Eng.

Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Analogue Data Digital data

Data take on continuous Data take on discrete values
Constantly varying Made up of only 0’s and 1’s
Like voice, images, weights, temperature
readings
Numbers systems
1. Denary: 2. Binary:
A base 10 numbering system A base 2 numbering system
Uses digits from 0 to 9 Uses digits 0 and 1
Units increase by power of 10 Units increases by power of 2

3. Hexadecimal
A base 16 numbering system Computers uses processors to perform
operations
Uses digits from 0-9 and A-F Processors uses logic gates (like AND, OR)
Units increases by power of 16 Logic gates gets inputs as only either 1 or 0
Each one hexadecimal digits equals 4 binary
digits
Number system conversions
Denary Binary Hexadecimal
198 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 8421 8421
1 1 0 0 0110 1100 0110

C 6
Hexadecimals advantages:
Shorter
Easier to read
Easier to search
Takes less space on screens

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Sum: Complementary:
0 0 1 1 1 -128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
+ + + + + Sum =0 no carry up
0 1 0 1 1 Sum = 1 no carry up If you have a negative number you will put 1
at -128 and then add the number to get the
value you need
= = = = + Sum = 0 carry up 1 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

0 1 1 0 1 Sum =1 carry up 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
If you need the same number in positive you
will make the ordinary change from denary to
binary
There is other way
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Then change each 0 to be 1 and each 1 to be
0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Then add 1 to the right
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Memory size MEASURMENTS:

Bit: One binary bit either 0 or 1 Byte: A group of 8 bits
Nibble: A group of 4 bits Kilobyte: a group of1024 byte
Megabyte: a group of 1024 kilobyte/ a group Gigabyte: a group of 1024 Megabyte
of 1024*1024 byte
IMAGES:
How does computers understand images?? EXAMPLE:
An image consists of pixels, each pixel has a color and An image with 512 pixels height and 512 pixels width.
each color has a unique binary number(bits). Binary Each pixel has 16 bit.
bits are represented in an order to form an image. Calculate the size of the image in kilobytes??
ANSWER:
(512*512*16) / (8*1024) = 512 KB

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

AUDIO
EXAMPLE:
Analogue sounds cannot be understood by computers, a 32-second sound clip is recorded. The sound will be
so it should be converted to digital (discrete) values sampled 16000 times for a second. Each sample will be
using the ADC. Sound is represented as samples. Each stored using 8 bits. Calculate the file size in kilobytes?
;samples is represented as a unique binary number. ANSWER:
Binary bits are represented in order to form the audio
file.
(16000*8*32) / (8*1024) = 500KB

Uses of Hexadecimal system with example for

each:
1. HTML colors RED #FF0000 Image is represented as pixels, each pixel has a color
represented by mix of 3 main colors R, G & B
2. MAC address 7B-A4-BC-00-9A-05 Media access control
A unique number consists of 12 hexadecimal digits to
represent a device connected to internet issued by the
manufacture. The 1st half represents the manufacture
ID. The 2nd half represents the device serial number.

3. (ASCII) ‘q’ equals %77 Each character on a keyboard has a unique equivalent
hexadecimal, binary, and denary value saved in a
standard table called ASCII table.
Each hexadecimal value should be preceded by a % sign.
4. Error messages #E04 5. Memory dump 5A 2B C7 05

6. Memory location A0C5F5 7. IP addresses C0.A8.01.01

Files type and format: data is stored in many different Mp3:

types and formats like: -
Type: sound (audio) image video text - Stores digital recording of sound

Format: .mp3 .jpeg .mp4 .txt/.doc - Created by recording software like sequencer or
microphone
Mp4: - Used when distributing music files

- Stores multimedia files (audio, video, image) - Uses lossy compression

- Uses lossy compression

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
JPEG:
- Stores compressed images
- Has a small file size
- Uses lossy compression
Explain how lossy compression reduce the size of an
image file?
- A compression algorithm is used
- The data is permanently removed
- The original file can’t be retrieved
- Unnecessary colors human eye can’t detect
is removed
- This will reduce color depth and image
resolution
- Which will reduce image size
Sound is represented as samples
Video is represented as frames
Explain how lossy compression reduces the size of text
file?
- A compression algorithm is used
- No data is removed
- Each repeated word will be replaced by its index
THEORY REVISION
Explain how lossy compression reduces the size of a
sound file?
- a compression algorithm is used
- The data is permanently removed
- The original file can’t be retrieved
- Unnecessary sounds human ears can’t hear is
removed
- Using perceptual music shaping
- This will reduce sample size and sample
resolution
- Which will reduce audio size
Explain how lossy compression reduces the size
of a video file?
- A compression algorithm is used
- The data is permanently removed
- The original file can’t be retrieved
- Any Unnecessary sounds human ears can’t
hear is removed
- Any Unnecessary colors human eye can’t
detect is removed
- This will reduce color depth and image
resolution
Image is represented as pixels
- The original file CAN be retrieved
- Each repeated word is given index and saved in a
dictionary
- Consecutive repeated characters are replaced by
only one same character followed by its count of
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

occurrences. This algorithm is called (Run length

encoding RLE)

The file size is reduced The file will be transmitted faster

The file uses less storage space The file will be downloaded and uploaded faster
- The file will be attached to emails faster - The file will be secured

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Chapter 2
Data transmission

cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) are used to

check data packets:
- this involves the sending computer adding up all the - the computer then checks this value against the one
1-bits in the payload and storing this as a hex value sent in the trailer
in the trailer before it is sent
- once the packet arrives, the receiving computer - if the two values match, then no transmission errors
recalculates the number of 1-bits in the payload have occurred otherwise the packet needs to be re-
sent.
How the packet switching work The benefits of packet switching are:
- each packet will follow its own path(route) there is no need to tie up a single
communication line
routers will determine the route of each packet - it is possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty
lines by simply re-routing packets
- routing selection depends on the number of it is relatively easy to expand package usage
packets waiting to be processed at each node
- the shortest possible path available is always a high data transmission rate is possible
selected
The drawbacks of packet switching include:
- packets can be lost and need to be re-sent
- the method is more prone to errors with real-time
streaming
- there is a delay at the destination whilst the
packets are being re-ordered

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Simplex: Half- duplex:

- Transmitting data in one direction - Transmitting data in both directions but not at the
same time
- Only (unidirectional) - Like walkie- talkie
- Like from a computer to a printer
-
Full duplex:
- Transmitting data in both directions simultaneously
- Like phone calls and video conferences

Serial: Parallel:
- Transmitting data one bit at a time over one single - Transmitting data multiple bits at a time over
wire multiple wires
- Works well over long distances - Works over short distances
- Cheaper than parallel as it uses one wire - Faster in transmission than serial
- Slower in transmission than parallel - Data may be corrupted over long distances
- Like universal serial bus (USB) - expensive to manufacture
- Data can be skewed
- Like integrated circuits (IC)

- Automatically detected by any device

- Universally standard
- Supports many transmissions speeds
- Industry standard (backwards compatible)
Error checking methods:
1. Parity check: 2. Check sum:
- Checks byte of data - A calculated value from block of data calculated by
sender
- Checks received data - The value transmitted with the data
- A parity bit is added - Receiver recalculates it using algorithm
- Can be even or odd - Receiver compares the two values
- Counts numbers of 1s - If they are not equal, then the data is corrupted
- Cannot detect corruption if there is a transposition
error
- i.e. if there are 2 interchanged bits

