cortex (ACC), and insula (Falcone
& Jerram, 2018). Moreover, structural
decreases in default-mode networks were
found, suggesting less mind-wandering,
daydreaming, and thinking about past,
future, oneself and others (Fox et al.,
2014). Similar to Fox et al.’s (2014) findings,
Young and colleagues (2018) found in
their review of neuroimaging-studies
on MBIs neurophysiological alterations
following 8-week MIs, as well as changes
in ACC and prefrontal cortex. However,
particularly the insula was found to play
a central role in meditators, which can be
associated with awareness of the self and
the present moment (Young et al., 2018).
According to Fox and colleagues (2014),
neurophysiological changes may already
apply after 5 to 60 hours of meditation
practice.
Moreover, personality also seems to be
connected to mindfulness. Giluk (2009)
conducted a meta-analysis of studies
observing the relationship between
mindfulness and the ‘Big Five’ personality
traits and concluded that research was
strongly variable. The strongest relationships
were negative relationships between
mindfulness score and neuroticism as
well as negative affect, and a positive
relationship between mindfulness score and
conscientiousness. Due to the correlation of
mindfulness scores with Big Five personality
traits Extraversion and Openness, a
relationship between mindfulness and
increased social interactions might be
expected. However, only a few studies
support this hypothesis as well as
connections between mindfulness and
relationship satisfaction (Creswell, 2017).
Possible positive outcomes of MIs seem
attractive to larger companies. Hence,
MIs are often used to reduce stress in
occupational settings (e.g., Aikens et al.,
2014; Wolever et al., 2012). Jamieson
and Tuckey’s (2017) review of MIs in
the workplace suggests that a variety of
interventions serve to improve health and
wellbeing, but that there is still a lack of
rigour and comparability in the literature.
Research on MIs faces similar problems in
educational settings. Zenner et al. (2014)
conducted a meta-analysis on MIs in
schools, suggesting benefits for children
and adolescents such as improved cognitive
performance and stress-resilience. However,
effect sizes of current studies on MIs in
schools are still small and studies differ in
their methodologies (Carsley et al., 2017).
Although applying mindfulness in
different contexts seems promising,
the understanding of the concept of
mindfulness differs as accordingly do
the methods to research it. Nevertheless,
mindfulness is increasingly applied in
different contexts. Based on research
suggestions of MIs’ positive effects and
mindfulness’ increasing online popularity,
it is likely that mindfulness will soon be of
more importance for lifestyle choices and
in daily life settings, for example, to be
more stress-resilient, healthy, efficient or
productive. After integrating MIs further
into occupational and educational settings,
community MIs might be the next logical
step (Creswell, 2017). Although there is
research outlining various benefits of MIs,
in most instances it is yet unclear to what
extent MIs help, or in some cases if MIs help
at all. Therefore, more methodologically
rigorous, domain-specific and reproducible
research is needed to inform more about
the application of mindfulness practice in
different contexts.
BPS Conference 2018 13
 On The Impact of Adherence Behaviours
Lola Leving
University of bath
In the wake of modern medicine and Pereira’s study (2017) , they health is important to them as
with varieties of therapies, drug showed that in Type 2 Diabetes individuals, making the difficulty
plans and possible lifestyle patients, the only predictor of of adhering to the treatment
alterations, adherence to adherence to physical activity plan worthwhile in service
treatment recommendations (a feature of the diabetes of something else. Forming
remains a concern. As a result of treatment plan) is the intention personal incentives to continue
nonadherence, the benefits of to perform physical activity. the designated treatment plan
treatment plans are not acquired Thus, to promote adherence, influences intention, and, in turn,
despite advances in health care patients intentions, attitudes, behaviour.
(Bosworth, 2010). Researchers and perceived control should Despite the new therapies
in the field of Health Psychology be taken into consideration. and innovative medications
are looking to understand Physicians and health available every year, health care
how to increase adherence to psychologists need to focus on is largely impacted by adherence
treatment plans of patients, in the benefits of the treatment, behaviours. Interventions that
turn improving quality of life and in turn promoting the patients’ increase the adherence to
well-being. intentions to adhere to the treatment plans are necessary
Often treatment plans are treatment plan. for society to reap the benefits of
beneficial to the health of the Health professionals must help medical advances.
patient, either immediately patients understand why their
or as a preventive measure.
