POWER SYSTEM

PROTECTION AND CONTROL

By: Ararso Taye

May/2021GC

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 1

 INTRODUCTION
Basic Ideas:
An electric power system should ensure the
availability of electrical energy without
interruption to every load connected to the system.
Since H.V. T‟lines carries a bulk power over the
several hundred kms & all these lines are generally
overhead & exposed to the atmosphere, therefore
many chances of their breakdown due to storms,
falling of objects, S.C. due to birds, wind, damage
to the insulator etc.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 2
Cont’d
These breakdown results into mechanical damage as well
as Electrical fault.
One major trouble to the continuous supply is the shunt
fault or short circuit, which produces a sudden &
sometimes violent change in the system operation.

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Cont’d
How S.C occurs in PS?
Short circuits occur in power systems when
equipment insulation fails;
due to system overvoltage's caused by lightning
or switching surges,
due to insulation contamination, or
to other mechanical and natural causes.
Careful design, operation, and maintenance can
minimize the occurrence of short circuits but
cannot eliminate them.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 4
Cont’d
Such currents can be several orders of
magnitude larger than normal operating currents
and , if allowed to persist, may cause;
 insulation damage,
 conductor melting,
 fire, and explosion.
Windings and bus bars may also suffer
mechanical damage due to high magnetic
forces during faults.

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Cont’d
Clearly, faults must be quickly removed from a
power system.
Standard EHV protective equipment is designed to
clear faults within 3 cycles,
whereas lower-voltage protective equipment
typically operates within 5 –20 cycles.

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 WHAT IS POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION?
Power system protection:
 is the process of making the production, transmission, and
consumption of electrical energy as safe as possible from
the effects of failures and events that place the power
system at risk.

 The protection of power system ensures that if any part of a

system at fault is quickly detected and isolated so that the
rest of the system equipment and personnel are safe and
the remaining system operates satisfactorily.
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Cont’d
PSP is a branch of electrical PE that deals with
the protection of electrical power systems
from faults through the isolation of faulted
parts from the rest of the electrical ntk.
Blackburn defines:
 protection as ‘‘the science, skill, and art of
applying and setting relays and/or fuses to provide
maximum sensitivity to faults and undesirable
conditions, but to avoid their operation on all
permissible or tolerable conditions’’ .

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 WHY DO WE NEED PROTECTION?
 Electrical apparatus operates at various voltage levels
and may be enclosed or place in open.
 Under abnormal conditions protection is necessary for;
 Safety of electrical equipments
 Safety of human personnel
 Element Of Protection System
 Instrument Transformers :
 Current ( CT) and Voltage Transformers ( VT or PT)
 (Relays
 Circuit breakers
 Batteries
 Fuses
 Lighting Arresters
 5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 9
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
 In a power system consisting of generators,
transformers, transmission and distribution circuits,
it is inevitable that sooner or later some failure will
occur somewhere in the system.
Protective relays & relaying systems detect
abnormal conditions like faults in the electrical
circuit & operate automatic switchgear to isolate
faulty equipment from the system as quickly as
possible.
This prevents the damage at the fault location &
reduces the possibilities of spreading the fault into
the system.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 10

Cont’d
It is the function of protective relays in association with
the switchgear to avert the consequences of the faults.
The switchgear must be capable to interrupt the normal
current as well as fault current.
Whereas, protective relay must be able to recognize an
abnormal condition in the power system & take suitable
steps to ensure its removal with the least possible
disturbance to the normal operation.
i.e. relays distinguishes normal & abnormal conditions
Note: Prot. Relays do not prevent the occurrence of the
fault. (why?
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 Cont’d
Beside the relays & CB, there are several other
components in the protective relaying scheme
which includes CT‟s, PT‟s, time delay relays,
auxiliary relays, trip circuit, secondary circuit,
auxiliaries & accessories etc.
Each component is equally important.
Hence Protective Relaying is a team work of
these components.

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 Cont’d
When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must
be quickly detected and disconnected from the system.

There are two principal reasons for it.

Firstly, if the fault is not cleared quickly, it may cause
unnecessary interruption of service to the customers.
Secondly, rapid disconnection of faulted apparatus
limits the amount of damage to it and prevents the
effects of fault from spreading into system.

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 Cont’d
Protective Relay – is a device that detects the
fault and initiates the operation of the CB to
isolate the defective element from the rest of the
system.

The detection of a fault and disconnection of

faulty section or apparatus can be achieved by;
using fuses or
relays in conjunction with circuit breakers.
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 Cont’d
A fuse performs both detection and interruption
functions automatically but its use is limited for
the protection of low-voltage circuits only.
For high voltage circuits ( say above 3.3 kV) .
relays and circuit breakers are employed to serve
the desired function of automatic protective gear.
The relays detect the fault and supply
information to the circuit breaker which
performs the function of circuit interruption.

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 Function of the Protective Relays:
 To activate alarm circuit or to close the trip circuit of the CB.
 To disconnect the abnormally operating part to prevent the
subsequent faults.
e.g. O/L protection of the machine to prevent insulation failure.
 To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from
the healthy part.
e.g. If a machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault,
only a few coils may need to replace.