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
3. Check digit:
- A calculated digit from a number calculated by sender
- The digit is added to the number
- Receiver recalculates it using algorithm
- The two values are compared
- If they are not equal, then the data is corrupted
Encryption:
scrambling characters so that messages make no sense
(meaningless). Data before encryption is called plain text. An
encryption algorithm is used to encrypt data to be cypher
text. A key is used to encrypt data (it can be public or
private key). Encryption can either be symmetric or
asymmetric.
Symmetric encryption: uses the same one key to encrypt Asymmetric Encryption: uses two different keys (public
and decrypt a message
Authentication: a process used to verify that the data
comes from a trusted source
Hardware
Computer Architecture: shows how a computer
system is designed
A computer consists of many components (units) that
are used in the Fetch -Decode -Execute cycle like
Memory -CPU -CU -I/O devices -Registers -Busses
Register: a high-speed storage area within the
computer (CPU)
PC (Program Counter) Contains address of next
instruction to be fetched from memory.
MAR (Memory Address Register) Contains
address of current instruction in memory unit.
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THEORY REVISION
4. Automatic repeat request (ARQ):
- Error control protocol check on received data by parity
check or check sum
- Uses acknowledgment and time-out
- Time is set by sender
- A +ve or -ve acknowledgment should be sent to
sender
- If no acknowledgment is sent, then data request is
sent again.
and private key).
One key to encrypt and another to decrypt a message. It is
more secure than symmetric. Works slower than symmetric
due to complex operations of encryption and decryption.
Stored program computer: A program is stored on
a secondary storage device like (HDD)
Data and instructions of the program are moved and
stored to main memory (RAM)
Data and instructions then fetched one by one from
memory to the processor to be executed
It is often referred to as Von Neumann Architecture
and it goes through 3 main stages: -
Fetch: - getting the data from memory and pass it to
the processor to be executed
Decode: - the Control Unit checks if the I/O devices
are ready before passing it to the CPU
Execute: - the CPU executes instructions with help of
ALU and ACC
 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

MDR (Memory Data Register) Contains data of

current instruction in memory unit that is going to be
passed to CU.
IAS (Immediate Access Store) Holds data and CIR (Current Instruction Register) Holds data
instructions when they are loaded from memory and and instructions at CU to be decoded before being
waiting to be processed. executed by the CPU.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) ALU carries out ACC (Accumulator) Holds data temporary that is
Arithmetic operations like (add, subtract, etc.) ALU currently used in calculations by ALU
carries out logic operations like (AND, OR, etc.) Holds
temporary values during calculations in the ACC
register

Buses (pathways):

- Address bus: Carries addresses from the - Data bus: Carries data between processor,
processor to memory (Unidirectional) memory, and I/O devices (Bidirectional)
- Control bus: Carries signals to control all
activities within the computer (Uni and Bi)
Control Unit (CU): used to pass the signals from
operating system to other computer units.
CU sends signals to other components telling them
what to do
CU controls the flow of the whole cycle
CU has two registers PC and CIR

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Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Embedded systems

Microcontrollers:
This has a CPU in addition to some RAM and
ROM and other peripherals all embedded
onto one single chip
Microprocessor:
Integrated circuit which only has a CPU on the
chip (there is no RAM, ROM or peripherals –
these need to be added)
System on chips (SoC):
This may contain a microcontroller as one of
its components (they almost always will
include CPU, memory, input/output (I/O)
ports and secondary storage on a single
microchip)

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Examples of the use of embedded systems
Motor vehicles Security systems
Lighting systems Vending systems
Input devices: a device that allows data to be entered into computer like keyboard
2D Scanner: converts paper hard copy into a digital
format to be stored in a computer
- The 2D scanner shines a light onto the surface of a
2D document using a scan head
- The surface of the document is made up of pixels
with different colors.
- Reflected light is captured and sent to mirrors and
lenses.
- Then it is sent to a charge couple device CCD.
- CCD is made up of many pixels, each pixel will
record the amount of light of color.
Applications:
- Reading Passports
- OCR Optical Character Recognition
- OMR
Barcode scanner/ reader: to read barcodes of
products
- The barcode reader shines a red laser / light over
the surface of a barcode.
- The barcode surface is made of white and black
vertical lines with different thickness.
- White lines reflect light and black lines reflects less
light.
- The barcode reader shines a red laser / light over
the surface of a barcode.
- The reflected light is detected by sensors
- The data now in a digital format.
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THEORY REVISION
3D scanner: 3D scanners scan real life solid objects using
lasers, light, radio waves or X-rays and produce a three-
dimensional image
- The 3D scanner shines a laser or light over the
surface of the 3D solid object.
- It takes several 2D images from different points of
the solid object.
- It records measurements of the dimension of the
object
- Measurements are converted to a digital file to
produce a 3D digital image.
Applications:
- Computed Tomography CT
- X-Ray
- MRI
QR code scanner/ reader: Quick Response code
reader
- The OR code reader or a mobile shine a red laser /
light over the surface of a QR code.
- The surface of a QR code is composed of black
squares on a white background.
- There are 3 large squares on borders for alignment
- Black squares reflect less light.
- Fach Square is represented as a binary value to form
a digital file.
- The QR code can link users to a website or any
advertisement
 Eng. Omar Nabil
Applications:
1. Supermarket checkout (Reads barcodes to check
details)
2. Automatic stock control
3. Track books on loan
4. Track bags
Digital Camera: Capture images (and sometimes video)
digitally.
- Digital camera takes a light and focuses it through a
lens.
- A shutter will open letting light onto a CCD sensor
cell
- The sensor cell is made up of a grid of tiny pixels.
- Each pixel in the image is replaced in the grid as a
binary value
Pointing devices: Allows a user to navigate a computer
system by controlling a pointer, There are two types of
pointing devices, these are the Tracker ball and the Mouse
Interactive whiteboard: A user can use either their
finger or a special pen to make selections. Handwritten
information can be stored as digital file in computers.
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THEORY REVISION
Applications:
1. Advertising by mobile phones.
2. Packaging
Keyboard:
- A circuit board presents underneath the buttons.
- When a key is pressed, it completes a circuit.
- The location of the key press is calculated.
- Each character has an ASCII value.
- Each ASCII value has a unique binary value.
Drawbacks of keyboards:
1. Easy to make mistakes
2. Slow entry if user is not trained
Applications:
1. Word processor
Microphone: inputs analogue sound waves into a
computer as digital signals
- Microphone picks sounds continuously.
- A Diaphragm vibrates producing sound waves.
- This causes a coil vibrates to change the magnetic
field.
- The signal goes to a sound card.
Applications
1. Voice Recognition To recognize spoken words
2. Video conference
 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Used in classrooms and business meetings

Touch screens: both input (Pressing the screen) and output (displaying information) devices.
Applications
1. Mobile phones allows user select icons and it is easy method to input data

Capacitive: Infrared:
- Conductive layer. - invisible grid on screen
- An electric field is created across the screen. - the beam is broken when screen has been touched
- Sensors around screen monitor the electric field. - sensors detect the cut
- When finger touches screen, electric charge is - microprocessor calculates the position of touch
transferred to finger.
- Microprocessor calculates position of touch. - Allows multi-touching
- Allow multi-touching - Cannot be broken easily
- Cannot be broken easily - Good visibility
- Good visibility - Quick response
- Quick response - Allows not only bare fingers
- Allows only bare fingers - Expensive
Resistive:
- Uses multiple layers with two different materials
- When the top layer is touched, it transmits electric
current into bottom layer.
- Circuit is completed.
- Microprocessor calculates the point of contact.
- Cheap to manufacture
- Allows not only bare fingers
- No multi-touch
- broken easily & Poor visibility
- Slow response
Sensors:
input devices used to collect readings of physical properties like temperature
Data that is measured by a sensor is usually in analogue form