Nevertheless, in many chronic
illnesses, adherence to these
potentially difficult life changes
(i.e. taking pills, working out,
eating healthy, etc.) is low,
causing complications in the
long run (Spaan et al., 2018).
For instance, less than 50% of
women follow the five-year
adjuvant hormonal therapy for
breast cancer survivors (Murphy
et al., 2012).
Understanding the aspects that
influence patients’ likelihood
to follow a treatment plan is
necessary. Pereira et al. (2018)
focused on patients’ adherence
to the complex treatment of
Type 2 Diabetes. Their study
showed how differences in
patients’ beliefs concerning
the medicine, trust in the
physician, general psychological
distress, and satisfaction of care
contribute to the likelihood of
adherence.
Furthermore, the Theory of
Planned Behaviour suggests
that behaviour is predicted by
the intention to perform that
particular behaviour (Ferreira
& Pereira, 2017). In Ferreira’s

14 BPS Conference 2018

Opinion Pieces:
Is the psychology of the future tougher than we
think?
Alexandru Dobromir
University of Bath
One of the paradoxes of modern days
is that despite the rise in opportunities,
fairness, living quality and access to
treatment, depressive symptoms have
been continuously on the rise in the past
30 years, especially in young adults and
teenagers (Klerman & Weissman 1989;
Twenge 2014). Although more people
are receiving outpatient mental health
services and medication every year
(Olfson et al. 2015), the rise in depressive
symptoms is still systematic and there is
no prediction of a decline. This rise has
been attributed to across generational
differences, e.g. stronger beliefs in being
above average (Twenge et al. 2014),
unrealistic expectations (Reynolds et al.
2006) and more self-focused fears in the
youth, when compared to the elders
(Lindfors et el. 2012).
Mental health services are focused on
how to make individuals feel better,
in order for them to function better,
which is a simple and rational way of
approaching the issue. The problem is
simple, by just treating the outcome,
which is an increase in depressive
symptoms, the systematic rise still seems
to persist. This rise is accompanied by
the rise of treatment seeking as well. As
for any other causal link, in order for the
rise in depressive symptoms to cease,
there should be a treatment of its cause,
not only of the outcome, which are the
symptoms. The mental health systems
way of working seems more similar to
coping with the depressive symptoms
problem, than it is a solution for them.
Not only is this way of coping not solving
this problem, but as counterintuitive as
it may seem, it could even involuntarily
reinforce it. Recent studies are showing
controversial evidence that might make
us question the way we are addressing
the mental health issue.
The use of testosterone has been
reported to be efficient in the alleviation
of depressive symptoms in men (Walter,
Breidenstein & Miller 2018). This is
a controversial finding because the
expression “Man up!” was something
widely used decades ago, but now it is
viewed as unsensitive to one’s problems,
even inappropriate, and it is not
recommended as good advice by mental
health professionals. But testosterone is
actually doing a good job in reducing
depressive symptoms.
When comparing support with
competition networks, the ones based
on competition have been reported as
a better predictor of future performance
(Zhang et al. 2016). This is against some
of the ideas used in addressing mental
health issues, which are more focused on
how to help someone get the support
they need and asses their performance
in comparison with themselves and
their potential, in order to improve (Biali,
2018).
At last, tough parenting has been
repeatedly blamed by psychologists,
because of the negative impact on
children’s mental health. The idea that
you should keep your children away
from danger and teach them that they
are able to achieve everything they
want, has become more popular in the
past few decades. Even though they
again seem rational, overprotective
parenting has been linked to lower
self-esteem (DeHart et al. 2006), more
feelings of shame and doubt (Tuckman
& Monetti 2011) and encouraging
unrealistic expectations may lead to more
depressive symptoms in an individual’s
later life.