 To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the stability,

service continuity & system performance.

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 Faults & Causes
A fault in its electrical equipment is defined as a “defect
in its electric circuit due to which the flow of current is
diverted from the intended path”
Normally, faults are caused by breaking of conductors
OR due to failure of insulations.
In general, fault impedance is LOW & fault current is
HIGH.
General Faults are…….
symmetrical fault  R-S-T-g or R-S-T
Double line faults  R-S , R-T, T-R
Double line to ground faults  R-S-g, R-T-g, S-T-g
Line to ground fault  R-g, S-g, T-g
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 Cont’d
Equipment % of Total fault
O.H. line 50 %
Cables 10%
Switchgear 15%
Transformer 12%
CT’s , PT’s 2%
Control Equipment 3%
Miscellaneous 8%
 Frequency of different types of faults occurring in O.H. line:
 L-g Fault(85%), L-L Fault(8%), L-L-g Fault(5%), L-L-L Fault(<2%)

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 Cont’d
The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the
electrical circuits by constantly measuring the electrical
quantities which are different under normal and fault
conditions.
The electrical quantities which may change under fault
conditions are
 voltage
current
frequency and
phase angle

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 Major Components of Electrical power System:
1. Generator
2. Transformer (step up & step down)
3. Bus-bar
4. Transmission Line
5. Feeders
6. Instrument Transformer (CT‟s & PT‟s)
7. Protective Devices (CB, arrester, relays etc)
8. Miscellaneous (battery room, wiring, relay, panel etc)

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Cont’d  When a short circuit occurs at point F on the TL,
the current flowing in the line increases to an
enormous value.
 This results in a heavy current flow through the
relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing
its contacts.
 This in turns closes the trip circuit of the breaker,
making the circuit breaker open and isolating the
faulty section from the rest of the system.
 In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the
circuit equipment from damage and normal
working of the healthy portion of the system.

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 LOGIC OF RELAY

INPUT

MEASUREMENT

DETERMINATION

5/24/2021
OUTPUT
Pr By: Ararso T 22
Requirements of Protective Relaying
In order that protective relay system may perform
satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities:
A. Selectivity:- It is the ability of the protective system to
select correctly that part of the system on trouble and
disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of
the system.
In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is usual
practice to divide the entire system into several
protection zones.
When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the CBs
within that zone will be opened. This will isolate only
the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the healthy
circuits intact
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 Cont’d
The system can be divided into the following protection
zones:
Generators, low-tension switchgear, transformers, high-
tension switchgear, transmission lines

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 B. Speed
The relay system should disconnect the faulty
section as fast as possible for the following reasons:
1. Electrical apparatus may be damage if they are
made to carry the fault currents for a long time.
2. A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in
the system voltage. If the faulty section is not
disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created
by the fault may shut down consumers‟ motors and
the generators on the system may become unstable.
3. The high speed relay system decrease the
possibility of development of one type of fault into
the other more severe type.
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C. Sensitivity
It is ability of the relay system to operate with low
value of actuating quantity.
Sensitivity of the relay is a function of the volt-amperes
input to the coil of the relay necessary to cause its
operation.
The smaller the volt-ampere input required to cause
operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1 VA
relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay.
It is desirable that relay system should be sensitive so
that it operates with low values of volt-ampere input.
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D. Reliability
 It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the
pre-determined conditions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered
largely ineffective and could even become a liability.
E. Simplicity
The relaying system should be simple so that it can be
easily maintained. Reliability is closely related to
simplicity.
The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be
its reliability.
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 F. Economy
 The most important factor in the choice of a particular
protection scheme is the economic aspect.
As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than
5% of total cost.
 However, when the apparatus to be protected is of
utmost importance ( e.g. generator, main transmission
line, etc.), economic considerations are often subordinate
to reliability.

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 Relay Operating Criteria:
Each relay in a protective scheme performs a
certain function & it responds in a given manner
to a certain type of change in the circuit
quantities.
e.g. one type of relay may operate when the current
increases above a certain magnitude, while another may
compare current & voltage to operate when the ratio V/I
is less than a given value (V/I < Z specified).
i.e. 1st relay is known as O/C relay
& 2nd relay known as under impedance relay.
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Relay types
Most of the relays in service on electric power system
today are of electromechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating
principles:
 Electromagnetic attraction
 Electromagnetic induction

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 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Operates by virtue of an armature being attracted to
the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being
drawn into a solenoid. Such relays may be actuated
by dc or ac quantities.
Types:
1. Attracted armature type relay
2. Solenoid type relay
3. Balanced beam type relay