Why Sensors?
- Reliable - Reaches places where humans can't.
- Don't get tired
- Accurate
Examples :
Temperature: Measures temperature of water in washing Pressure: Measures weights / count of people or cars /
machines / fish tanks / air condition pressure of gas in pipelines
Infrared/ motion: Measures motion like automatic doors/ Light: Measures brightness in the environment like in green
intruders/ count people or cars houses / switch street lights
Gas: Measures pollution in water / checks CO2 PH (Acidity): Measures acidity levels in soil / water
pollution

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Sound: Measures noise levels / leak detection
Magnetic field: Counts cars to control traffic lights / ABS
Monitoring systems: just monitors the readings and
alarms if readings are out of range Like: -
- Monitoring patients' vital signs
- Monitoring pollution levels.
How sensors and microprocessor are used to monitor or control the …?
1. The (type of the sensor) is reading the (property) at
a (set rate or constantly).
3. The data is converted with an ADC
5. If the data is out of range
5.2 If a Control system, microprocessor sends signal to
control unit to have an action
Output devices: A device allows user view or hear data that has been entered into a computer.
✓ The beam is sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors
✓ Produced image quality is less than DLP
Inkjet printer: Laser printer:
Features
- Uses liquid ink filled in cartridge
- Suitable for low volume and high-quality printouts
- Prints a paper line by line
-Suitable for photographs
Operation
- Inkjet printers have print heads which contain ink
cartridges
- The stepper motor and the belt move the print heads
across the paper.
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THEORY REVISION
Moisture / Humidity: Measures amount of water left in
clothes / monitors dampness levels.
Control systems: monitors readings and sends signal to a
Controlling Unit (ACTUATOR) to have an action incase if data
is out of range Like;-
- Automatic doors
- Turning street lights on and off
- Greenhouses
- Changing temperature of AC
2. The data is sent to the microprocessor.
4. The microprocessor will compare this data against
the preset values.
(If the question gives you these values, you must use
them in your answer!)
5.1 If it is a Monitoring system, microprocessor sends a
signal to an alarm.
6. The process is continuous
Features
- Uses dry powdered ink filled in toner
- Prints whole paper in one go
- Suitable for high-volume high-quality printouts
- Suitable for documents
- Prints faster
- larger tray
- make use of the properties of static electricity
Operation
- Laser printers have print/ rotating drum which is given
a positive charge.
 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- The print head has Nozzles which is filled with ink.
- Nozzles sprays droplets of ink on the paper using two
different technologies:-
➢ Thermal bubble: generates heat so the ink
starts evaporating.
➢ Piezoelectrie: There is a crystal located at the
back of each nozzle to vibrate.
- A laser shines at parts of the drum that will require ink
for the printing process
- The laser is removing the positive charge from certain
areas of the drum.
- The negatively charged sheet of paper is rolled over the
drum.
- The sheet goes through a fuser (heating rollers) to melt
the powder to fix it.

3D printer: 2D Cutter:
- Uses 3D images that is either scanned by a 3D scanner - 2D cutters uses high powered laser that cuts in X-y
or designed at CAD apps plane.
- Uses different materials to create the output as a solid - It can only recognize the face of the material.
object.
- The printer is filled with the material like plastic, 3D Cutter:
powdered metal, and paper - 3D cutters use high powered laser that cuts in X-y-z
- The 3D printer builds the objects layer by layer plane.
(additive manufacturing) - Creates a 3D object and 3D prototypes.
Applications - Uses 3D images that is either scanned by a 3D scanner
- prosthetic limbs or designed at CAD apps
- Fashion and Art - Material is loaded to the 3D cutter.
- Different types of material can be used.
- Uses infrared that produces extreme heat.

Light projectors: output optical device displays data

from computers onto a surface
DLP projector: LCD projector:
✓ Digital light projector ✓ LCD is an older technology than DLP
✓ Uses a bright white light source and millions of ✓ LCD projectors uses a high intensity beam of light
micro mirrors on a chip ✓ The light is shone through three layers of changing
✓ Each mirror creates a pixel pixels
✓ The white light passes through color filters (color
wheel)
✓ An image is produced to be shown onto a wall
✓ Better than LCD projector
Actuator Loudspeakers (headphones):
- A motor in control applications to make an action. - The digital data stored in the computer needs to be
- It gets a signal from the microprocessor converted into analogue signals.
- The data is sent from the computer to a DAC (digital to
analogue converter).
- The analogue signals sent to an amplifier which then
creates the actual sound

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Monitors: screens/monitors are used to display data

visually to a user

CRT (CCFL):
- Cathode ray tube
- Uses CCFL as a source of light
- Big and heavy
- Uses a lot of electricity
- Uses a lot of desk space

LCD:
- Liquid crystal display
- Image is made up of pixels
- Each pixel has 3 filters R, G, B
- LCD screen has backlit
- Liquid is shone through liquid crystals
- Shape of crystals can be changed on or off
- Better than CRT
- Lightweight
- Consume less power than CRT
LED:
- Liquid emitting diode
- Image is made up of pixels
- Each pixel has 3 filters R, G, B
- LED screen has a backlit
- The backlit is matrix of tiny LEDs to light the screen
- Reaches maximum brightness immediately
- Thinner and lighter
- Consumes less power than LCD
- No warmup to start

OLED:
- Organic liquid emitting diode
- Uses organic materials to create semi-conductors
- Flexible and curved screens
- No backlit
- Thinner and lighter
- Consumes less power than LED
- More flexible

- Primary memory: - Secondary memory:

- Primary (internal) memory - Internal storage
- Data is directly accessed by CPU - Not directly accessed by CPU
- Faster access speed of data - Slower access speed of data
- Stores instructions and data - Stores large files permanently
- Volatile and non-volatile - Non-volatile
- Primary (internal) memory - Example: internal HDD&SSD
- Example: RAM and ROM

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- ROM (Read only memory) RAM (Random Access Memory)

- Stores start-up files to start the computer - Stores currently in use instructions, data,
(BIOS) and programs
- Permanent (nonvolatile) - Temporary (volatile)
- Contents of ROM cannot be altered or added - Contents removed when power is turned off
to
- Computer would not start-up without ROM - RAM can be read from and written to
Bios
- STATIC RAM (SRAM): uses flip-flops to store
data
- DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM): uses transistors to
store data

DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:

- They are much less expensive to manufacture - They consume less power than SRAM
than SRAM
- They have a higher memory capacity than
SRAM
Dynamic RAM(DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)
- consists of a number of transistors and capacitors - uses flip flops to hold each bit of memory
- needs to be constantly refreshed - doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed
- less expensive to manufacture than SRAM - has a faster data access time than DRAM
- has a higher memory capacity than SRAM - CPU memory cache makes use of SRAM
- main memory is constructed from DRAM
- consumes less power than SRAM

Offline storage Internal hard disk drive (HDD)

- External (portable) storage, removable (disconnected) - Uses magnetic media to store data

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- Not directly accessed by CPU - HDD has platters (disks)

- Slower access speed of data - Each disk is divided into sectors and tracks
- Used as a backup to store files - Storage disk spins
- Non-volatile - HDD has read/write arm to move data to tracks
- Example: CD/DVD/Blu-ray / USB flash memory drives - Uses electromagnets to read and write data
- External (portable) storage, removable (disconnected) - HDD uses moving parts, so HDD is slow accessing data
- Internal solid state drive (SSD)
- Uses flash memory chips to store data
- SSD chip has transistors and capacitors
- SSD has two types: Flash SSD & EEPROM

similarities between HDD and SSD: differences between HDD and SSD:
- both are secondary storage HDD
- both are not directly accessed by CPU - Has moving parts
- both are nonvolatile - Uses magnetic media to store media
- both storage large files permanently - Slower to access data
- both have read/write abilities - greater latency due to moving parts
- Heavier
- Has higher power consumptions
- Cheaper per unit of data
- Greater longevity