There are more examples and instances
in which more tough strategies that
may cause distress have been dismissed
by mental health professionals because
of their supposed negative impact on
our mental health with not enough
empirical evidence. Our biological pain
system’s purpose is to alert us when
our body encounters a problem, in
order to be able to take the needed
measures to solve it (Holden & Winlow
1984). Similarly, psychological distress’
can alert someone when there is an
issue in their life. Mental arousal is one
of the factors that is needed to achieve
any performance (Yerkes & Dodson
1908), and this can be enhanced in
positive ways such as raising awareness,
but awareness can be increased by
anxiety and distress. By just trying to deal
with distress or discomfort, such as the
depressive symptoms, someone would
certainly become better at dealing with
distress, but the causes of the distress
itself may remain there. Indeed, there
are situations where the causes of one’s
negative feelings are outside of one’s
reach, such as past trauma, but there
are also cases in which people need
motivation to make certain changes in
their lives.
On the other hand, sensible advice,
support and understanding are
important factors to everyone’s mental
health and not having nurturing parents
has also been linked to a lower self-
esteem (DeHart et al. 2006). It is very
clear that toughness, lack of support and
social comparison alone cannot lead to
better mental health, but it should also
be as clear that their absence, and the
absence of other approaches that might
seem counterintuitive may also lead to
mental health issues.
Psychology and mental health services
should help people to develop in a
way that will eventually lead to an
independent and healthy way of life.
Before only embracing tolerance,
acceptance, support and reinforcing
ideas like uniqueness, we should
question to what extent these
approaches should be accompanied
by their complementary tougher
counterparts. Perhaps “Man up!” is
not the best advice, and of course the
wording is not the best, but it may
provide insight into how to deal with
some situations. Of course, competition
or comparison are not the best
approaches for everyone and indeed
everyone needs their parents’ protection
and everyone needs to have faith in
themselves to achieve their goals. The
question is how much of these and how
much of their complementary tougher
counterparts are actually needed to not
only help with the depressive symptoms
issue, but to reinforce independence
and directly have an impact on the
causes of the constant rise in those
symptoms. Perhaps the psychology of
the future needs to be tougher than we
think in order to solve the mental health
problems that we encounter today.
BPS Conference 2018 15
 From Nirvana to Neuropsychology
Eduard Daniel Margarit
Abertay University
If we choose to block the abundance
of articles on Replication Crisis we are
bombarded by a series of apocalyptic
prophecies about neuroscience and
the end of today’s Psychology. Over
the last few decades the progress of
science helped psychology develop
substantially; neuropsychology is no longer
a novelty, with researchers predicting that
neuroscience will eventually explain all the
psychological processes in terms of brain
processes (Ludden, 2018).
Around 500BC Buddha realised that our
suffering is not caused by misfortunes,
society or divine intervention but by our
own mind and its behaviour patterns
(Harari, 2015). Only 25 centuries later
cognitive behaviour therapy started
to be developed. Let’s not forget that
phrenology was first developed in the late
1700s and it was very much still popular up
until mid-19th century (Ticknor & Ticknor,
2010). Looking back to phrenology one
16 BPS Conference 2018
might find it rather amusing that this
theory was once perceived as scientifically
proven and used in medical practice. In
terms of medicine advancements there are
still countries where the administration of
bromides are still in use despite its chronic
toxicity. So the rising question is: how fast
are we actually developing?
1880s came with a new concept, hypnosis,
and yet even now the unconscious mind
is still relevant. Once controversial and
daring for its time, Freud’s theory has so
far stood the test of time. Today we have
hundreds of therapy models available to
us; all of them are claiming breakthrough
discoveries and new approaches
(Claringbull, 2010).
The mind-body problem is still a hot topic
and Descartes’ metaphysical approach is
still subject to passionate debate. While we
indeed don’t have any radical Skinner-alike
approach to psychology, behaviourism
is still striving to explain the human
behaviour by means of looking at stimulus-
response. Skinner developed nurture-
determinism, however cultural determinism
and social determinism are also nurture
theories.
At the heart of many of these issues is not
our own methodological approach but
in fact our own point of view; from the
inside or the outside. Thomas Kuhn uses
philosophy and explains very clearly how
a scientific discipline in which a common
understanding has yet to be defined is in a
‘pre-paradigmatic’ state.
As psychologists we are taught not to trust
our intuition and through our work we are
trying to explain what intuition is. I say that
as long as humans remain social creatures
and as long as language exists, society and
philosophy will not allow neurosciences
to explain everything - at least that’s my
intuition.
BPS Conference 2018 17