Music Notation in the ‘Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONEMusic Notation in the Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONE W. W. NORTON & COMPANY New York LondonContents ———_ Preface sili Introduction w Acknowledgments a Part One: Basic Procedures 1 1. General Conventions 2 Apneevicrons AND srMpots 3 worn unes 20 areca 3 Nore-eabs 30 annicuiaTion 4 [MACEMENT OF DYNAMICS AND OTHER nanuines 6 VemmaL INDICATIONS 37 teas 9 events 3 vamics 16 aunninc-neaos 38 cuissanoos 19 stuns AND TEs ace Nove 20 rmunasincisownnclaaeatnino 35 wonizonraL times 22 SPACINGS, FOSIFIONS, AND SIZES nsrsvctONs 26 (uiscrL taneous) 4 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVISIONS sews 47 2 CGRAPING CHARACTERISTICS 26 UL Pitch 32 scewertais 53 mucrorones 67 curs 56 "aanstostrios cues 57 ‘rmtlragmovolvinesto 74 OUstaxpos 63 ‘TLLS AND TAILL TREMOLOS 75 ocanmonics 63. vntsons | 78 iMcnestiowest wore(s) 65 tunercneD NoveS: PLACEMENT 79 INDRTERMINATE.OR APPROXIMATE winexrolvon viaeato 80 nircnes 66viii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IIL. Duration and Rhythm: Preliminary Survey 81 ranvaromy nove 81 seamine 10 suvrunic teens 1 PRACTICAL ExaMerES IIS NOTATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 2 TV. Duration and Rhythm: Individual Items Ra BeAMED ACCELERANOO AND vests 13 ITARDANDO 124 SPATIAL 08 PROPORTIONAL porten wares. 125 Novanios 116 DURATIONAL EQUIVALENTS 127 rome moicanions 145 FEAMATAS, COMMAS, AND DOUILE mes 46 srHOKES 28 TIME SIGNATURES QMETER) 146 ewota 29 neworos 47 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVisONS 129, YV. Indeterminate Events 192 ALTERNATIVE EVENTS 152 Inperemanate events: 154 coices 151 VL. Scores and Parts 158 conuctor’s sins 158 EIVEARSAL LETTERSREMEARSAL curs 160 NUMBERMEASURE NUMBERS 168 rovr stems. 162 Scone sevurs 170 PARTS MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS 162 sSoLO/TUTTH INDICATIONS 175 PARTS DHVI (TWO OR MORE PARTS ON A TIME SIONATURES PLACEMENT 177 sont stare) 164 Part Two: Specific Notation 185 VIL. Wind Instruments: General Topics 186 AURSOUND OR BREATH SOUND 186 juan Witte PLAYING 188 enoine tHe rrrcn 187 Toncune 188 FLUTTER TONGUE 188 LUvrarcneD sounps 190 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix (is) worn a “him pressure 191 OCTAVE SKN 195. oo! 1K Brass 17 receune 8 wee creas 98 Sacto soi oes" 209 om 19 wana my/908,) MALE VALVE 199 ‘TONGUE PostTio#6 Tron CHANGES IN a von) 200 X. Percussion 205 icrocans. 205 AND MINED ENSEMBLES 2/5 STICK, MALLET, AND BEATER eveaL reacrices. 219 rictocraMs” 210 ‘rrects AND Tecnntoves 221 WH pesnsre wren 217 eee (ayttarp 226 ~Feeunvany neMAanns 228 murine 240 Aarecilvow aaron 228 eon noise 242 senowe rie ren 229 prow sume 207 wsmctinneo (anism) 29 reoat nt 2407 ceosrens 237 rons 244 onwrniworruno (rourses) 237 puacenenr or avin rca ee 238 Inoncarons 26 Fvcenvut nveame 233 acta 246 sussaos 296 rence 46 rats roa 239 SconDATURA (atmos TONING) 2465 suapnzzicato 247 (CN): LET vinRATE 240 SOUNDING BOARD. 2484X) MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY wos 248 sumnine rie srencs 249 stauwine 250 10° (UPVER ENDS OF seaINCS) 250 sewoi0s 250 smuts 251 {RILLING (vaRATING) AETWEEN WO srancs 257 XII. Piano ~unices AND aanunes. 257 cuustens 259 nosSING OF HANDS 260 k manmonacs 267 se Tie Pano 262 TTUNING-AEY SLIDES. 251 staincs. 252 wunesro. 25 sceares 253 [WHISTLING SUNOS: HAND shines. 255 257 reas 269 SILENT DEPRESSION OF KEYS. 272 STACCATO REVERAERATIONS 272 ‘omen 277, XII. Organ 24 BRACES AND MaRLines 274 reoats 278 cuustens 274 ecisteation 278 EYS (HELD AND RELEASED) 274 stors 279 Manuats 277 XIV. Keyboard Reductions 281 ‘CHORAL Scones 281 locusts scones 289 XV. Voice 292 Asrination 292 ‘AMS VERSUS FLAGS. 292 ratserro 297 Fuurrex Tonove 202 iciest NorElowsst nore 294 wnuausfexnate 295 IDCTERPRETIVE MARKINGS (ARTICULATION, DYNAMICS, EXPRESSION MARKS) 295, MouTH Fostrions 295 NASAL voice 296 Pwowenics 206 roRTaMeNTO. 296 suums 296 oxen 297 ‘TENT PLACEMENT UNDER THE MUSIC 209 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi ext parserarion 300 vineaTolNon vinnato. 304 wsso.08 301 unseen 304 Levotee VOCAL errEcts 30 a XVI. Bowed String Instruments 306 rndinonany worn 306 roan warioursowa tt tenet 307 erm ee 3 corarecttiaaun 307 penn seas Ate a2 cro 08 mune 32 ewe ieroren) 310 Starve anes. 3 Povmr srr 38 unece8 XVI Taped (Prerecorded) Sound 16 nuacriome eranon 316 | Seiad ay aie) Appendix 1: Neumatic Notation (Plainchant or Gregorian Chant) ‘and Later Developments 321 Appendix Il: The History and Operation of the Index of New ‘Musical Notation and the International Conference on New ‘Musical Notation 332 Appendix II: Facsimile Reproductions aI Bibliography 33 Index HSPreface ‘When composers of serious music, inthe early 1950s, began to explore areas far beyond all traditional concepts, conventional notation soon proved insufficient for dealing adequately with the new musical echniques and philosophies. The invention of new notational signs and procedures thus became imperative ‘As the musical experiments and innovations continued and spread, new note ‘ional devices proliferated. Moreover, experiments conducted simultaneously in diferent pars of the world often brought forth identical signs for diferent ef- fects, and vice versa ‘After two decades ofthis disconcerting and ever-increasing deluge of new no- tation, invariably accompanied by endless explanations and more or ess idiosyn- cratic instructions, communications from composer to performer had become seriously impaired. It seemed the right time to take stock, examine the new in ventions for clarity and efficiency in practical use, select the devices that sp- peared most universally satisfactory, eliminate duplications, and codify the results ina practical guidebook. In 1970, I proposed this plan toa number of individuals and organizations. AS result, the Indes of New Musical Notation was established, under my direction, in the Music Division of the Library of the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center, New York. (For details, see the Introduction and Appendix 2.) ‘The Index project was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation (with the New ‘York Public Library as sponsoring organization) and later also by the Ford Foun- ation (withthe Music Library Association as sponsor) ‘The resulting efforts culminated in an Intemational Conference on New Musi cal Notation, organized jointly by the Index project and the University of Ghent, Belgium. At the conference, which was held in Ghent in 1974, eighty profes- sional musicians, composers, music editors, and musicologist from seventeen Countries scrutinized and discussed close to 400 selected notational signs and procedures presented by the Index project, and then voted on them, The present ‘book contains, as its nucleus, all those devices endorsed or recommended at that conference, along with a comprehensive, integrated presentation of traditional ‘notation, based on more than thity years of editorial experience in the field. ‘Thos, virtually the entie arsenal of notation, old and new, of serious music in the twentieth century is covered by this guidebook. aiiIntroduction SS New Music and New Notation "New notation has never been generated exclusively by new musical ideas. New ideas are an integral part of composed music, at last in Wester civilization, and notational procedures have generally been sufficiently adaptable to cope with them, ‘Only a fundamental break with established musical aesthetics and philosophies can bring about a commensurate notational change, and such profound upheavals. Ihave occurred extremely rarely. In fact, there have been only three inal of West erm music history ‘The first of these basic reoriemtations was the momentous shift from monody ‘o polyphony around a.D, 900. The notational consequences were epochal: the vagueness of neumatic pitch notation was rendered obsolete and was replaced with te intervallic precision of staff notation. And perhaps even more important, the specificity of durations was introduced: mensural notation. Both of these in. ‘ovations have remained indispensable elements of music notation ever since Centuries went by during which the linear predominance of early polyphony eradually saw itself challenged by emerging vertical phenomena: chords and ‘chord progressions. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a perfect bal- ance of the horizontal and vertical forces was achieved; but around the year 1600, chordal harmony took on a life ofits own by becoming an independent functional force capable of dominating the linear elements that had previously reigned supreme. Now the traditional parthooks, being purely linear, were no longer appropri= ate, since they failed to capture the essence ofthe new music, the harmonic func- tions. Thus the second major notational change came about: partbooks were ‘superseded by score notation because a score, showing all pars underneath each other, enables the reader to follow not only the horizontal (melodic, linear) aspects of a given composition, but also the vertical (harmonic) ones. Inthe 1950s the third stylistic upheaval began to erupt, an upheaval which de- veloped in two sharply contrasting diections. One of these was characterized by tan unprecedented increase in precision of every conceivable component of a ‘usical texture, with particular emphasis on formerly subsidiary elements such as dynamics, timbre, pitch inflections (microtones), location of sound sources,Avi MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH. CENTURY and so forth, This trend also went far beyond the traditional note values, often superseding the conventional geometric progression of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 With the arithmetical 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... Needless to say, traditional notation Could not cope with these new demands, and a host of new symbols and proce dures had to be devise 10 accomodate the new musical concepts The other stylistic rend rejected precision. Instead, it inealuced deliberate ambiguity, varying degrees of indeterminacy, choices between alternatives, provisation, and the uilization of extraneous, unpredictable sounds and circurn- stances, All these required radically new notation, even to the abandonment of conventional symbols and procedures altogether, in favor of “implicit raphies,"" because such graphics assur the greatest possibie interpretive free- {dom by draving heavily on the performers’ conttibutive imagination and ingens ity. Naturally, this trend not only called for new notational sign, but for an en- tirely new attitude toward notation as such, Considering that composers throughout Europe and America, as well as in several countries of Asia, embraced the new musical tends and aesthetics, it is ‘ot surprising that new notation, 100, was invented everywhere with great aban: don. Asa result, musicians were soon engulfed ina chaotic deluge of notational duplications, contradictions, and general confusion, ‘After about a decade of this anarchic proliferation, atlempts were made to un ‘avel the notational maze by collecting, describing, and categorizing the new signs.* The most comprehensive of these effons was Ethard Karkoschka's Das Schrifbild der newen Musik (Celle, 1966; English translation—WNoraion in New ‘Music—London and New York, 1972). Here we find the frst major attempt to classify not only the new signs, but also the underlying aesthetic approaches. In addition there are evaluations of the various signs as to appropriateness, clarity (or deliberate vagueness), and efficiency, and each sign is meticulously docu mented as tits source of origin ‘ther collections followed. The most extensive American one is Howard Risatti's New Music Vocabulary (1975, University of Ilinois Press) and the ‘monumental, as yet unpublished, 201k Century Notation by Gardner Read {All of these collections differ from one another in many ways, but they all have one thing in common: whatever recommendations they contain represent the personal opinions of their respective authors ‘The present book—Music Notation in the Twentieth Century—is unique in three crucial ways: 1 itis not a collection, but a compendium of selections; 2. these selections do not represent one person's preferences, but are the results of research done by the Index of New Musical Notation (a four-year + Oe sch tee wa th suho's owe “Probleme and Met of Noun, writen in 1952 (see Biogen. INTRODUCTION xvii [moject) followed by the deliberations and decisions of the International Conference on New Musical Notation (Ghent, Belgium, 1974) 3. it does not treat new notation as @ phenomenon apart from traltional Procedures, but integrates i into the total notational vocabulary ofall ser- ‘ous musie writen in the twentieth century The Index of New Musical Notation and the International Conference on New Musical Notation Inthe early 1950, when the frst published examples of new musical notation ar Fived from Europe, the author was chief editor of Associated Music Publishers, Inc... New York, then the foremost American importer of European music. The names of the new composers were still quite unfamiliar, but soon they were to {dominate the field: for example, Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, Sylvano Bussot Roman Haubenstock-Ramati, Kartheina Stockhausen, Shorty thereaft ‘American efforts appeared, mainly in the works of Earle Brown* and Joh» Cage ‘The author became interested in these unprecedented manifestations, studied and compared them, attended countless rehearsals and performances to find out how they worked in actual practice, and eventually began to lecture and write about new notational developments Writing and lecturing, however, were only one side of the coin, A much less entertaining aspect was that the new notational deluge proved tobe serious hin drance to good performances. Many musicians who had been greatly interested in new music began to resent the ever increasing profusion of notational ambigh tis, identical notation for different effects in diferent compositions, and totally Unexplained signs and procedures. Rehearsal time, being expensive, was lim- ited, and performances were (and sill are) all too often under-rehearsed and fat from what they should have been. Something had to be done. In the author's view, the most appropriate position in the musical spectrum from which to effect practical improvements is that of the music editor. An editor Serves as the mediator between the composer who invents new notation and the performer who must interpret it properly. A conscientious editor, one who in- volves himself in the musical aspects ofthe scores under his care, can bring the Performers” need for greater notational clarity to the attention of the composer and collaborate with him toward this goal. Conversely, he can elucidate to the performer some of the composers intentions and visions which may not be fully realized in the notation. Musical notation, after all is not an ideal method of communication, utilizing, as it does, visual devices to express aural concepts, But itis all we have. + Aculy, Fate Brown's effons a his ection receded Stckhasens eventhough he ater eer ree wih being the oat af mew moat peed,vill MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY An editor's scope, however, is limited, since he deals primarily with the works af composers who happen to be in the catalogue of his panicular publishing rouse, To overcome this proscription, the author initiated the Index of New Musical Notation and located it in the Music Division of the Library of the Per. iorming Arts at New York's Lincoln Center, a context independent of any pubs ishing interests, This enabied the staff of dhe Index project to exarnine any score onsidered pertinent ‘Affer conducting detailed notational analyses ofa large variety of music con ining graphic innovations, and after categorizing and otherwise ordering the indings, about 400 signs and procedures, chosen by statistical and evaluative nethoul, were submitted for discussion to the active participants of an Interna {onal Conference on New Musical Notation, organized jointly by the Index proj vot and the Belgian Stale University at Ghent, and held there in October of 974+ ‘All new notational devices and procedures endorsed or recommended by the hent Conference are included in the present volume, along with many others hich could not be discussed in Ghent, but were dealt with subsequently in com ulation with professional musicians in the U.S. On the Inclusion of Traditional Nota In spite ofthe new notational signs generated since the early 1950s, a major part four era’s music, whether “serious” or not, has been, sil is, and probably will continue to be written either entirely by means of tational notation or with a ‘mixture of old and new signs and procedures, It is for this eason that traditional ‘otation has been included inthis guidebook, Elementary rules and practices, however, will not be found here. Its assumed that those who wish to use this book ae Familia withthe rudiments of traditional notation. What has been admitted ar the less obvious features: matters of proper teaming, stemming, and spacing, imegular drational divisions, the proper posi- tion of marks of articulation, dynamics, and phrasing, the correct note values for ttemolos, and even a few purely graphic fine points. In the past, such details ‘were rarely ifever taught, but in the music of ur era they have become