SSD
- has no moving parts
- uses memory chips to store data
- faster to access data than HDD
- has less latency as no moving parts
- lighter so reliable for portable devices
- lower power consumption
- More expensive per unit of data
- Lower longevity

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Optical media storage

- holds data as ‘dots’ onto the surface using high - each dot represents 1’s and 0’s
powered laser
- like CD, DVD-R, DVD-RAM, and Blu-Ray

how data is read from the optical storage media like CD?
- A red laser is used - Laser beam shines onto the surface of the CD
- The surface of CD is covered by one spiral track - The CD rotates to be read

- Data is represented on the track as pits and lands - Pits and lands represent binary values

CD DVD-R Blu-Ray DVD-RAM

- Optical media
- Offline storage
- Nonvolatile
- Data stored on tracks
using pits and lands
Flash memory:
- a solid-state memory
- Optical media - Optical media - Optical media
- Offline storage - Offline storage - Offline storage
- Nonvolatile - Nonvolatile - Nonvolatile
- Data stored on tracks - Data stored on tracks - Data stored on tracks
using pits and lands using pits and lands using pits and lands
The main benefits of virtual memory are:
- programs can be larger than physical memory and still
be executed

- plugs directly into USB port - there is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t
being used (e.g. during error handling)

- direct transfer of data - it reduces the need to buy and install more expensive
RAM memory (although as mentioned earlier there are
limits to the value of doing this).

- faster access \speed than optical devices

Cloud storage
three common systems:
Public cloud : this is a storage environment where the Private cloud : this is storage provided by a dedicated
customer/client and cloud storage provider are different environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
companies and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a
single entity

Hybrid cloud : this is a combination of the two above

environments; some data resides in the private cloud and
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a
public cloud storage provider.

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Advantage
- Client files stored on the cloud can be accessed at
any time from any device anywhere in the world
provided internet access
- There is no need for client to carry an external
storage device with them even use the same
computer to store and retrieve information
- The cloud provides the user with remote back-up of
data with obvious benefits to alleviate data loss
MAC addresses
- identifies the physical address of a device on the
network
- unique for device on the network
- assigned by the manufacturer of the device and is part
of the NIC
- they can be universal or local
- when a packet of data is sent and received, the MAC
address is used to identify the sender’s and recipient’s
devices
- use 48 bits
- can be UAA or LAA
Network interface card (NIC)
- A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a
device to connect to a network (such as the internet).
- It is usually part of the device hardware and contains the
Media Access Control (MAC) address generated at the
manufacturing stage.
Dynamic IP addresses
- greater privacy since they change each time a user logs
on
- dynamic IP addresses can be an issue when using, for
example, VoIP since this type of addressing is less
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THEORY REVISION
Disadvantage
- If the client has a slow or unstable internet
connection , they would have many problems
accessing or downloading their data
- Costs can be high if large storage capacity is required
, it can also be expensive to pay for high download
data transfer limits with customer
- The potential failure of the cloud storage company is
always possible – this poses a risk of loss of all
backup data
IP addresses
- identifies the global address on the internet
- may not necessarily be unique
- dynamic IP addresses are assigned by ISP using DHCP
each time the device connects to the internet (see later)
- dynamic IP addresses change every time a device
connects to the internet; static IP addresses don’t
change
- used in routing operations as they specifically identify
where the device is connected to the internet
- use either 32 bits (IPv4) or 128 bits (IPv6)
- can be static or dynamic
Routers
- Routers enable data packets to be routed between
different networks, for example, to join a LAN to a WAN.
- The router takes data transmitted in one format from a
network (which is using a particular protocol) and
converts the data to a protocol and format understood
by another network, thereby allowing them to
communicate.
Static IP addresses
- since static IP addresses don’t change, they allow each
device to be fully traceable
- allow for faster upload and download speeds (see Figure
3.71)
 Eng. Omar Nabil
reliable as it can disconnect and change the IP address
causing the VoIP connection to fail
Chapter 4
Software
General features of system software
- set of programs to control and manage the
operation of computer hardware
- provides a platform on which other software
can run
- required to allow hardware and software to
run without problems
- provides a human computer interface (HCI)
- controls the allocation and usage of
hardware resources.
EXAMPLE: operating system, compilers , linker ,
device driver ,
Utility software (utilities)
- virus checkers
- disk contents analysis and repair
- back-up software
- screensavers.
Virus checkers (anti-virus software)
anti-virus software work in different ways they
all have the following common features:
- they check software or files before they are
run or loaded on a computer
- anti-virus software compares a possible virus
against a database of known viruses
- they carry out heuristic checking – this is the
checking of software for types of behavior
THEORY REVISION
- more expensive to maintain since the device must be
constantly running so that information is always
available
General features of application software
- used to perform various applications (apps) on a
computer
- allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
computer’s resources
- may be a single program (for example, Notepad) or a
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)
- user can execute the software as and when they
require.
Example : spreadsheet, word processor , video editing ,
- defragmentation software
- file compression and file management
- security
any possible files or programs which are infected are put into
quarantine which:
- allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or
- allows the user to make the decision about deletion
- anti-virus software needs to be kept up to date since
new viruses are constantly being discovered
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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Defragmentation software
- As a HDD becomes full, blocks used for files will
become scattered all over the disk surface
- This will happen because files will become
deleted, partially-deleted, extended and so on
over time
- The consequence of this is slower data access
time; the HDD read-write head will now require
several movements just to find and retrieve the
data making up the required file.
The Microsoft Windows environment offers the
following facilities using the back-up utility:
- restore data, files or the computer from the
back-up
- create a restore point
- options of where to save back-up files
Screensavers
- Screensavers are programs that supply moving
and still images on the monitor screen after a
period of inactivity by the computer
- They were originally developed to protect older
CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors which would
suffer from ‘phosphor burn’ if the same screen
image remained for any length of time
- Some screensavers are often used to activate
useful background tasks virus scans and
distributed computing applications
THEORY REVISION
- full system checks need to be carried out once a week,
for example, since some viruses lie dormant and would
only be picked up by this full system scan
use the operating system back-up utility
- allow a schedule for backing up files to be made
- only carry out a back-up procedure if there have been
any changes made to a file
- For total security there should be three versions of a
file:
- the current (working) version stored on the internal
HDD or SSD
- a locally backed up copy of the file
Security software
- manages access control and user accounts
- links into other utility software, such as virus checkers and
spyware checkers
- protects network interfaces
- uses encryption and decryption to ensure any intercepted
data is meaningless without a decryption key
- oversees the updating of software
Device drivers
- Device drivers are software that communicate with the
operating system and translate data into a format
understood by a hardware peripheral device.
- Without device drivers, a hardware device would be
unable to work with a computer – a message such as
‘device not recognized’ would appear on the screen.
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Operating system:
A software running in the background of a computer system. It allows communication between hardware and
software. It controls the components of the computer
Like Windows, Android, IOS, Linux
Operating System Features / functions:

- Multitasking: Operating system allows - Memory management: Main memory is a part of a

computer (processor) run many tasks computer that stores data and instructions in partitions,
simultaneously each partition has an address, before being executed by
processor

Processor management: Processor (CPU) is a part User Accounts management: Operating system allows users
of a computer that executes/runs/ performs the to create many different accounts with protected passwords at
instructions and applications. one computer.

Provides a user interface (GUI): Like screens, Spooling management: Temporary storage of input or output
icons, lists, creating folders data for relatively slow Input and output devices to access it.

File utilities: Like (create, copy, paste, delete file) Provides Interrupt handling Routines: To deal with different
interrupts and handle it properly.