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 Electromagnetic Induction Relays
Operate on the principle of induction motor and are
widely used for protective relaying purposes involving
a.c. quantities.
They are not used with d.c. owing to the principle of
operation.
Important Terms
(i) Pick-up current – it is the minimum current in the relay
coil at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the
current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay
does not operate and the breaker controlled by it remains
in the closed position.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 32
 Cont’d
However, when the relay coil current is equal to or
greater than the pick up current , the relay operates to
energize the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.
(ii) Current setting – it is often to adjust the pick-up
current to any required value. This is known as
current setting and is usually achieved by the use of
tapings on the relay operating coil.
 The values assigned to each tap are expressed in
terms of percentage fullload rating of CT with which
the relay is associated and represents the value above
which the disc commence to rotate and finally closes
the trip circuit.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of CT x Current setting
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 Cont’d
 Example: For a circuit of Current setting = 125% and
CT= 400 / 5, find pick up currents of circuits.
Soln: The rated secondary current of CT = 5 amperes
So, Pick-up current = 125% x 5 = 6.25 amperes
It means that with the above current setting, the relay
will actually operate for a relay coil equal to or greater
than 6.25 amperes
The current plug setting usually range from 50% to
200% in steps of 25% for over current relays and 10% to
70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relays.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 34

Cont’d
(iii) Plug-setting multiplier ( PSM) – it is the ratio of
fault current relay coil to the pick-up current.
PSM = Fault current in relay coil/Pick up current
Example:- Suppose the relay is connected to a 400/5 CT
and set at 150%. With a primary fault current of 2400 A,
find PSM.
Soln:- Pick-up current = 5x1.5= 7.5 A
Fault current in relay coil = 2400 x 5/400 = 30 A
Therefore , PSM = 30 / 7.5 = 4

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 Cont’d
(iv) Time –setting multiplier – a relay is generally provided with
control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is known
as time-setting multiplier.
 The time-setting is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec.
 These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time derived
from time/PSM curve into the actual operating time.
Example: If the time setting = 0.1 & time obtained from time/PSM
curve = 3 sec. Then,
Actual relay operating time = 3 x 0.1 = 0.3 sec
i.e. actual operating time is calculated by multiplying the time-setting
multiplier with the time obtained from time/psm curve of the relay
(for TMS = 1).

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Cont’d

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Cont’d
Time / PSM Curve.. curve between time of operation
( vertical scale) and PSM ( horizontal scale).
 If the PSM is 10 , then the time of operation is 3
seconds.
 The actual time of operation is obtained by multiplying
this time by the time-setting multiplier.

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 Calculation of Relay Operating Time
In order to calculate relay operating time, the
following things must be known:
1. Time/PSM curve
2. Current setting
3. Time setting
4. Fault current
5. Current transformer ratio

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The procedure for calculating the actual
relay operating time as follows:

1. Convert the fault current into relay coil current by

using the CTR.
2. Express the relay current as a multiple of current
setting i.e. calculate the PSM .
3. From the Time/PSM curve of the relay, read off the
time of operation for the calculated PSM
4. Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying
the above time of the relay by time-setting multiplier in
use.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 40
 EXAMPLE
Determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere, 3-second
over-current relay having a current setting of 125% and a
time setting multiplier of 0.6 connected to supply circuit
through a 400/5 CT when the circuit carries a fault current
of 4000 A.
Soln:- Rated secondary current of CT = 5 A
Pick-up current = 5 x 1.25 = 6.25 A
Fault current in relay coil = 4000 x 5/400 = 50 A
Plug-setting multiplier ( PSM) = 50 /6.25 = 8
Corresponding to the PSM of 8, the time of operation is 3.5 seconds.
Therefore, Actual relay operating time = 3.5 x Time-setting
5/24/2021 = T3.5 x 0.6 = 2.1 sec
Pr By: Ararso 41
H.W

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Functional Relay Types
Relays are generally classified according to the
function they are called upon to perform in the
protection of electric power circuits.
A relay which recognizes over-current in a circuit
and initiates corrective measures would be termed as
an Over-current relay

 Similarly an Over-voltage relay is one recognizes

over-voltage in a circuit and initiates the corrective
measures.

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Special-function relays
A. Induction Type Overcurrent Relay ( non-
directional )
This type of relay works on the induction principle and
initiate corrective measures when current in the circuit
exceeds the predetermined value.
The actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied
to the relay from a CT.
These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate
for fault current flow in either direction.

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B. Induction Type Directional Power Relay
This type of relay operates when power in the
circuit flows in a specific direction.
Designed that it obtains its operating torque by
the interaction of magnetic fields derived from
both voltage and current source of the circuit it
protects.
Thus this type of relay is essentially a wattmeter.

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C. Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay
Directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a
directional protective relay under short -circuit conditions.
When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls to a
low value and there may be insufficient torque developed
in the relay to cause its operation.

This difficulty is overcome in the directional overcurrent

relay which is designed to be almost independent of
system voltage and power factor.

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 D. Distance or Impedance relays
The operation of relay discussed so far dependent upon
the magnitude of current or power in the protected
circuit.
However, there is another group of relays in which the
operation is governed by the ratio of applied voltage to
current in the protected circuit.
Such relays are called distance or impedance relays(
Impedance is an electrical measure of distance along a
transmission line).
In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current
element is opposed by the torque produced by a voltage
element.
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Cont’d
The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than a
predetermined value