increas ingly important fortwo quite separate reasons. First, since music during the last few decades has grown to unprecedented complexity, in addition to operating according to many new and radically uncon- ‘ventional gesthetic concepts, notation-—old and new—has been strained to its wt ‘most capability to meet these challenges. Consequently, each and every nota tional symbol must be drawn with greater precision and consistency than used to be necessary, because in present-day music any graphic deviation from conven- tion may constitute not simply an accidental Naw, but a deliberate and meaning. ion Foc eis of be option fhe Index project ade Intemational Conference, see Append 2 INTRODUCTION air ful variant! In other words, awkward or amateurish imperfections—imegularities ‘whieh were hardly noticed in former times—have become serious impediments toa clear and proper interpretation of new compositions. One should never forget hotation is the composer's only means of conveying his ideas to the per: formers it must be as explicit as possible. (Even if ambiguity or total freedom is intended, the signal for it must be explicit.) ‘Second, music publishers, for economic reasons, are increasingly given to is- ‘suing facsimile reproductions of the composer's manuscript, rather than en- ‘raved (or equivalent) editions. Its not at all infrequent, therefore, that a pub- lishe, in determining whether to publish a work or not, willbe influenced by the sraphic quality and notational professionalism of a manuscript rather than exclu- sively by its musical content." Performers, too, 100k more closely now at composers” ways with notation, ‘since any unconventionality is Hikely to divert a performer's attention from in- stant perception and interpretation ofthe notation he sees before him. Even ifhe isnot actully aware of what is wrong with the notation he sees—what the ‘regularities end flaws really consist of—he will react subconsciously to any vis: tal difference from the standards which have conditioned his reflexes through- ‘out his musical life. He is forced to make adjustments and corrections in his mind uring the minute interval between perceiving the symbol and producing the desired effect. It can make him hesitate, even alittle, and can slow down the pro- cess of learning piece, thus quite possibly leading (oa poorer performance than needs be. “To sum up, then, the meticulous observance ofthe rules and conventions of traditional notation (rules often ignored by, oF not even known to many com- ‘posers and performers) will increase the effectiveness of a composer's entire n0- tational repertory, old and new. And thus it will improve his ability to com- ‘municate his intentions to the performer, which will most certainly result in better, more accurate, and more enjoyable performances. “The traditional rules and conventions included here have not been treated sepa rately from the new notational signs and procedures. Most of them, however, ap- pear within the first section ofthe book, which covers general categories of nota- tion, and only occasionally in the second section, which deals with notation for specific instrument families, the voice, and electronic sounds. + Se Facile Repetucions, Appendix 3.Acknowledgments ood Most of what i contained in the present book cannot be credited to any particular Individual, being the result ofthe efforts of everyone who worked atthe Index project, all the active participants in the Ghent Conference, and the countless composers, arrangers, performers, engravers, autographers,copyists, and fellow editors whom the author has encountered in the course of his long career as a musi editor. ‘A few people, however, who were not connected with the Index, but who helped greaily with the shaping of the present book and with many of its details, ‘must not be overlooked. From among these I would like to single out the follow. ing listed inthe order in which their particular specialties appear in the book: ‘Woodwinds: Nora Post, New York aboist, for her meticulous srutny of many technic etl Percussion: Frank L. MeCany, percussionist, elecronicit, and composer, who helped Peepate the Index's percussion an electronics proposals forthe Ghent Conference, snd ‘who, beyond this, gave the author eminently hepful advice whenever called upon ‘arp: Thanks go to vee harpist: Shisley Blankenship, ofthe University of tine at Ur. tana, for a thorowgh preliminary discussion of modern harp techniques and harp tra. ace (a fed, bythe way, which had no been included inthe Gen discussions), Alyssa IN: Hess, New York harpist and composer, fr her invaluable assistance with every de- tal of the eae harp chapter (it is largely due w he recommendation ha this caper became as comprehensive as it ha turned cat to be); Parca John, bapist fom Hous- ton, Texas, for reading though the completed harp chapler and making many valuable Mitional suggestions. (Organ: Maha Fol specialist in recitals of contemporary organ masic, fr generously Sharing her experiences withthe notational puzles of many Scores of few on Swings: Clifford G. Richer, volisUvolnist, and his violinist wife, Lyme (both Tong time editorial colleagues ofthe autor) for consbuting tothe sting chapter the badly needed practical realism 50 often ignored in mate soloisteviened weatments ‘Teped (Prerecorded) Sound: Barbara English Maris, who specializes in recitals of piano ‘music with elecuonic sounds and sound genertors-many of them lecture recitals for Aiscussing with the author the cuing practices in such music, and for later reading the finished chapter and suggesting many aiitioal practical deals based on her uncom ‘on failiaty with this eisive branch of tew musexxii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY General Assistance: Sincere thanks and appreciation to Alyssa N. Hess, the hart “mentioned above, for going through the eaize book atthe final stage, unfailingly Spoting remaining flows, as wel as linguistc nwkwardnesses; 1 Professor Leo Kraft AQicens College, New York) for his knowledgeable musical advice, an to Clate Fok and Hida Keller Farber af W_ W. Nexon for thee asusualy perceptive and Understanding editorial work and ast hot fat fom least to my wife, Ese for checking {he manuscript from the important vantage poit of a napprofesional music lover who insists that things ust the sense) mater who the ears ght Be Musical Examples: Melvin Wildberger mist be commended not only for his revureeul work, combining music typewriter, wanfer type, regular ype, and many aditional Treks ofthe trae, bu also foe hs mamecovspetical suggestions many of which have ben incotporated in his book ‘Thanks, finally, are due tothe John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation for its generous fellowship grant, without which tis book might never have been Part One: Basic Procedures the items are dealt with in more than one chapter.1. General Conventions thbreviations and Symbols 3 Glissandos 19 1 Note-t Note and NotestoRest trpergio 3” Ghiwandor ty s-Aepessio Sign 3b Open Fadel Glisandor 20 Direction 4 Curved'or Unialating Glisxandon 20 © Rhythm 4b. Quich, Shorr Sider Wortamento) 20 2. Speed 4 Compound Durations of Now Arpeggio. 4" Guittandos 2 Iticularion 4 Grace Notes 2 Jarlines 6 Horizontal Lines 2 ‘In Masi for Individual 1. Stff-Lines 2 Instruments, 5 8 Gru 2 ‘tn Chamber and Choral Scores 7 € Solid Lines, Brackets, and Arvows 23 © tn Orchestra and Band Scores 70. Domed or Bolen Lines 2 Vertical Alignment of Burnes 8 &. Wavy Lines 25 © Dorted Barlines 5 F Double Barlines 8 Instructions 26 6. Final Barnes 9 Repeat Bars, see page 34 Irregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics 26 Beams 9A Brackets versus SlurrinUnbeomed ‘lean Thickness 9 and Partially Beamed Groups 28 2. Space berween Beams 9 a eamed Groups » © Bear Positions i he Stall 9 C.Invepular Note Divisions within Beams in Two-Siaf Nowion 12 Regular Groups of Notes 2 € Eutended and Bridging Beams 15, lregur Note Divisions within Irregular Groups of Noes cy Durational Equivatences Hortzontal Locations of Numerals seepage 127 and Brackets » Dynamics 16 Leger Lines 30 Dynamic BalancelDynamic Levels 16 9. Fluctuating Dynamics 17 Note-Heads 30 Levels of Prominence of Musical ‘Shapes 30 Morerials 17 Uses of Different Shapes an >. Niente 8 ‘ate Size Dynamics Ia Placement of Dynamics and SabitoChangesofDynamic Levels 19 Other Verbal Indications 31 GENERAL CONVENTIONS 3 4. Dynamics 31a. The Different Meanings of Slare 35 2 Temp Fndctions 82M The Nowtion of Slrs and Tes 36 © Phasing Iniractons 2 Placement of Rests Spacings, Positions, and Sizes teenage 118 (Miscellaneous) “ ‘Opening Measures Gin Tradonal Repeats 33" Nownon) “ 2 Rept Araation (Smile) “HY 8 lef Changes % 8. Raped Chor 33 Fine Str Changes & ©: Repaned