Interrupt: a signal sent from a device or a software

to processor requesting processor's time, it causes
the processor to pause currently running process.
It enables multitasking to be carried out. Interrupts Interrupt handler: a software that receives and manages all
are like: interrupt signals.
- Paper jam in a printer Buffer: A temporary memory assigned for each currently
- out of ink executing process
- out of paper
- Software crash
- interrupts from different devices like keyboard,
mouse, microphone, …..
- phone calls
- notifications

Command line interface (CLI) Graphical user interface (GUI)

Advantages Advantages
- the user is in direct communication with the - the user doesn’t need to learn any commands
computer - it is more user-friendly; icons are used to represent
- the user is not restricted to a number of pre- applications
determined options - a pointing device (such as a mouse) is used to click on an
icon to launch the application

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
- it is possible to alter computer configuration
settings
- uses a small amount of computer memory
Disadvantages
- the user needs to learn a number of commands
to carry out basic operations
- all commands need to be typed in which takes
time and can be error-prone
- each command must be typed in using the
correct format, spelling, and so on
Who would use each type of interface?
CLI: a programmer, analyst or technician; basically
somebody who needs to have a direct
communication with a computer to develop new
software, locate errors and remove them, initiate
memory dumps
Describe what is meant by a BIOS and state its
function. What is the task of a BIOS when a computer
is first powered up?
- The BIOS tells the computer where the storage
device that holds the operating system can be
found
- it then loads the part of the operating system
that is needed and executes it.
- The BIOS is often referred to as firmware.
Firmware is defined as a program that provides
low level control for devices.
High level language
Benefits of writing code in
- closer to human language so it is easier and
faster to read, write, and understood
- easier and faster to debug errors
- portable and independent of a specific platform
- has built-in functions to save time of writing the
code
Drawbacks of writing code in
- takes more time to be executed (translated)
Example of a code
IF Num > 0 THEN
OUTPUT “positive”
END IF
THEORY REVISION
Disadvantages
- this type of interface uses up considerably more computer
memory than a CLI interface
- the user is limited to the icons provided on the screen
- needs an operating system, such as Windows, to operate,
which uses up considerable memory
GUI: the end-user who doesn’t have or doesn’t need to have
any great knowledge of how the computer works; a person who
uses the computer to run software or play games or
stores/manipulates photograph
BIOS software and BIOS settings are different. Describe the
different types of memory needs for both the software and its
settings. In your explanation state why both types of memory
are used.
- The BIOS is often referred to as firmware. Firmware is
defined as a program that provides low level control for
devices
- The BIOS program is stored in a special type of ROM, called
an EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM).
- EEPROM is a flash memory chip, which means its contents
remain even when the computer is powered down.
Low level language
Benefits of writing code in
- run faster as it works directly on registers of CPU
- shorter code so it requires less storage (RAM)
- suitable for drivers’ software
- access hardware
Drawbacks of writing code in
- takes time to written
- takes time to be tested
- specific hardware (machine dependent, not portable)
Example of a code
LDA A
INC A
STA Sum
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Languages Languages
- python - Assembly
- C++ - Machine language
- Java
- VB
Translators Translators
Compiler and interpreter Assembler

Translator Compiler Interpreter Assembler

Features - Translates high level
language to machine code
- Translates the whole code all
in on go
- Produces an executable file
- produces an error report
- fast speed of execution
slow speed of testing errors
Benefits - produces executable file is
suitable for sale
- allows fast execution
- the program is machine
independent so it can be
used on different platforms
(portable)
- no need to use a compiler or
the source code at client’s PC
Drawbacks - source code is not available
so no modification can be
done
slower in testing
- Translates high level - Translate low level
language to machine code language to machine
- Translates the code line by code
line - Translates the whole
- Doesn’t produce code all in one go
executable file - Produces an executable
- Slow speed of execution file
Fast speed of testing errors - produces an error report
- fast speed of execution
slowest testing
testing and debugging
errors using an
interpreter is better
- slow speed of executing
codes
does not produce an
executable file so interpreter is
used each time the program

Types of errors in codes:

syntax error: error in the grammar or key word of Logic error: error in the meaning of the code. The program will
the language. Program will not run before correcting run normally but it will give wrong output results.
errors.
Run-time error: error that can be discovered during
the run of the software, like divvied by 0. The
software crashes
Each language has its own key words and structure. Integrated development environment (IDE)
This structure is called the syntax of a language. A platform (software) used to write a program at its editor
Syntax is like the grammar of a language Test and run code using its translator (compiler/ interpreter)
The meaning of written code is called the logic

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

the internet and the World Wide Web

The differences between the internet and the
World Wide Web (WWW)

Internet: interconnected network of networks
URL uniform resource locator: equivalent to the IP
address and commonly used by users
protocol://website address/path/file name
- The protocol is usually either http or https.
- The website address is:
• domain host (www),
• domain name (website name),
• domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov, for
example),
• and sometimes country code (.uk, .de, .cy, for
example)
Internet protocol (IP) address: a unique network to identify
location of a device on internet
- It is located by the network/ISP
- Can be public or private IP
- It can be static or dynamic
- Can be used in place of URL
- 32 binary bits divided into 4 groups
- 4 denary number (each number is from 0 to 255) like
192.168.1.1

UNS domain name server: a server that stores

URLs and their equivalent IP addresses
Internet service provider (ISP): a company
provides users with internet through routers
- Determines the bandwidth
- Monitors the usage of internet
- Charges monthly fees
- Provides users with security services
- Provides web hosting

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Hypertext markup language (HTML): a markup
language used to design webpages
- Uses tags to format webpage content translated
by web browser
- Consists of structure and presentation
- HTML structure to design page layout like
position of each component
- HTML presentation to design page format and
style like colors/font of each component
Hypertext transfer protocol (http): a protocol that governs
transmission of data between web browsers and webservers
without encryption.
- Https uses encryption algorithms to protect data during
transmission
- https uses wither SSL or TLS certificate
- websites that’s uses https is indicated by https:// and a
closed padlock

protocol: a set of rules that is agreed by the sender webserver: a computer that contains webpages and it has a
and recipient while transmitting data static IP address

webpage: a collection of web document written in website: a collection of many linked webpages
HTML
web browser: a collection of many linked webpages

- uses http or https protocols

- sends requests to the webserver
- receives data from webserver as HTML
- translates HTML to be viewed
- breaks down the URL into 3 parts:
1. protocol
2. webserver name
3. file name
- a web browser has a HOME page
- stores history and favorites

- User enters URL of the website on the web

browser
- Web browser breaks down the URL into 3
parts: - protocol, webserver name & file name
- Web browser gets the matching IP of the URL
from the DNS
- Web browsers send a request to the webserver
- Web servers send requested web page to the
web browser as HTML
- Web browser translates HTML to be viewed as
a web page.

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Retrieval and location of web pages

• HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is a

language used to display content on
browsers.
• All websites are written in HTML and hosted
on a web server that has its own IP address.
• To retrieve pages from a website your
browser needs to know this IP address.
• The Domain Name Server (DNS) (also known
as domain name system) is a system for
finding IP addresses for a domain name given
in a URL.
• URLs and domain name servers eliminate the
need for a user to memorise IP addresses.