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 Cont’d
 Figure shown illustrates the basic principle of operation of an
impedance relay. The voltage element of the relay is excited
through a PT from the line to be protected.
 The current element of the relay is excited from a CT in series with
the line. The portion AB of the line is protected zone. Under normal
operating conditions, the impedance of the protected zone is ZL .
 The relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever
impedance of the protected section falls below the pre-determined
value i.e. ZL in this case.
 Now suppose a fault occur at point F1 in the protected zone. The
impedance Z ( = V/I) between the point where the relay is installed
and the point of fault will be less than ZL and hence the relay
operates.
 Should the fault occur beyond the protected zone ( say point F2),
the impedance Z will be greater than ZL and the relay does not
operate.
Note: V = substation voltage , I = fault current
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 TYPES of distance relay
 A distance or impedance relay is essentially an
ohmmeter and operates whenever the impedance of the
protected zone falls below a pre-determined value.
There are two types of distance relays in use for the
protection of power supply, namely;
1. Definite-distance relay : which operates instantaneously
for fault upto a predetermined distance from relay.
2.Time-distance relay: in which time of operation is
proportional to the distance of fault from the relay
point.
Automatically adjusts its operating time according to the
distance of the relay from the fault point.
5/24/2021
Operating time , T  V/I  Z  distance 50
Pr By: Ararso T
E. Differential Relays
 Most of the relays discussed so far relied on
excess of current for their operation. Such relays
are less sensitive because they cannot make
correct distinction between heavy load current
conditions and minor fault conditions.
In order to overcome this difficulty, differential
relays are used.
A differential relay is one that operates when the
phasor difference of two or more similar electrical
quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 51

 Cont’d
 Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the
current entering a section of the system with the current
leaving the section.
Under normal operating conditions, the two currents are
equal as soon as fault occurs, this condition no longer
applies.
The difference between the incoming and outgoing
currents is arranged to flow through the operating coil of
the relay.
If this differential current is equal to or greater than the
pickup value, the relay will operate an open the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty section.
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Cont’d
 It may be noted that almost any type of relay when
connected in a particular way can be made to operate as
a differential relay.
In other words, it is not much the relay construction as
the way the relay is connected in a circuit that makes it
is differential relay.
There are two fundamental systems of differential or
balanced protection viz.
 Current balance protection
 Voltage balance protection
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 Current Differential Relay
Figure shows an arrangement of an overcurrent
relay connected to operate as a differential relay.
A pair of identical CTs are fitted on either of the
section to be protected ( alternator winding in
this case).
The secondary of CT‟s are connected in series in
such a way that they carry the induce currents in
the same direction.
The operating coil of the overcurrent relay is
connected across the CT secondary circuit. This
differential relay compares the current at the two
ends of the alternator winding.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 54
Cont’d

 Under normal operating conditions, suppose the

alternator winding carries a normal current of 1000A.
Then the currents in the secondaries of CT‟s are equal.
 These currents will merely circulate between the two
CT‟s and no current will flow through the differential
relay. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative.

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 Cont’d
If the ground fault occurs on the alternator as shown, the
secondary currents will not be equal and the current
flows through the operating coil of the rely, causing the
relay to operate.
The amount of current flow through the relay will
depend upon the way the fault is being fed.

Normal condition. Ubnormal condition.

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Cont’d

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Disadvantages
1. The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a
slight difference between the currents at the two ends of
the section to be protected. If the relay is very sensitive,
then the small current flowing through the relay may
cause it to operate even under no fault conditions.
2. ( The two CT‟s are connected through conductors called
pilot cable. If the two ends of the section to be protected
are quite apart, the impedance of pilot-cable may be
large, say of the order of 500 ohms )
3. Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the
relay when a large through-current flows.
4. Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be
achieved due to pilot circuit impedance.
The above disadvantages are overcome to a great extent in
biased beam relay.
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 F. Biased Beam Relay
Called percentage differential relay)
Is designed to respond to the differential current in terms
of its fractional relation to the current flowing through
the protected section.
It is essentially an over-current balanced beam relay type
with an additional restraining coil. The restraining coil
produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the
operating force.

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Cont’d
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force
due to restraining coil is greater than the operating force.
Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an
internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias
force. Consequently, the trip contacts are closed to open
the circuit breaker.
The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of
turns on the restraining coil.

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 Cont’d

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Voltage Balance Differential Relay
Figure shows the arrangement of voltage balance
protection.
In the scheme of protection , two similar CT‟s are
connected at either end of the element to be protected (
e.g. an alternator winding) by means of pilot wires.
The secondaries of CTs are connected in series with a
relay in such a way that under normal conditions, their
induced emf‟s are in opposition.

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Cont’d

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Disadvantages
1. The voltage balance system suffers from the following
drawbacks:
2. A multi-gap transformer construction is required to
achieve the accurate balance between current
transformer pairs.
3. The system is suitable for protection of cables of
relatively short lengths due to the capacitance of pilot
wires. On long cables, the charging current may be
sufficient to operate the relay even if a perfect balance
of current transformer is attained.
The above disadvantages have been overcome in Translay
( modified) balanced voltage system.
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G. TRANSLAY
This system is the modified form of voltage – balance
system
The relays used embrace the function of transformer
as well as relay, hence the name Translay.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 65