Mewes 3) bathe End of sine % fRepened Pun ofMeoures Me. Acie ‘ 1 Raped Scions fF Nats amt Res % Running Heads die & stems 7 Stars and Tes Ste Lents ” PhrasinglBowinglBreuthing 35 Siem Diesnons ° Abbreviations and Symbols All abbreviations included in this book appear in the pertinent sections. For other “abbreviations, current musi dictionaries should be consulted (see Bibliography). “Most abbreviations suggested inthis guide were chosen according tothe fot lowing criteria: If possible, the abbreviation should be applicable to several major languages, such a6 n= niente (Italian), nothing (English), or nichis (German), “The abbreviation must not be misleading from language to language. For ex. ample, the abbreviation of an English term must not be similar to the abbre tion of a word with a different meaning in another major language. Thus, the ab- ‘eviations Tromb. of Trb, for Trombone might confuse lalian musics ‘because they could mean Tromba. Less ambiguous choices, therefore, are Tb. and Trbn., which also serve (though perhaps not ideally) to convey the Haan and French terms, Similarly, Cor. for Cornet is too close to the French Cor and the Italian Corno. As a result, Ct. was chosen forthe English term Comet, and while it may not immediately convey Kornett to a German, it wil not indicate a vers For the eater Beam, vec Duan and Rpt, Beard Asean tnd Ried, page neM4 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Heavy lines and arrows are used for pitch durations in spatial nati camer Brackets denote durational indications in spatial notation, including » heavy continuation line with arrowhead SA I rena Brackets show first and second endings: PT $B 2. SOLID LINES, ETC., FOR TIMBRAL INDICATIONS “Thin arrows are used for gradual transitions of mute postions in brass music: te sy eSSq 1nd for mouth positions in vocal music: tion convey variations in “Thin lines with several arrowheads inthe same di he rates of transitions: Trampet: decelerating (from muted to open) GENERAL CONVENTIONS 25, Volee: accelerating (fom nasal (© normal) On eee norm (ot mat = natu 3, MIXED SOLID AND BROKEN LINES Pedaling indications for piano, vibraphone, etc, include a broken line for sradual iting of the pedal: fm Lav Li D. Dotted or Broken Lines ‘These are generally used for transpositions and timbres and forthe instrament ‘manipulations which produce them: ‘Octave transpositions:*_ 8°" basse 2.86 non vibrato ne + ball valve Yura on bestttttessccen hhand temolo (voice): hand over mowth bocca chiusa (voice); b garsessseesseey nasal tome (voice): eves seeeoe See also the mixture of broken and solid lines in pedi piano, etc, above. ing indications for E, Wavy Lines ‘These are generally used for pulsating pitch inflections or quickly alterna pitches ‘an. All wavy lines must appear above the note(s) to which they pertain, except in double-stemmed music: 1. suapen tunes rl pe double tilt; @sseesaeeesaety fluter tongue: fLim———~ oF fw hater Lips: fpr een "The onal ™ aed 15% aria the ree of being replaced by a mere mera or 5,26 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, 2. UNSHADED LINES, REGULAR vibrato: fost WMA slow AN luemolo (wide, fast vibrator: UWL 3. UNSHADED LINES, IRREGULAR. vibrato or tremolo with variations in width andlor speed: malar or after fl? eres) 4. SHADED AND IRREGULAR LINES the same as above, but with dynamics “built in’* (thin soft; heavy = Tod): Mra WW do) taersms ‘With these last graphic devices, the limits of standardizable wavy lines have been reached. The next step would enter the field of ‘implicit graphics," which should not be subjected to standardization (see Notation Suited for Standardiza tion, page 336 f). Instructions ‘Verbal instructions are best placed where they apply, instead of in footnotes, which require the performer to look dowa and possibly lose his place. Irregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics (For durational aspects see Duration and Rhythm, Iregular Note Divisions, page 129 ff.) ‘A. Brackets versus Slurs in Unbeamed and Partially Beamed Groups Square brackets, rather than slurs, should be used for unbeamed triplets, etc, to.void ambiguities, Slurs will thus ony indicate phrasing or refer to other typi- cal slur functions such as bowing ‘The numerals and brackets should be placed at the stem-side ofthe respective groups so thatthe space tthe note-heads willbe free for slurs and other atic Bracket notation GENERAL CONVENTIONS 27 The same with stars instead of brackets (incorrect) ‘The difference between non legato (the frst, unslurred triplet) and legato {the second, slurred triplet), which is obvious inthe bracket notation, is impossi- ble to indicate in notation with triplet srs. Ifa group contains both upstems and downstems, it is often best o let the ma- jity of stems determine the position of the numeral and bracket, but much ‘depends onthe amount of articulation, The less interference with articulation and phrasing, the beter. The same applies to groups with an equal number of up- and downstems os within vertical brackets ar less desirable.) Phasing and articulation marks are always placed closer to the note-heads than the numerals and brackets. B, Beamed Groups 1. FOLL-LENGTIE BEAMS No brackets are needed as long asthe numeral is placed atthe beam side: Im weer ch Fm ee ers stemmed groups in vocal music (see Voice, page 297), brackets do become es- sential: 2. FULL-LENGTH BEAMS. WATH SUBDIVISIONS “Multiple beams make it possible to show the individual sub-units of a beamed roup through interruptions of the beam closest to the note-heads. No brackets are needed in such bearing: y28 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, J. EXTENDED REAMS In recent practice, beams are often extended in onder to show complete est luits (see Beams: Extended and Bridging Beams, page 15 1) This style of not tion reduces the need for brackets in ie pula geoups epee fi peniegt 7 4. COMBILIATIONS OF BEAMED AND UNREAMED NOTES (OR RESTS) ‘These require brackets, because there is no full-length beat to show the total roup: . Inegular Note Divisions within Regular Groups of Notes ‘Although itis possible to show such regular units by interruptions of secon. rege TT rel iets Regular and iregular sub-units must not be beamed together if there is only a single beam ome FOF CE ITA wee § COLE TTA D, Imegular Note Divisions within Irregular Groups of Notes The numeral forthe tolal group and the numerals forthe iregular subunits should be placed at opposite sides of the group: st eeeeoerr = errr ff Ltt i pe Single-beam groups (eighth notes): se GENERAL CONVENTIONS 29 Mulipte-beam groups (sitteenths and shorter values) Peres « eereee = {In double-stemmed music (Iwo parts on a staff), all numerals are placed atthe stem sides of the respective parts, along with all other signs, and all aumerals should be bracketed: ——>—— 3 — (This would be clearer on two staves.) E, Horizontal Locations of Numerals and Brackets ‘Traditionally, the numeral for an irregular group of notes was centred on the total group regardless of whether its graphic center happened to coincide with ts rational center. In the ist rwo examples below, the graphic and durational centers coincide (more or les); thereafter, they do not Tn more recent music the numerals of a bracketed group are often placed in the ‘group's durational center, and the bracket extended tothe right to show spatially the group's actual, or at least approximate ("*horizontal") duration: i a In groups with full-length beams and without brackets, the traditional style of placing the numeral in the graphic centr is stil valid (but see below ras tecey cote eeer ft Since the last two methods contradict each other, itis suggested that acompro- mise system be employed for groups with full-length beams, ie., groups which ‘otmally would not require brackets forthe numeral If the graphic center ofthe group coincides reasonably well with its dura tional center, place the numeral a its durational center without brackets:30 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY If the two centers are 100 dissimilar to assure proper execution, brackets and extend them to the right where necessary tipi er FT AT ——— ‘This example isa borderine case and had better be notated with a bracket Exception: The following groups are so short that their duration is clear spite of the off-center position of the numeral and the lack of brackets. 