Cookies
• Cookies are small files or code stored on a
user’s computer.
• They are sent by a web server to a browser
on a user’s computer.
• Each cookie is effectively a small look-up
table containing pairs of (key, data) value
Session cookies
- Session cookies are used, for example, when
making online purchases. They keep a user’s
items in a virtual shopping basket.
- This type of cookie is stored in temporary
memory on the computer, doesn’t actually
collect any information from the user’s
computer and doesn’t personally identify a user.
- Hence, session cookies cease to exist on a user’s
computer once the browser is closed or the
website session is terminated.
• Every time a user visits a website, it checks if it has set
cookies on their browser before.
• There are two types of cookies:
o session cookie
o persistent (or permanent) cookie.
Persistent (permanent) cookies
- Persistent cookies remember a user’s log in details (so that
they can authenticate the user’s browser).
- They are stored on the hard drive of a user’s computer until
the expiry date is reached or the user deletes it.
- These cookies remain in operation on the user’s computer
even after the browser is closed or the website session is
terminated.
- Their advantage is that they remove the need to type in
login details every time a certain website is visited.
- the uses of (persistent) cookies:
- allow the website to remember users’ passwords, email
addresses and invoice details
- serve as a memory, enabling the website to recognize users
every time they visit it

- save users’ items in a virtual shopping basket/cart

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
What is digital currency
- digital currency exists purely in a digital format. It
has no physical form unlike conventional fiat
currency (for example, $, £, €, and ¥).
- Digital currency is an accepted form of payment
to pay for goods or services. As with cash or
credit/debit cards, digital currency can be
transferred between various accounts when
carrying out transactions.
- Digital currency relies on a central banking
system. For example, suppose Nick wishes to
send Irina some money; Nick uses bank ‘X’ and
Irina uses bank ‘Y’
Block chaining
- Blockchain is a decentralized database.
- All the transactions of networked members
are stored on this database.
- Essentially, the blockchain consists of a
number of interconnected computers
- All transaction data is stored on all
computers in the blockchain network.
- Whenever a new transaction takes place, all
the networked computers get a copy of the
transaction
- therefore it cannot be changed without the
consent of all the network members.
- This effectively removes the risk of security
issues such as hacking. Blockchain is used in
many areas, such as:
o cryptocurrency (digital currency)
exchanges
o smart contracts
THEORY REVISION
- track internet habits and users’ website histories or
favorites/bookmarks
- target users with advertising that matches their previous
buying or surfing habits
- store users’ preferences
one example of digital currency, known as cryptocurrency,
has essentially overcome these issues by introducing
decentralization:
- Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to track transactions;
it was created to address the problems associated with
the centralization of digital currency.
- Traditional digital currencies are regulated by central
banks and governments (in much the same way as fiat
currencies). This means all transactions and exchange
rates are determined by these two bodies.
Cryptocurrency has no state control and all the rules
are set by the cryptocurrency community itself.
- Unlike existing digital currencies, cryptocurrency
transactions are publicly available and therefore all
transactions can be tracked and the amount of money
in the system is monitored.
- The cryptocurrency system works by being within a
blockchain network which means it is much more
secure.
How blockchain works
- Whenever a new transaction takes place, a new block is
created:
- A new hash value is created each time a new block is
created.
- This hash value is unique to each block and includes a
timestamp, which identifies when an event actually
takes place.
- We will now consider what happens when a chain of
blocks is created.
-
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

A blockchain has seven blocks. Draw a diagram

to show how they are all connected to form a
blockchain network.

Cyber security threats

- brute force attacks - malware (viruses, worms, Trojan horse, spyware, adware
- data interception and ransomware)
- distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks - phishing
- hacking - pharming
- social engineering.

Denial of service attack (DOS): large number of fake

requests sent to a server all at once used to flood the server
with useless requests. Server will not respond to all requests, so
it will run slow/crash and fail. That will prevent/deny users
from accessing the server.
How to prevent DOS
- use firewall (to monitor and filter incoming and outgoing
requests)
- use proxy server (to monitor and filter incoming and
outgoing requests)

Hacking: the act of illegal access to data without Malware:

permission from the owner to steal personal
information and data.
How to prevent hacking
- use firewall (to monitor and filter incoming and
outgoing requests)
- use strong passwords (and change it regularly)
- use encryption (to make data meaningless)
- use biometrics passwords
• Viruses – programs (or program code) that can
replicate/copy themselves with the intention of
deleting or corrupting files, or causing the computer to
malfunction. They need an active host program on the
target computer or an operating system that has
already been infected before they can run
• Worms – these are types of standalone viruses that can
replicate themselves with the intention of spreading to
other computers; they often networks to search out
computers with weak security that are prone to such
attacks

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
How to prevent spyware
- use firewall (to monitor and filter incoming and
outgoing requests)
- use anti-spyware (to scan for and delete
spywares)
- use on-screen keyboard (to use mouse not
keyboard)
- use drop-down box (to use mouse not keyboard)
how to prevent cracking
- use strong passwords (and change it regularly)
- use encryption (to make source code
meaningless)
How to prevent viruses
- use firewall (to monitor and filter incoming and
outgoing requests)
- use Anti-virus (to scan for and delete viruses)
- check websites protocol to be https not http
- don’t open emails from unknown sources
Phishing: a legitimate looking email sent to user, the
user should open the email to be directed to a fake
website, without the user’s knowledge the threat
(malware) will then be downloaded at the user’s
computer to steal personal information.
How to prevent phishing
- use spam filter (to store unwanted emails)
- use firewalls (to monitor incoming and
outcoming requests)
- use anti-malware (to scan for and delete
malwares)
- do not open emails from unknown sources
THEORY REVISION
• Trojan horses – these are malicious programs often
disguised as legitimate software; they replace all or part
of the legitimate software with the intent of carrying
out some harm to the user’s computer system
• Spyware – software that gathers information by
monitoring, for example, all the activity on a user’s
computer; the gathered information is then sent back
to the person who sent the software (sometimes
spyware monitors key presses and is then referred to as
key logging software)
• Adware – software that floods a user’s computer with
unwanted advertising; usually in the form of pop-ups
but can frequently appear in the browser address
window redirecting the browser to a fake website
which contains the promotional adverts
• Ransomware – programs that encrypt the data on a
user’s computer; a decryption key is sent back to the
user once they pay a sum of money (a ransom); they
are often sent via a Trojan horse or by social
engineering
Pharming: a malicious code installed on user’s computer
without the user’s knowledge to redirect user to a fake website.
To steal personal information.
How to prevent pharming
- use firewalls (to monitor incoming and outcoming
requests)
- use anti-malware (to scan for and delete malwares)
- don’t open untrusted websites
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Social engineering
the three most common ones to exploit are:
- fear – the user is panicked into believing their
computer is in immediate danger and isn’t given
time to logically decide if the danger is genuine or
not; fear is a very powerful emotion that can
easily be exploited by a cybercriminal
- curiosity – the user can be tricked into believing
they have won a car or they find an infected
memory stick lying around; their curiosity gets
the better of them and they give their details
willingly to win the car (for example, credit card
details to pay for delivery or road tax) or they are
curious who the memory stick belongs to;
without thinking clearly, their curiosity gets the
better of them and the damage is done
- empathy and trust – a real belief that all genuine-
sounding companies can be trusted, therefore
emails or phone calls coming from such
companies must be safe; a dangerous
assumption that the cybercriminal can exploit
fully.
Authentication refers to the ability of a user to prove who they are. There are three common
factors used in authentication:
Passwords and user names: How to make password protected :
- Passwords are used to restrict access to data or - run anti-spyware software to make sure that your
systems. passwords aren’t being relayed back to whoever put the
- They should be hard to crack and changed spyware on your computer
frequently to retain any real level of security. - change passwords on a regular basis in case they have
- Passwords can also take the form of biometrics come into the possession of another user, illegally or
accidentally
- passwords should not be easy to crack (for example, your
favorite color, name of a pet or favorite music artist);
passwords are grouped as either strong (hard to crack or
guess) or weak (relatively easy to crack or guess)
- strong passwords should contain:
• at least one capital letter – at least one numerical
value
• at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *,
&, etc.)
• an example of a strong password would be:
Sy12@#TT90kj=0
• an example of a weak password would be: GREEN