PILOT RELAYING
Pilot relaying refers to a type of differential protection
that compares the quantities at the terminals via a
communication channel rather than by a direct wire
interconnection of the relays.
Remote controlling of circuit breakers. This scheme
requires communication channels to carry system
voltage and current information to the decision making
location.
Differential protection of generators, buses, and
transformers considered in previous sections does not
require pilot relaying because each of these devices is at
one geographical location where CTs and relays can be
directly interconnected.Pr By: Ararso T
5/24/2021 66
 Cont’d
However, differential relaying of transmission lines
requires pilot relaying because the terminals are widely
separated (often by many kilometers). In actual practice,
pilot relaying is typically applied to short transmission
lines (up to 80 km) with 69 to 115 kV ratings.
Four types of communication channels are used for pilot
relaying:
1. Pilot wires: Separate electrical circuits operating at dc, 50
to 60 Hz, or audio frequencies. These could be owned by
the power company or leased from the telephone
company.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 67

 Cont’d
2. Power-line carrier: The transmission line itself is used as the
communication circuit, with frequencies between 30 and 300
kHz being transmitted.
The communication signals are applied to all three phases using
an L–C voltage divider and are confined to the line under
protection by blocking filters called line traps at each end.
3. Microwave: A 2 to 12 GHz signal transmitted by line-of-sight
paths between terminals using dish antennas.
4.Fiber optic cable: Signals transmitted by light modulation
through electrically non-conducting cable.
This cable eliminates problems due to electrical insulation,
inductive coupling from other circuits, and atmospheric
disturbances.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 68
 TYPES OF PROTECTION
When a fault occurs on any part of electric power
system, it must be cleared quickly in order to avoid
damage and /or interference with the rest of the system.
It is usual practice to divide the protection scheme in two
classes viz. primary protection and back-up protection.

Primary Protection. It is the protection scheme which is

designed to protect the component parts of the power
system. Thus refer to Figure, each line has an overcurrent
relay that protects the line. If a fault occurs on any line ,
it will be cleared by its relay and CB.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 69
Cont’d
 This forms of primary or main protection and serves as the first
line of defence. The service record of primary relaying is very
high with well over 90% of all operations being correct.
 However, sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay
system because of trouble within the relay, wiring system or
breaker. Under such conditions , back –up protection does the
required job.
Primary Pro:
 ReLay and CB of
four lines
Back up Pro. :
 Relay and CB A

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 70

Cont’d
Back –up Protection. In the second line of defence in case of
failure of the primary protection. It is designed to operate with
sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given
enough time to function if it is able to.
 Thus refer to figure, relay A provides back-up protection for each
of the four lines. If a line fault is not cleared by its relay and
breaker, the relay A on the other group breaker will operate after
a definite time delay and clear the entire group lines.
 It is evident that when back-up relaying functions, a large part is
disconnected than when primary relaying functions correctly.
Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the better
maintenance of primary relaying.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 71

Protection of Alternators And Transformers
The most serious faults on alternators which require
immediate attention are the stator winding faults.
The major faults on transformers occur due to short
circuits in the transformers or their connections.
The basic system used for protection against these faults
is the differential relay scheme

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 72

 PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS
Some of the important faults which may occur on the
an alternators are:
a. failure of prime mover e. overvoltage
b. failure of the field f. stator winding faults
c. overcurrent g. unbalanced loading
d. overspeed
A. Failure of Prime-mover:
When input to the prime mover fails, the alternator
runs as a synchronous motor and draws some current
from the supply system. This motoring conditions is
known as „inverted running‟.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 73
Cont’d
In case of turbo-alternator sets, failure of steam supply
may cause inverted running.
If the steam supply is gradually restored, the alternator
will pick up load without disturbing the system.
 If the steam failure is likely to be prolonged, the
machine can be safely isolated by the control room
attendant sincae this condition is relatively harmless.
Therefore, automatic protection is not required.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 74

Cont’d
 In case of hydro-generator sets, protection against inverted
running is achieved by providing mechanical devices on water-
wheel.
 When the water flow drops to an insufficient rate to maintain the
electrical output, the alternator is disconnected from the system.
Therefore in this case also electrical protection is not necessary.
 Diesel engine driven generator , when running inverted, draw a
considerable amount of power from the supply system and it is
usual practice to provide protection against motoring in order to
avoid damage due to possible mechanical seizure.
 This achieved by applying reverse power relays to the alternators
which isolate the latter during their motoring action.
 It is essential that the reverse power relays have time delay in
operation in order to prevent inadvertent tripping during system
disturbances caused by faulty synchronising and phase swinging.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 75
 B. FAILURE OF FIELD
The chances of field failure of alternators are
undoubtedly very rare.
Even if it does occur, no immediate damage will be
caused by permitting the alternator to run without a field
for short-period.
It is sufficiently to rely on the control room attendant to
disconnect the faulty alternator manually from the
system bus-bar.
Therefore, it is universal practice not to provide
automatic protection against this contingency.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 76

C. OVERCURRENT
It occurs mainly due to partial breakdown of winding
insulation or due to overload on the supply system.
Overcurrent protection for alternators is considered
unnecessary because of the following reasons:
a. The modern tendency is to design alternators with very
high values of internal impedance so that they will stand a
complete short-circuit at their terminals for sufficient time
without serious overheating.
On the occurrence of an overload, the alternators can be
disconnected manually