1 is customary, therefore. to place the numerals for such groups in the “wrong position: 2 3 AA Ae Leger Lines Leger lines must maintain the same vertical spacing as staff-ines, since they rp. fesent vertical extensions ofthe staff. intervals of a second are on lege lines, the line(s) between the second(s) and the staff must be twice as wide as ordinary leger lines Note-Heads A. Shapes 1, REGULAR NOTE-HEADS Black note-heads are slightly ova: ‘White note-heads: the heads of & wot tes SS at at ones (EE) mt ey singed by the Aliferentshadings 2. DIAMOND-SHAPED NOTE-MEADS These should have slightly inward-curved sides to distinguish them as much as pews om ay mead J, 3. X-SHAPED NOTE-HEADS ‘These have their stems attached right or left, in the same manner as regular notes: (ot) For half and whole notes the x is eniled (P ®), atiough the whole nt ison rpacd by to ed half tes (Ap) be ed a8 9 note. cause a stemless, encircled x might not be recogn GENERAL CONVENTIONS 31 ‘Traditionally, x and diamond: shaped note-heads were combined: x for quar. ter ores an shore ves: dhaonds for half and whole oes (57 *) ‘They continue to be used this way, especially for eymbals in simple percussion contexts (see page 219), but itis preferable to keep them separate thas provi: ing wo ets oF note heads (FF and & BY insteal of only oe. Less frequently used note-heads are included below. B._ Uses of Different Shapes Whenever possible, the following broad rules for correct note heal usage should be observed: repularnose-teads J Jo torensctpiches iamond note-heads J for special playing modes or tone pro- 1) Soe, shaped noteteads Jd ¢ round note-heads ee etl ee ee triangular for triangles (see page 217) noth Jd Placement of Dynamics and Other Verbal Indications Itis important to observe the customary placement of dynamics and other in structions because performers expect them to appea in specific locations. Excep- tions to these routines tend to slow down rehearsals. A. Dynamics 1. INSTRUMENTAL, MUSIC (SCORES ANIVOR PARTS) Single staves (scores): below the music. Single staves (pats): below the music Single staves with two or more polyphonic parts: at the stem side ofthe up- and downstemmed parts Double staves (piano, et.) centered between staves unless polyphonic texture ‘makes it necessary to position dynamics close tothe respective voices, ‘Thee staves (organ): manual staves a5 in other double-staff notation; pedal staf below, to avoid confusion with dynamics appearing below the lower manual staff32 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, Full score, group dynamics: if an entre choir (e.g. all woodwinds or al Strings), or an entte ensemble (c.g., 4 string quartet), have the same dynamic level, a large dynamic marking may be placed below the group or ensemble in stead of under each line. Ifthe group is large (e.g. an entice orchesira, the ‘marking should be repeated higher up. (Separate parts extracted from such a score must of course contain all dynamics pertaining to the 2. VOCAL AND CHORAL MUSIC (OPEN SCORES, PARTS, REDUCTIONS) Single staves: above the music, so as not to interfere with the text, which is always placed below the staff. Single staves with two polyphonic parts should be avoided, but single staves with two parts having the same rhythm, text, and dynamies are common, Al ‘hough the two parts should be notated with double stems, the dynamics should always be placed above, with only the text below. ‘Two-sialf reductions (choral): above and below the staves (text between the saves). Polyphonic textures do not lend themselves easily to reductions, andi is impossible o generalize solutions. (un For a discussion of keyboard reductions for rehearsal—i.e., reductions without text and with a minimum of explicit voice leading—see page 281 (f.) B. Tempo Indications 1. MAIN’ TEMPOS (ALLEGRO, LARGO, ETC.) These are placed above the music. In orchestra scores repeat tempo indications above the string section; in large scores repeat additionally wherever it may seem belpful (above brasses, harps), chorus, et.) In band scores, repeat tempo indications above the brasses. In open choral scores, place tempo indications above the top staf and above the keyboard (if any). In music with frequent tempo changes, itis helpful to repeat the prevailing tempo and/or metronome speed in parentheses atthe beginning ofall left-hand pases. (See also page 143 and top of page 164.) 2. MODIFICATIONS (RIT., ACCEL, FTC) Single staves (parts): preferably above. Double staves (piano, ete.): preferably centered between the staves; if too crowded, above. ‘Three staves (organ): centered between the upper two staves or, if 100 crowded, above the top staf. ‘Choral scores (open): above each staff C. Playing Instructions 1. exeRessive Disecty elated o a dynamic degree (psubito: sempre mf ff marc. ee.) below the staf along with the dynamic ini GENERAL CONVENTIONS 33 Not directly related to the dynamics (gratioso, marcato, heavy, scorrevole, ‘mit Humor, et.) preferably above the staff. 2. Tecwmtcat Indications such as pizz., arco, a2, bocca chiusa, mute, take Pic, dv., 010, tutti, ete: above the staf Nas In vocal and choral music, all such instructions must be placed above the staff or staves Repeats Signs discussed in sections», c, and p below are chiefly used in pats rather than in Scores A. Repeated Articulation (Simile) The indication simile must always be preceded by at least one written-out measure, and each new line of music must also begin with one written-out Beginning of next tine pear rip B. Repeated Chords If the chords coincide with beats, they are indicated with heavy slanted strokes. Otherwise, they are indicated with headless stems. (This notation is rarely used for single noes.) Quarter noes (Beas) Other rhythms Sansa w—— F. of im, P [Note that, as wit simile, each new line must begin with the wrtten-out chord Wis not necessary, however, to write out an entire measure, as shown in both ex- amples. Dynamic indications may be added without repeating the chord, . Repeated Measures, ‘These are shown by a heavy slanted stroke centered and flanked by two dots oe SSIS eee a> matHM MUSIC NOTATION IN. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY If more than four measures are repeated in succession, a small numeral in po rentheses should be placed above the repeat sign in every fourth measure, as shown inthe example above, D, Repeated Pairs of Measures ‘These are indicated by a slanted double stroke the barline between (wo-measute units: 10 SEEPS HA ‘erese, poco @ poco f nked by two dots, stradaling 0 If more than four pairs of measures are repeated in succession, a small number in parentheses should be placed above the repeat sign in every fourth pair of ‘measures, as shown in the example above. E. Repeated Sections 1, REPEAT BARS Repeated sections should be indicated cording to traditional procedure: ‘Tet is no uifrmity, and are found equally often [Note that no repeat sign is needed at the beginning of a movernent. (See also Indeterminate Repeats, page 154 ff.) However, repeats might be indicated verbally: Da Capo al Fine, meaning "From the beginning to the end" (1... 10 the word Fine). 2. REPEAT sions Instead of repeat bars, the sign S may be used as follows: Dal Segno al Fine = From the sign $410 the word Fine; Da Capo al Segno = From the beginning tothe sign $$; GENERAL CONVENTIONS 35 Da Capo al Segno ¢ poi la Coda = From the beginning 40 the sign followed bythe css The word Segno may be followed by the sign itself, as in the English transla: tions above (for example, Dal Segno % al Fine), oF omitted altogether (as in Dal $ al Fine) If wo signs are need, ¢ is used forthe second one Dat Segno % al ¢ poi la Coda = From the sign 8 to and from there (0 the coda; Da Capo al Segno he po al , or Da Capo al ¢ pia The second Segno (4) is also used if two different repeats are signs; 9 forthe fist "Dal Segno . "and @ for the second rked by In most published books, headings at the top of each page indicate the respective chapter headings or subject matter. These are called running-heads. Unfort nately, they are almost unknown in music. Only instrumental parts contain them, and there they do not identify either the composition or its movements, but the instrument in question Its recommended that running-heads be used more often in scores, parts, and vocal scores of works having several movements, acts, scenes, or “numbers, cte., such as ballets, operas, orators, cantatas, and so on." Slurs and Ties: Phrasing/Bowing/Breathing A. The Different Meanings of Shurs 11 is important to realize that slurs differ in specific functions. In music for bowed string instruments, slurs indicate bowing, not phrasing, In music For wind instruments, slurs indicate the notes to be played with one breath, again not phrasing In voeal music, slurs show the notes to be sung on a single syllable. Only in ‘keyboard instruments and pitched percussion capable of sustained sounds do they indicate actual phrasing. 