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Biometrics Retina scans

- Biometrics can be used in much the same way as - Retina scans use infrared light to scan the unique pattern of
passwords as a way of identifying a user. blood vessels in the retina (at the back of the eye)
- it is a rather unpleasant technique requiring a person to sit
- Biometrics relies on certain unique
totally still for 10 to 15 seconds while the scan takes place
characteristics of human beings; examples
- it is very secure since nobody has yet found a way to
include:
duplicate the blood vessels patterns. The accuracy is about
- fingerprint scans
1 in 10 million.
- retina scans
Fingerprint scans
- face recognition
- Images of fingerprints are compared against previously
- Biometrics is used in a number of applications as
scanned fingerprint images stored in a database;
a security device.
- if they match
- then a user has been correctly recognized
- The system compares patterns of ‘ridges’ and ‘valleys’ that
are unique
- The accuracy of the scan is about around 1 in 5000.
Fingerprint scanning techniques

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Two-step verification: Two-step verification
requires two methods of authentication to verify who
a user is. It is used predominantly when a user makes
an online purchase using a credit/debit card as
payment method
Checking the spelling and tone of
communication and URL links
- Check out the spellings in the email and in
the links;
- Carefully check the tone used in the email
message
- There are five things to look out for:
• The email address itself
• The tone of the email and bad spelling of
words
• Misspelling of domain names in a link
• Suspicious links
Firewall:
- software or hardware
- allows user to set rules
- monitors incoming and outcoming requests
- checks if the requests meets the rules
- clocks/filters the requests that doesn’t meet
the rules
- prevent hacking and viruses
- block undesirable websites
- warns the user of any attack
THEORY REVISION
Automatic software updates: Automatic software
updates mean software on computers and mobile phones/
tablets is kept up-to-date
Accidental loss of data
Causes:
- human errors
• delete file
• overwrite a file
- physical damage (earthquake)
- power failure
- hardware failure
- software crash
how to prevent:
- use backup files
• make a copy of data to another device
- use power generators
- save data regularly
- set data to read only
- use correct shutdown procedures
proxy server:
- software or hardware
- a device between client and web server to speed up
data access from web server
- uses a cache memory to store webpages
- allows user to set rules
- monitors incoming and outcoming requests
- check if the requests don’t meet the rules
- blocks/filters the requests that doesn’t meet the rules
- prevent hacking and viruses
- prevents DOS attacks
- prevents direct access to webserver
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

SSL: secure socket layer protocol
- a protocol encryption certificate
- used to establish an encrypted link between a
web server and a browser
- uses either symmetric/asymmetric encryption
- uses public and private keys to encrypt data
Examples of where SSL would be used:
- online banking and all online financial transactions
- online shopping/commerce
- when sending software out to a restricted list of users
- sending and receiving emails
- using cloud storage facilities
- intranets and extranets (as well as the internet)
- Voice over Internet Protocols (VoIP) when carrying out
video chatting and/or audio chatting over the internet
- used in instant messaging

Automated and emerging technologies

Automated system – a combination of software and
hardware designed and programmed to work
automatically without the need for any human
intervention
Industrial applications
How application work
- Data from a number of sensors is sent to a DCS
(computer)
- f the data is analogue, it must first be converted into
digital format using an ADC
- The DCS will have access to a large database containing
operational data and parameters
- then signals will be sent to the appropriate actuators to
operate pumps, valves or even an emergency shutdown
system

- faster than a human operator to take any necessary - expensive to set up in the first place and needs
action considerable testing
- much safer - cyberattacks no matter how good the system
- the process is more likely to run under optimum - maintenance which can be expensive
conditions
- it is less expensive

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Manufacture of paracetamol
How application work
- a number of sensors that send their data back to a
central computer
- The computer consults its database to ensure both
processes are operating within correct parameters
- Any necessary action is taken by the computer
- send signals to the appropriate actuator to operate
pumps, valves, heaters, stirrers or pistons to ensure both
processes can operate without any human intervention

- much faster than a human operator to take any - expensive to set up in the first place and needs
necessary action considerable testing
- much safer - always possible for a set of conditions to occur that
- the process is more likely to run under optimum were never considered during testing
conditions - automated systems always need enhanced
- in the long run, it is less expensive maintenance which can be expensive
- more efficient use of materials - cyberattacks no matter how good the system
- higher productivity
- more consistent results

Self-parking cars

How application work

- Sensors in the bumpers of the car are both
transmitters and receivers
- The sensors transmit signals that bounce off objects
and are reflected back
- The car’s on-board computer uses the amount of
time
- it takes for the signal to return to the sensor to
calculate the position of any objects
- The sensors give the computer a 3D image of its
surroundings
- This allows the car to fit into its parking space
automatically with no driver intervention

- allows the same number of cars to use fewer parking - over-reliance on automated systems by the
spaces driver
- avoids traffic disruption in cities
- cars can fit into smaller spaces

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- fewer dents and scratches to cars - faulty/dirty sensors or cameras can send false
- safer system since sensors monitor all objects, data/images to the on-board computer which
including young children could lead to a malfunction
- very consistent results - kerning of wheels is a common problem since the
sensors may not pick-up low Krebs
- expensive option that doesn’t really save the
driver any money
- requires additional maintenance to ensure it
always functions correctly.

Adaptive cruise control

How application work
- The driver will set a cruising speed
- Lasers (set into the bumpers of the car) are used to send
out signals constantly
- The lasers bounce off the vehicle in front of the car
- are reflected back to the car’s sensors
- The time taken for the signal to bounce back is used by
the on-board computer to calculate the distance
between the two vehicles
- . If the car is getting too close to the vehicle in front
- the computer will send signals to slow the car down
- This is done by actuators applying the brakes and/or
reducing the throttle
- If the distance between vehicles is greater than the safe
distance
- the computer will check to see if the current speed
equals the value set by the driver
- . If the speed is different to the set speed, the computer
sends signals to the actuators to increase or decrease the
throttle

Brazil irrigation system

How application work
- Data from an automatic weather station is received
by the controller every ten minutes
- This is particularly important if very wet or very dry
conditions are being predicted or detected by the
weather station
- Ultrasonic water level sensors are used in the crop
fields that measure the amount of water in the
irrigation channels
- . The sensors send their data back via wireless
transmitters

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- This data is then picked up by the wireless receiver,

which sends the data back to the controller
- The controller then uses this data, together with the
data from the weather station, to decide whether it
is necessary to stop or start a series of water pumps.
- This is done by sending signals to actuators, which
operate the pumps
- the whole system is fully automatic, a supervisor still
monitors the process remotely

- reduced labor costs - expensive to set up initially

- better and more efficient control of the irrigation - very high maintenance costs
process - need to maintain the water channels to ensure the
- better control of precious resources system works correctly
- faster response than a human having to manually
check
- safer
- different crops may require different irrigation
requirements

Weather (stations)
Sensors: How it works
- thermometer (to measure temperature) - The data from sensors is all sent to a microprocessor
- anemometer (to measure wind speed) - any calculations are then done (for example, calculate hours of
- hygrometer (to measure humidity) daylight, actual rainfall and wind direction).
- barometer (to measure air pressure) - The data from the sensors and the calculated values are then
- level sensor (to measure rain fall) stored on a central database
- light sensor (to measure hours of daylight). - reports are sent out automatically every five minutes to pilots in
the vicinity of the airport.
- The only part of the weather station that needs to use actuators is
the ‘tipping bucket rain gauge’.
Lighting system in a house
How it works
- As it becomes dark
- the light sensor value will change
- the microprocessor will send signals to the interface to
control the array of LED lights around the garden
- Data from the infrared sensor would also be used

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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

- control light sources automatically - expensive to set the system up in the first place
- a reduced energy consumption - if wireless connections chosen (for safety reasons),
- wireless connections can be chosen which are much - they can be less reliable than
safer
- longer bulb life
- possible to program new light displays for various
occasions

How it works
- The level sensors measure how much liquid is being
added from ‘A
- this data is sent to a microprocessor
- r. Readings are also sent to the microprocessor from a
colorimeter next to vessel ‘B’
- The microprocessor controls the opening and closing of
the tap in ‘A
- this is done by sending signals to an actuator that
operates the tap

- more consistent - less flexible than when using human

- less dangerous technicians
- faster results - security risks are always present if
- automatic analysis the data is being shared globally
- results/experiments can be monitored anywhere in - equipment can be expensive to buy and
the world in real time set up in the first place

using AI in these automated

systems
Advantages Disadvantage
- ability to access and store vast amounts of facts. - a change in skills set
- they can learn from huge amounts of available data that - AI is dependent on the data which trains it
would overwhelm humans.
- they can see patterns in results that could be missed by
humans.