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 77

Cont’d
b. The disadvantage of using overload protection for
alternators is that such a protection might disconnect the
alternators from the power plant bus on account of some
momentary troubles outside the plant and, therefore,
interfere with the continuity of electric service.
D. OVERSPEED:The chief cause of overspeed is the
sudden loss of all or the major part of load on the alternator.
Modern alternators are usually provided with the
mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their driving
shafts to trip the main valve of the prime-mover when a
dangerous overspeed occurs.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 78
Cont’d
E. OVER-VOLTAGE. The field excitation system of
modern alternators is so designed that over-voltage
conditions at normal running speeds cannot occur.
However, overvoltage in an alternator occurs when
speed of the prime-mover increases due to sudden loss
of the alternator load.
In case of steam-turbine driven alternators, the control
governors are very sensitive to speed variations. They
exercise a continuous check on overspeed and thus
prevent the occurrence of overvoltage on the generating
unit. Therefore , over-voltage protection is not provided
on turbo-alternator sets.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 79
Cont’d
In case of hydro-generator, the control governors are
much less sensitive and an appreciable time may elapse
before the rise in speed due to loss of load is checked.
The over-voltage during this time may reach a value
which would over-stress the stator windings and
insulation breakdown may occur.
It is , therefore, a usual practice to provide over-voltage
protection on hydro-generator units.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 80

Cont’d
The over-voltage relays are operated from a voltage
supply derived from the generator terminals.
The relays are so arranged that when the generated
voltage rises 20% above the normal value, they operate
to
 trip the MCB to disconnect the faulty alternator from the
system
 disconnect the alternator field circuit

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 81

Cont’d
F. UNBALANCED LOADING. Means that there are
different phase currents in the alternator.
Unbalanced loading arises from faults to earth or faults
between phases on the external to the alternator.
The unbalanced currents, if allowed to persist, may
either severely burn the mechanical fixings of the rotor
core or damage the field winding.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 82

Unbalanced loading protection

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 83

 G. STATOR WINDING FAULT
These faults occur mainly due to the installation failure of the
stator windings.
The main types of stator faults, in order of importance are:
1. fault between phase and ground
2. fault between phases
3. inter-turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding
 The stator winding faults are the most dangerous and are
likely to cause considerable damage to the expensive
machinery.
 Therefore , automatic protection is absolutely necessary to
clear such faults in the quickest possible time in order to
minimize the extent damage.
 For protection of alternators against such faults, differential
method of protection ( also known as Merz-Price system) is
most commonly employed due to its greater sensitivity and
reliability.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 84
 Cont’d
If the stator winding fault is not cleared quickly, it may lead to:
i) Burning of stator coils
ii) Burning and welding-up of stator laminations

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS

 The most common system used for the protection of stator winding
faults employs circulating-current principle.
 In this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends of the
protected section are compared.
 Under normal operating conditions, these currents are equal but
may become unequal on the occurrence of a fault in the protected
section.
 The difference of the currents under fault conditions is arranges to
pass through the operating coil
5/24/2021
of the relay.
Pr By: Ararso T 85
 Cont’d

 The relay then closes its contacts to isolate protected section from the
system. This form of protection is also known as Merz-Price
circulating current.
 The relay coils are connected in star, the neutral point being connected
to the current-transformer common neutral and the outer ends one to
each of the three pilots.
 In order that burden on each CT is the same, the relays are connected
across equipotential points of the three pilot wires and these
equipotential
5/24/2021 points would naturally
Pr By: Ararso T be located at the middle of
86 the
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 87

 BALANCED EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION
In small size alternators , the neutral ends of the three-
phase windings are often connected internally to a single
terminal.
Therefore, it is not possible to use Merz-Price circulating
current principle described above because there are no
facilities for accommodating the necessary CTs in the
neutral connection of each phase winding.
Under these circumstances, it is considered sufficient to
provide protection against earth-fault only by the use of
balanced earth-fault protection scheme.
This scheme provides no protection against phase-to-
phase faults, unless and they develop into earth-faults , as
most of them will.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 88
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 89

Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 90

 STATOR INTER-TURN PROTECTION
Merz-price circulating current system protects against
phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults.
It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same
phase winding of the stator.
It is because the current that this type of fault produces
flows in a local circuit between the turns involved and
does not create a difference between the turns involved
and does not create a difference between the currents
entering and leaving the winding at its end where CTs are
applied .
However, it is usually considered unnecessary to provide
protection for inter-turn faults because they invariably
5/24/2021
develop into earth faults.Pr By: Ararso T 91
Cont’d
 In single turn generator ( e.g. large steam –turbine
generators), there is no necessity of protection against
inter-turn fault.
However, inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn
generators such as hydro-electric generators.