1, SUPERIMPOSED DOTTED PHRASING SLURS TT itis found desirable to indicate phrasing in mosic for winds, bowed stings, ‘or voice, an additional set of slurs must be superimposed upon those fulfilling ‘Se, for example the vocal core of Bach’. Jn Passion athe eto by Atat Mende (New Yort’G Schirmer, 198), which each page shows he wespecive movencat nme a he top cer or he cone a Elo Cae song eee 4 Maver on Which w Del (New Yor. AS ‘lied Suse Pusher Ines 197), ach ech pepe sow evan omg fhe op36 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ‘other functions. This can lead to certain ambiguities, To avoid them, dotted slurs are often used for phrasing. Devied phrasing slurs may also be sed in non-le music which nevertheless requites some unambiguous phrasing indication. All such dotted slurs should be placed above the musi to prevent interference with dynamics and vocal texts. Only if differenily phrased parts appear on the Sane staff should dotted slurs be placed above and below. If bexh pars are phrased similarly, one dotted slue above suffices, Examples of dotted phrasing slurs: Ma $E9 soon Vioine $ = ‘The practice often employed by Wagner, Mahler, and Webern, among others, of indicating only the phrasing (with regular slurs) and leaving the details of bowing and breathing tothe performers, ino longer considered adequate B, The Notation of Slurs and Ties 1. postion ‘The placement of slurs and tes above, below, or within the staff is governed by the positions ofthe note-heads: i they point up, the slurs or ties must be above the notes; if the note-heads point down, so must the slurs and tes: In mixtures of up and down note-heads, the slurs must be placed above the notes, even if only one single note-head points up in the group to be slurred ie SSS GENERAL CONVENTIONS 37 Sluts and ties on whole notes are treated as if the notes had stems 2. COMRINATIONS OF SLURS AND THES ‘The curve of ate is governed by the up or own position ofthe two ted note- heads. If both tied aote-heads point dow, the i also curves downward, regard less of the position of the slur, whichis governed by the total phrase: one or both of the ted note-heads point up, the tie curves upward mes Gh te If the stem directions change in the course of a series of ted notes, the dires- tions ofthe ties" curvatures must change accordingly: “ Be {wo note-heads points up; the second tie curves downward because both note- heads point dow) ‘As already demonstrated, tied notes ought to be included under the slr, since the slur should always embrace the entire passage in question; fSysesy EE aa In the following example, the same melody is notated with chains of slurs and ties: the slurs, instead of covering an entire phrase, are interrupted forthe dura- tion of each tie, This style of notation is not recommended, because it often ‘makes the phrasing dificult to recognize: 3. SLURS AND TIES FROM LINE TO LINE: LENGTH Atthe end ofa line, neither slurs nor ties should extend beyond the barline WS38 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY It the line ends witha change of time signature, the sues and ties still extend ‘only tothe barline and not beyond © t If the line ends with a change of elef, the slurs and tes should stop just before tenet pea a b. BEGINNING OF NEXT LINE ‘At the beginning ofthe next line, the slurs or ties begin just after the clef ose: g5Fe there is a new time signatuce, the slur and tes begin just after it there i 4. SLURS AND TIES FROM LINE TO LINE: FOSITION “The up or down positions of tes and slurs going from one line to the next are ‘governed by the complete phrase, regardless of the break from Tine to line. This ‘will occasionally result in wrong-looking slur and/or tie positions: “THE SAME PuRASES: NEXT LINE "END OF LINE ‘COMPLETE PHRASES Stars ny HE a $54 Sees GENERAL CONVENTIONS 39 5. SLUR-TO-SLUR NOTATION This kind of chain slurring slur to slur on the same note) is used when a phrase tends on a note which also represents the beginning of the next phrase: o 6. SLURS AND TIES IN COUBLE-STEMMED NOTATION such cases, all rules given so far are suspended, since in double stem- ‘ming, all slurs must be at the stervends of the upstemmed and downstemmed pars, respectively, and all ties, although close tothe notes, must curve in the direction of the respective stems: See also Score and Parts, Divsi Parts: Surs and Ties, page 167, 7. SLURRED AND TIED INTERVALS AND CHORDS intervals or chords on single stems are to be slurred, only one slr should be sed40 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETHE CENTURY (The rule given on page 36 that sur positions are governed by the postions of the note-heads also applies here.) IF intervals or chords ate tobe tied, all notes must be ted (unlike the single slur for slurred intervals or chords), The Curvature of the ties is governed hy two fac 4. The top and bottom ties must curve in opposite directions: Te 'b. The ties between the top and bostom notes (in chords of three or more notes ‘ona single stem) must curve according to their positon inthe staff: for notes on the center staf-ine and above, the curve is upand; for notes below the center stafflin, the curve is downward If a chord includes the interval of a second, the rule above is often modified as follows: since the noes ofa second are very close together, it is clearer to curve the two tes in opposite rather than i the same direction, which may affect the up or down curve af one or more adjacent inside tis. (Only the top and bottom notes ofa chord keep their up- and down-ties under all circumstances.) In the following example, the F and A would normally have had down-ties, but since the Fis the upper note of a second and should therefore have an up-ti, the next higher inside note ofthe chord (A) must also have an up-te, or the ties ae If chord includes more than one second, the ties from second to second usually have to curve in the same direction, because there would not be enough space to have them curve in opposite directions. Care must be taken that each te slays in its own staff space Sasa GENERAL CONVENTIONS 41 8. COMBINATIONS OF SLUR AND TIE(S) If at all possible, double stemming should be used ee IF itis impossible to use double stemming, the above examples would look as follows: + Similar problems are discussed in a different context in Keyboard Reduc- tions, Choral Scores, page 281 ff 9. SLURS ON TRIPLETS AND OTHER IRREGULAR NOTE D1 ‘The traition of placing slurs on triples, etc, regardless of the desired articu- lation, should be abandoned in favor of square brackets or ifthe entire group of notes i beamed together, of numeral atthe beam side with no sluts or brackets Basie principle A few slightly more complex examples s a= ete Correct with articulation stars on the quintuple I group includes mixtures of heamed and unbeamed notes, ofthe beams) axe interrupted, brackets, rather than slurs, must be used: Sans SAS ‘form may, however, he wed in vol musica Voce Mai, below)42 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY b. vocaL MUSIC pee ; ; G Kyrie eT son If an entire group of notes is beamed together with the bears) poioting down, the numeral is placed atthe note-side (up) with brackets, not slurs 33 ae Woe For general information conceming irregular note divisions see page 26 (Tand Duration and Rhythm, Iregular Note Divisions, page 129 ff 10, SLURS AND TIES ON GRACE NOTES. See separate entry, Grace Notes (page 21 f),where itis recommended that the customary small slurs fom the grace note(s) to the main note be omitted and that full-size slurs begin atthe grace note(s) rather than atthe main note If, inspite ofthese recommendations, grace notes ae to be treated in the more traditional way, the following rules should be observed: ‘The small slurs oF ties should curve downward (the stems always point up) and fullsize slurs begin atthe main note. ag In double-stemmed passages, grace notes are treated like the other notes: up stems and upward-curving slurs or ties forthe upper voice, the opposite for the lower voice: 1. SLURS AND THES IN COMBINATION WITH ARTICULATION SIGNS In slurred passages with accents and other articulation signs, the slur should begin and end between the note-head (or stem-end) and the accent. All other 2 cents, el., should be covered by the slur: GENERAL CONVENTIONS 43, ‘An exception to this rule should be made in cases of very wide, slurred inter vals, where the frst or last accent should be placed between the note-head and the shu Staccato dots and tenuto lines in slurred passages, appear between the note-heads (or stem-ends) and the slur (this applies equally to the ist and last notes): ‘Ties must always be placed as close tothe note-heads as possible, regardless of any accents or staceato dots, ee Upsems See44° MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 8° signs should always be outside the slr: In vocal musi all accents should appear above the musi, while staccato dots and tenuto lines generally appear atthe note-heads even if they point down. Thi makes for certain irregularities, since accents may appear above the musi while slurs appear below. The following example demonstrates the most common o fee Garies oe See also Articulation, page 4 ff. For slurs in vocal music, see Voice, page 296 For proper use of tes within a measure, see Duration and Rhythm, Ties, page 146, Spacings, Positions, and Sizes (Miscellaneous) “The proper horizontal spacing of notes and accidentals, ec., is 100 complex to te included in these rather general guidelines.