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
What are robotics Law?
- a robot may not injure a human
through action or inaction
- a robot must obey orders given by
humans, unless it comes into conflict
with law 1
- a robot must protect itself, unless
this conflicts with law 1.
Characteristics of a robot
Ability to sense their surroundings:
• this is done via sensors
• sensors allow a robot to recognize
its immediate environment and gives
it the ability to determine things
microprocessor or computer.
Programmable:
• they have a ‘brain’ known as a
controller that determines the
action to be taken to perform a
certain task
• controllers are programmable to
allow the robots to do certain
tasks.
Autonomous (unpiloted) airplanes
Some of the main features of a control
system on a pilotless airplane would
include:
• sensors to detect turbulence to
ensure smooth flights
• an increase in self-testing of
all circuits and systems
• sensors that would automatically
detect depressurisation in the
cabin
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THEORY REVISION
Factories
- welding parts together
- spray-painting panels on a car
- fitting windscreens to cars
- cutting out metal parts to a high
precision
- bottling and labelling plants
- warehouses (automatic location of
items)
Have a degree of movement:
• they can make use of wheels, cogs,
pistons, gears to carry out functions
such as turning, twisting, moving
backwards
• they are mechanical structures made up
of many parts
• they contain many electrical
components to allow them to function
• can make use of end effectors
Autonomous cars and buses
Microprocessors process the data received
from cameras and sensors and send
signals to actuators to perform physical
actions, such as:
• change gear
• apply the brakes
• turn the steering wheel.
Agriculture
We will consider the following five areas
where robotics could play a big role:
• harvesting/picking of vegetables
and fruit
• weed control.
• phenotyping (plant growth and
health)
• seed-planting and fertilizer
distribution
• autonomous labor-saving devices.
 Eng. Omar Nabil
• use of GPS for navigation and
speed calculations
Harvesting and picking
• robots have been designed to do
this labor-intensive work; they
are more accurate.
• much faster at harvesting
• for the reasons above, this leads
to higher yields and reduces
waste
• a second camera in vegete (near
the cutting blades) guides an arm
to remove the lettuce from its
stalk with no damage.
Phenotyping
• phenotyping is the process of
observing physical
characteristics of a plant in
order to assess its health and
growth
• robots designed to do phenotyping
are equipped with sensors
that can create a 3D
image/model of the plant, thus
allowing it to be monitored
for health and growth
• machine learning (see Section
6.3) is used to recognise any
issues with leaves
• these robots are much more
accurate and faster at
predicting problems than when
done manually.
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THEORY REVISION
Weed control
• weed management robots can
distinguish between a weed and
crop using AI
• examples of weed control robots
are being used in France (by
Mouton_Rothschild) to remove
weeds between grape vines in
their vineyards; this saves
considerably on labour costs and
improves vine growth
• weed control robots use GPS
tracking to stay on course to
move along the rows of vines and
remove the weeds
• very often a drone (flying
robot) is used first to do an
aerial view of the vineyard
Seed-planting drones and fertiliser
distribution
• drones (flying robots) can
produce an aerial image of a farm
sending back a ‘bird’s eye view’
of the crops and land
• they allow seed-planting to be
done far more accurately
• they also allow for more
efficient fertilizer-spreading to
reduce waste and improve coverage
• drones can also be used in cloud
seeding where the drone can add
silver iodide crystals to a cloud
forcing it to give up its
rainwater
• the drones use a very complex
camera system to target seeding
and allow fertilizer spraying.
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 Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

Narrow AI – this occurs when a machine has superior
performance to a human when doing one specific task
Strong AI – this occurs when a machine has superior
performance to a human in many tasks
General AI – this occurs when a machine is similar (not
superior) in its performance to a human doing a specific task
Machine learning – this is the science of training computers
with sample data so that they can go on to make predictions
about new unseen data, without the need to specifically
program them for the new data.

Expert system – a computer system that mimics the

decision-making ability of a human

There are many applications that Expert systems have many

use expert systems: advantages:
• oil and mineral prospecting • they offer a high level of expertise
• diagnosis of a patient’s illness • they offer high accuracy
• fault diagnostics in mechanical and electronic • the results are consistent
equipment • they have the ability to store vast amounts of
• tax and financial calculations ideas and facts
• strategy games, such as chess • they can make traceable logical solutions and
• logistics (efficient routing of parcel deliveries) diagnostics
• identification of plants, animals and chemical/biological • it is possible for an expert system to have
compounds. multiple expertise
• they have very fast response times
• they provide unbiased reporting and analysis of
the facts
• they indicate the probability of any suggested
solution being correct.

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 Eng. Omar Nabil
Expert systems also have
disadvantages:
• users of the expert system need considerable
training in its use to ensure the system is being
used correctly
• the set up and maintenance costs are very high
• they tend to give very ‘cold’ responses that may
not be appropriate in certain medical situations
• they are only as good as the information/facts
entered into the system
• users sometimes make the very dangerous
assumption that they are infallible.
Rules base a collection of inference rules used to draw distributed control system (DCS) – a powerful computer
conclusions
adaptive cruise control – the use of sensors, actuators
and microprocessors to ensure that a vehicle keeps a safe
distance behind another vehicle
robotics – the branch of (computer) science that
encompasses the design, construction and operation of
robots
autonomous – able to operate independently without any
human input
chatbots – a pop-up robot on a website that appears to
enter into a meaningful conversation with a web user
LiDaR – a contraction of light detection and ranging; the use
of lasers to build up a 3D image of the surrounding
web scraping – a method of obtaining data from websites
attribute – something that defines the objects stored in a
knowledge base
inference rules – rules used by the inference engine and in
expert systems to draw conclusions using IF statements
explanation system – part of an expert system which
informs the user of the reasoning behind its conclusions and
recommendations
artificial intelligence (AI) – a collection of rules and data
which gives a computer system the ability to reason, learn
and adapt to external stimuli
phenotyping – the process of observing the physical
characteristics of a plant to assess its health and growth
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THEORY REVISION
system programmed to monitor and control a complex
process without the need for human interaction
accelerometer – a sensor that measures acceleration and
deceleration and that can detect, for example, the orientation
of a device
robot – a mechanical device that can carry out tasks
normally done by humans
WebCrawler/search bot – a software robot that roams the
internet scanning websites and categorising them; often used
by search engines
end-effector – an attachment to a robot arm that allows it
to carry out a specific task, such as spray painting
drone – a flying robot that can be autonomous or operated
using remote control; a drone can be used for reconnaissance
or deliveries
machine learning – a sub-set of AI in which algorithms are
trained and learn from past experiences and examples
knowledge base – a repository of facts which is a collection
of objects and attributes
inference engine – a kind of search engine used in an expert
system which examines the knowledge base for information
that matches the queries
expert system – a form of AI that has been developed to
mimic a human’s knowledge and expertise
cognitive – relating to the mental processes of the human
brain involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experiences and input from the five senses
Eng. Omar Nabil THEORY REVISION

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