These generators have double –winding armatures ( i.e

each phase winding is divided into two halves) owing to
the very heavy currents which they have to carry.
Advantage may be taken of this necessity to protect
inter-turn faults on the same winding
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 92
Cont’d

Figure shown the schematic arrangement of circulating

current and inter-turn protection of a 3 phase double
wound generator. The relays RC provide protection
against phase-to-ground and phase –to-phase faults,
whereas relays R1 provide protection against inter-turn
faults.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 93
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 94

Cont’d
Example: 1. A star-connected , 3 phase , 10 MVA , 6.6.kV
alternator has a per phase reactance of 10%. It is
protected by Merz-Price circulating principle which is
set to operate for fault currents not less than 175A.
Calculate the value of earthing resistance to be provided
in order to ensure that only 10% of the alternator
winding remains unprotected.
Soln: Let r ohms be the earthing resistance required to
leave 10% of the winding unprotected ( portion NA).
The whole arrangement is shown in the simplified
diagram

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 95

 Cont’d
Voltage per phase, Vp = 3,810 volts
Full load current , I = 875 A
Let the reactance per phase be x ohms
%X √3( x) (875)
-------- = ------------------
100 6,600
x = 0.436 ohm
Reactance of 10% winding = 0.0436 ohm
EMF induced in 10% winding= 381 V
Impedance offered to fault by 10% winding
is,
Zf = [ (0.0436)2 + r2]1/2
Earth-fault current due to 10% winding
= 381/Zf,
When this fault current becomes 175 A, the relay
will trip. 175 = 381/Zf i.e ( 0.0436)2 + r2 = 4.715
r = 2.171 ohms
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 96
Example

2. A star connected , 3 phase, 10 MVA , 6.6 kV

alternator is protected by Merz-price circulating-
current principle using 1000/5 CT‟s. The start point of
the alternator is earthed through a resistance of 7.5
ohms. If the minimum operating current for the relay
is 0.5 A , calculate the percentage of each phase of the
stator winding which is unprotected against earth-
faults when the machine is operating at normal
voltage.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 97

 Solution
Let x % of the winding be unprotected.
Earthing resistance, r = 7.5 ohms
Voltage per phase , Vp = 3,810 volts
Minimum fault current which will operate the relay = 100
amperes
EMF induced in x% winding
= Vp ( x/100) = 38.1x volts
Earth fault current which x% will cause is equal to,
=38.1x/r = 38.1x/7.5 A
This current must be equal to 100 amperes.
100 = 381x/7.5, or Unprotected winding , x = 19.69%
Hence
5/24/2021 19.69% of alternator is Tleft unprotected
Pr By: Ararso 98
PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
Transformer are static devices, totally enclosed and
generally oil immersed.
Therefore, chances of fault occurring on them are
very rare.
However, the consequence of even a rare fault may
be very serious unless the transformer is quickly
disconnected from the system.
This necessitates to provide adequate automatic
protection for transformers against possible faults.
Small distribution transformers are usually
connected to the supply system through series fuses
instead of CB.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 99
 Cont’d
Consequently , no automatic protective relay equipment
is required.
However, the probability of faults on power transformers
is undoubtedly more and hence automatic protection is
absolute necessary.
Common Transformer Faults
 open circuits
 Overheating
 winding short-circuits e.g. earth-fault , phase –to-phase
faults and inter-turn faults

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 100

 A. Open circuit
May cause undesirable heating
In practice, relay protection is not provided against open
circuits because this condition is relatively harmless.
On the occurrence of such fault, the transformer can be
disconnected manually from the system.
B. Overheating of the transformer
usually caused by sustained overloads or short-circuits
and very occasionally by the failure of the cooling
system.
The relay protection is also not provided against this
contingency and thermal accessories are generally used
to sound an alarm or control
5/24/2021
the banks of fans.
Pr By: Ararso T 101
C. Winding short-circuits ( also called internal faults)
Arise from deterioration of winding insulation due to
overheating or mechanical injury.
When an internal fault occurs, the transformer must be
disconnected quickly from the system because a
prolonged arc in the transformer may cause oil fire.
Relay protection is absolutely necessary for internal
faults.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 102

PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR TRANSFORMERS

Alternative protective systems are used which in

many cases are effective as the circulating current
system.
A. Buchholz Relay
providing protection against all kinds of incipient
faults i.e. slow-developing faults such as insulation
failure of windings, core heating, fall of oil level due
to leaky joints etc.
Is a gas –actuated relay installed in oil immersed
transformers for protection against all kinds of faults.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 103

Cont’d
 It is used to give an alarm in case of incipient
( i.e. slow-developing) faults in the transformer
and to disconnect the transformer from the supply
in the even of severe internal faults.
 It is universal practice to use on all such oil
immersed transformers having ratings in excess
of 750 kVA.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 104

Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 105

Disadvantages and Advantages
Advantages
 It is the simplest of transformer protection.
 It detects the incipient faults at a stage much earlier
than is possible with other forms of protection.
Disadvantages
 It can only be used with oil immersed transformers
equipped with conservator tanks.
 The device can detect only fault below oil level in the
transformer. Therefore, separate protection is needed
for connecting cables.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 106
 Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection
Providing protection against earth-faults only.
Involves a partial breakdown of winding insulation to
earth.
The resulting current is considerable less than the short-
circuit current.
The earth-fault may continue for a long time and cause
considerable damage before it ultimately develops into a
short-circuit and removed from the system.
is essentially an overcurrent relay of low setting and
operates as soon as an earth-fault or leak develops. One
method of protection against earth-faults in a transformer
is the core-balance leakage
5/24/2021 protection
Pr By: Ararso T as shown. 107
 PROTECTION OF BUSBARS AND LINES
Bus bars and lines are important elements of electric
power system and require the immediate attention of
protection engineers for safeguards against the possible
faults occurring on them.
BUSBAR PROTECTION
The two most commonly used schemes for busbar
protection are:
 Differential protection
 Fault bus protection