* A few basic rules, however, should prove helpful, ‘A. Opening Measures (in Traditional Notation **) [Avthe beginning of a composition or movement, always indet Clefs, key signatures, time signatures, and notes with or without acc should be neither {00 far apart nor foo close together. The gaps between therm ‘can best be measured by cutting a short strip of staff from the music paper and Using its cutting edge as a measuring device (see examples below). The spacing should be as follows: the first line. tals between the clef and any subsequent symbol (key signature or time signa ture): one staff-space ora tle less; between the key signature and the time signature: one staff-space: between any of the above and the fist note or accidental or rest (with the exception of whole rests and measure-filing whole notes): 1% staff spaces. For des, se enguves* manuals sh 8 The Ar of Matic Enrovng ond Procesng by Ted Far new apache, see pages 188 Fad 177 GENERAL CONVENTIONS 45 | i SSS thaw (With cing edges of af 10 z show how to measire the gaps) lef hey signature, time ‘ignore, aceldemal, note i lef, time signature, ‘accidental, note fe gre ‘lef, accidental, note es lef, mote ‘Whole-measure whole notes and whole rests: = See also Notes and Rests, page 46 f Tn music requiring two or more staves, the notes having accidentals (if any) are spaced according to the rules above, and the notes without accidentals must be aligned vertically with the notes having the accidentals, not with the accidentals:45 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY B. Clef Changes [Atchanges of clefs between line space before the barline: coher Pasay “There are no specifi rules fr clef changes within a measure. asures, the pew cles placed about one sta . Time Signature Changes (Changes of time signatures must be placed one staf line space aftr the bar f ' q Spat The Fd of Line {In the past, composers didnot plan the length of ther lines too carefully, but in view of the curent prevalence of facsimile publication itis advisable to devote sreater care to the planning of each line so that all lines end flush right with a barline. The only exceptions are (1) music without batines or with measures that ate too long and must be broken; and (2) changes of time signature, which neces sitate placing the last barine befor the end of the line (see aro%) to make room for the new time signature, (The new time signature must always be placed inside the staff.) ; Aeots PSEesa 4 leer scaces and vocal music do not require them; all other music does, ‘See also Facsimile Reproductions, page 341 £. is E, Accidentals ‘Accidentals are often drawn too small in manuscripts, which makes for poor legibility. Ther proper width and height depend on the width ofthe staves. This proportion must be maintained when writing on staves of different widths. Cor rectly proportioned accidentals should look like the following ae 3E 3 F. Notes and Rests ‘All notes in mulistaff music must be in proper vertical (chythmic) alignment “The same is true for tests (see arrows "1" in example below), with the following exceptions (1) Full-measure rests (usually represented by whole rests regardless of the GENERAL CONVENTIONS 47 Prevailing meter) must be centered, no matter what other nole- or rest-values reasure (se arrows 2") sute noes are place a little to the left of center, but only when all ‘other notes and rests in the same measure are also full-measure values (see ows 3"). I this requirement is not met, all notes in such measures must be in their proper chythmic position, including those fling an entire measure (see arrows 4) 2. The convention of snot cering notes an centering ess ling a entre mea, and wing le ess nal fllmeasre tenes inepetve OF teat dation of themes, has begun teak downs hyn I Contenpeary musi has iced in compen, es sugges there, repice the atonal centered whole es shown stove fons 2°) ih (i ecg teal tion he mene nso aa lc thes reser oper tic postions ce wet examin 2a ofecelvandm Sette vain as SF dim, ional spacing in spi (groporionate)ntton, ee Spatial Nox tion, page 136 fF. mane (prone > ntaon se Spatial Nowe Stems A. Stem Lengths J. SINGLE NorES (UNREAMED) Stems on single notes should be one octave long unless the not i farther than48 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ‘one octave from the middle line ofthe staff, in which ease the stem is lengthened toreach the mide line BSE = Inother words, all stems must either cross the mide line or reach it except, of ‘course, in double stemming —see below), 2. INTERVALS AND CHORDS (UNBEAMED) ‘Stems on intervals and chords should be one octave long, ofa litle shorter, measured from the end of the stem to the nearest note, If that note is farther than tone octave from the middle fine ofthe staf, the stem is lengthened (0 reach the ‘middle Tine. (In the example, small arrows point to the notes governing stem lengths.) shorter 4. BEAMED GROUPS OF NOTES fa. SINGLE BEAM (IDENTICAL PITCHES THROUGHOUT THE REAMED GROUP) ‘The basic rule for unbeanved notes, that stems should be 3% spaces (one o«- tave) long, also applies to notes with one beam, provided the notes are all in a space. (The stems are measured from the center ofthe note 10 the outside ofthe beam.) For notes on a line, the stem is a quater of a staff-space shorter because the beam straddles staf-line, ie, the outside of such a beam does not reach all the way tothe eter ofthe ta stace: ESE See also Beams, page 9 ff 1b, SINGLE BEAM (DIFFERENT PITCHES) Here the stem lengths cannot be regulated, except thatthe stem ofthe note(s) closest to the beam should not be shorter than the interval of a sith: With minimum slant With greater slants (used by engravers GENERAL CONVENTIONS 49 Stems are usually lengthened by half a space for each additional beam, but ‘when three or more beams are used, no rigid rule is followed and a balance is at: tempted hetween engiening the slems just enough to prevent the note(s) nearest the beams from being too close: Regular lengohs Compromise lengths <7 FTTE Sone 4, FLAGGED NorES For eighth notes and sixteenth notes the length of the stems should remain the ‘same as for unilagged stems. From three fligs on, however, the stem must be lengthored to comma the ational Mg yy 5. WN DOUBLE-StEMMED NOTATION double stemming, the stems are usually shortened by %4 to 1 space, Le. {rom an octave to a seventh or sixth, except in multiple beaming, where such reductions would bring the secondary beam(s) too close to the notes. There also are other situations that do not permit shortening of the stems, such as when tremolo bars are drawn through the stem: # Stems usually take up about 24 spaces: 7. cues Stems usually take up about 3 spaces: B, Stem Directions 1. SINGLE NoTES (UNBEAMED) Notes below the middle line ofthe staff are stemmed up; notes above and on the mill ine of he staff are stemmed down re rclaa cer ‘82 The od rue that the stem direction for notes on the middle line ofthe staff is governed by the majority of the other stems in the measure (see example below) is rarely if ever followed any longer, atleast not by today’s professional engravers and autographs,50 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Nemcmanded 2. INTERVALS AND CHORDS (UNBEAMED) there are multiple notes on a single stem, the stem direction is determined by the note farthest from the middle line of the staff. (Arrows point 0 the notes gov cerning stem direction.) hy I the outside notes ofan interval or chord are equally far from the mide line of the staf, the stem goes down: J. REAMED GROUPS OF NOTES ‘The rules governing stem directions of ‘generally apply to beamed groups also: The note() farthest from the middle lie ofthe staff determines) the ditection ‘ofall the stems in a beamed group. = | eer If the outside notes of a beamed group are equally far from the middle line of the sa the group i stemmed down. (The governing nts inthe following ex amples are marked with small arows.) beamed notes, intervals, and chords nate: Both ofthese rules may be broken ifthe avaaile space makes their rigid pplication awkward or even impossible. The most common such “violation” is to let the majority ofthe notes govern the stem direction, in which case the sec ‘ond example above would have upstems z 4. race Notes Grace notes should always have upstems except in doublesstemmed contexts, GENERAL CONVENTIONS 57 er thet stm erly flow te part wich hey Belong pnt away from the staff * : In single-stemmed notation {In doublestemmed notation + See also Sluts and Ties, page 35 ff, and Grace Notes, page 21 f Cues generally are stemmed opposite to normal, except thatthe stem dizection should not be changed within any one cue, even if this means that some of the ve notes will have “correct” stems te Aas = For group stems, see page 162 fut. Pitch CEE Accidentals 53 Random and Choice Pitches i Sie Si seepage 185 4 Cancetaion Naturals) se © Double Sharps and Double Flan 34 Slides barely Changes Bh Seepage 64 Ped vans Cation Aide 33 Transpositions 7 © ta Sores BS nin €Seones 7 Wi NoteforNove Accidenats 38. In Pesfarce Scores a Cin tata Par i Clefs 56 Clofs Used on Scores eaul Parts 72 Cie Changes 37 Tremolo cae 57 see pages 6, HI, and 107 ‘8. Cluster Notation 48 Trill/TremololVibrato m4 Schasersta Ensemble Maric 38S Wir a orn i Glissandos 63 © Tremolo a 2. Note to Note Glande Open Ended Gisando 64 Tris and Til Tremolos 75 heed Undine sono 94 A Temas) 78 eee © Mirotonal Tails %6 2 Dm an Tira Poon 4 © Merton Tis % ending Tal a Harmonies 65. Aferbeat n © Tt Contig fom One Line tothe New n HighestILowest Note(s) 3 Fibra Trt ” Indeterminate or Approximate Unisons 78 Pitches 66 ere 66 Unpitched Notes: Placement 79 eee 16 A Decastonal Unpiched Now 79 Enended Patiges 9 Microtones 67 VibraroiNon Vibrato 80 Bunt Buches: Quarter Tones 67s. Marked Vibrato 30 SEG Phakes See cores 90 8 Biraoop Varying Width © Anotinate Paes 30” anor Speed %0 32 piren 53. Accidentals Basie procedures concerning accidentals are assumed to be known tothe reader. The following ate specific sugeestions. (For microtonal accidentals, Ref accidentals, see page A pCi Sill taken o adapt the sizeof the asides wo that of the sa. proportionately lage or small accidentals seriously impair quick perception (see Spacings, Positions, and Sizes, page 44 {1 vale B. Cancellation (Natueals) Although traditionally the bartine atthe end of a measure automatically can cels all non-Key-signature accidentals (except for tied notes), in more recent music, accidentals not canceled in their own measure ae usually canceled in the ee (The B-natural in the last measure does not need a natural because it occurs more ‘han one measure after the preceding B-flat.) Accidentals should not only he canceled for notes on identi for the entire pitch class (ie., at any octave level ultistaf notation fora single player, such as in keyboard and harp mas the staves should not be treated separately, as was formerly customary. Acciden. lals should be canceled regardless ofthe staff in which they occur If an accidental is canceled within the same measure, but indifferent octave, itmust be canceled again ifthe note subsequently recurs in the original octave: aR54 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Lin the example above, the Fsharp is canceled when an F occurs inthe upper ‘etave, When atthe end of the measure an F occurs in the original octave, itis ‘canceled again.) The following example contains the same notes as above, but the meter has been changed from 210 §, causing the last F to fll into the next measure, i... after the barline, In this'case there is no need for another natural; the natural on the preceding F suffices: Ifthe last Fis to be an F-sharp, another sharp must be placed infront of iteven though no natural has occurred on the same pitch level. The new sharp has become necessary because the Fin the upper octave had a natural sign. In other ‘words, if any pitch has been canceled at a diferent level and then recurs uncan: i original level, is accidental should be repeated sea Aangit would nave become necessary to repeat the sharp, because accidentals donot ery from one measure tothe nex unless ied ad then only fr the dh tiomof thee) . Double Sharps and Double Flats "Asingle natural suffice to cancel a double accidental double sharp or Nat isto reduced ta single sharp or Nat, no natoral needed only the single a¢- ‘dental Saker eel hie ck ob wor GAO! Ghrooxchocharw ch D. At Clef Changes Ia clef changes within a measure and the same note occurs before and after sd chore te sons! aca tome guyeue E, Tied Accidentals If notes with accidentals are tied from one line tothe next, the accidental(s) should be repected at the beginning of the new line. No parentheses should be sed, because they crowd the image. (There is no need (0 repeat accidentals on notes tied from measure to measure within the saine line.) pen 55 End of ine Beginning of new line bced not be repented AS Oa ered er Henust be repeats ‘inked not be repeated (ihn thee) ere is the same example withthe break from lin to line one measure later: Fndof tne Being ofr ine et ne) aS ea mt epee raped Woeentpe onary Accidentals Accidental and naturals which have no primary function but serve only to clarify possible ambiguities are the only ones to be placed in parentheses, Al ‘though theoretically superfluous, they are often oferucal value to the performer. ‘Te simplest rule as to whether to add a cautionary accidental or not is: When in doubt, ad i erence cd Batter many notes and many'Nats) —(erene “to warn ofthe parentheses may augmented fourth) ‘beomited) G. Im Scores In general, the use of cautionary accidentals should depend only on what goes ‘on within each instrument, but once in a while situations arise which are greatly clarified by cautionary accidentals. For example, if there isa unison on G-sharp, except for a sforzato G-natural in the trombones, the trombones should definitely hhave parenthetical naturals. In vocal and choral music, iti advisable to add cav- tionary accidentals incase of augmented fourths, when clashes occur with other voices, oF when there are prominent conflicting pitches in the accompaniment, (These situations are less important in instrumental music because it is easier to operate a key, valve, of string than to form a pitch vocally.) H, Notefor-Note Accidentals ‘The discussion of accidentals should not be concluded without mentioning one ‘ically diferent tend whichis gaining prominence and may eventually win out ‘over the system explained above. This trend reduces accidentals to a minimum. Its basic rates ae:56. MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 1. Accidents affect omly those notes which they immediately precede. less the tie goes from line 2. Accidentals are not repeated on tied nates u {olline or page to page. 3. Accidentals are not repeated for epeated notes unless one or more di ‘erent pitches intervene 4. Ifa sharp oF fat pitch is followed directly by its natural form, is used (AE-A¥; Eb-Es) 5. Cautionary accidentals or naturals (in parentheses) may be used 10 clarify ambiguities, but should be held to @ miniraum. Sopp Pe Tel So gp epee Although many clefs and clef positions were used at various times in the past, anly the following survive in twentieth century music ¢ todd BE “eles: tiers RE Tenor lef ma” etvoontrantone, cle, ut onty SBE Sr nts oo hgh forthe Bs ef) Voit ef 5 ‘such as in unpitched percussion) aE stain transpositions are indicated with a small numeral Tenor-oice clef ‘also used Jor tenor recorder) colo elef in C-scores ‘also wred for descant recorder) riven 57 Double-bass clef in C-scores (also used for contrabassoon sand other very low instruments) Hora bass clef in traditional (transposed) scores and parts (Hor in F) ‘Sounds afifth tower than notated Sounds a fourth higher than notated 5E 5 n popular music jazz, rock, show music, ec.) clefs are usually omitted in the pars afer the first line, since they are (righlly) considered "understood." This practice is very rarely found in “serious Positions with deliberately indefinite pitches sic, except in random com ie lef Changes 1 AT 4 naRtINE a clef change takes place at a barline, the new clef, which should be of slightly smaller siz, is placed before the barlne ieee eS « pita gia of P a 2. FROM UNE TO LINE a clef changes from one line to the next, a warning cle, ofa slightly smaller size, is placed atthe end of the line before the bacline to signa that the next line begins with a new (full-size) cle End of tine Beginning of nex tne Fiano, left hand: eS = « See also Spacings, Positions, and Sizes at Clef Changes, page 46, and Clefs used in Scores and Parts, page 72 f. Clusters, ‘A tone cluster may be defined as a combination of three or more pitches too close to cach other to form a chord in the tational sense. The degree of closeness, or ‘density, may range from adjacent whole tones to the immeasur electronic white noise le density of