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 108

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 109

 FAULT BUS PROTECTION
To design a station so that the faults that develop are
mostly earth-faults. This can be achieved
 By providing earthed metal barrier ( known as fault
bus) surrounding each conductor throughout its entire
length in the bus structure.
With this arrangement, every fault that might occur
must involve a connection between a conductor and
an earthed metal part.
By directing the flow of earth-fault current, it is
possible to detect the faults and determine their
location.
This type of protection is known as fault bus protection.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 110
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 111

 PROTECTION OF LINES
The requirements of line protection are:
1. In the event of a short circuit, the CB closest to the fault
should open, all other CBs remaining in a closed position.
2. In case the nearest breakers to the fault fails to open, back-
up protection should be provided by the adjacent CBs
3. The relay operating time should be just as short as possible
in order to preserve system stability, without unnecessary
tripping of circuits.
The common methods of line protection are:
 Time-grade overcurrent protection
 Differential protection
 Distance protection
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 112
Cont’d
Figures the symbols indicating the various types of
relays.
 Over-current Non-directional 
 Differential 
 Directional 
 Impedance z

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 113

 Time-Graded Over-current Protection
The time setting of relays is so graded that in the event of
fault, the smallest possible part of the system is isolated
Radial feeder:
A. Using definite time relays-the time of operation of each
relay is fixed and is independent of the operating current.

The disadvantage of this system is that if there are

number of feeders in series, the tripping time for faults
near the supply end becomes high ( 2 seconds in this
case). However, in most cases, it is reasonable extent by
using inverse –time relays.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 114
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 115

Cont’d
B. Using inverse time relays
Operating time is inversely proportional to the operating
current.
The farther the CB from the generating station, the
shorter is its relay operating time.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 116

 Parallel Feeders:
Continuity of supply is particularly necessary, two
parallel feeders may be installed.
If a fault occurs on one feeder, it can be disconnected
from the system and continuity of supply can be
maintained from the other feeder.
The parallel feeders cannot be protected by non-
directional overcurrent relays only.
It is necessary to use directional relays also and to grade
the time setting of relays for selective trippings.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 117

Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 118

 Cont’d

 Suppose an earth fault occurs on feeder 1 as shown in Figure

above. It is desired that only circuit breakers at A and P should
open to clear the fault whereas feeder 2 should remain intact to
maintain the continuity of supply.
 In fact, the above arrangement accomplishes this job.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 119

Ring Main System
Various power stations or sub-stations are interconnected
by alternate routes, thus forming a closed ring.
In case of damage to any section of the ring, that section
may be disconnected for repairs, and power will be
supplied from both ends of the ring, thereby maintaining
continuity of supply.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 120

 Cont’d
 Figure shown above the single line diagram of a typical
ring main system consisting of one generator G
supplying four sub-station S1, S2, S3 and S4.
In this arrangement, power can flow in both directions
under fault conditions.
Therefore, it is necessary to grade in both directions
round the ring and also to use directional relays. In
order that only faulty section of the ring is isolated
under fault conditions,

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 121

Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 122

 Cont’d

 Supposed a short circuit occurs at the point as shown in Figure above. In order
to ensure selectivity , it is desired that only CBs at E and F should open to clear
the fault whereas other sections of the ring should be intact to maintain
continuity of supply.
 In fact, the above arrangement accomplishes this job. The power will be fed to
the fault via two routes viz (i) from G around S1 and S2 and (ii) from G around
S4 and S3.
 It is clear that relays at A, B, C, and D as well as J, I, H and G will not trip.
Therefore, only relays at E and F will operate before any other relay operates
because of their lower time setting.Pr By: Ararso T
5/24/2021 123
Differential Pilot-Wire Protection
Is based on the principle that under normal
conditions, the current entering one end of a line is
equal to that leaving the other end.
 As soon as a fault occurs between the two ends, this
condition no longer holds and the difference of
incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow
through a relay which operates the CB to isolate the
faulty line.
Onnly the following two schemes will be discussed:
 Merz-Price voltage balanced system
 Translay scheme

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 124

Merz-Price Voltage Balance System.

 Figure shown below the single line diagram for protection of a

3 phase line. Identical CTs are placed in each phase at both ends
of the line.
 The pair of CTs in each line is connected in series with a relay
in such a way that under normal conditions, their secondary
voltages are equal and in opposition.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 125
Cont’d

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 126

 Cont’d
Advantages:
This system can be used for ring mains as well as
parallel feeders.
This system provides instantaneous protection for
ground faults. This decreases the possibility of these
faults involving other phases.
This system provides instantaneous relaying which
reduces the amount of damage to over-head conductors
resulting from arcing faults.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 127

Cont’d
Disadvantages:
Accurate matching of CT is very essential.
If there is a break in the pilot-wire circuit, the system
will not operate.
This system is very expensive owing to the greater
length of pilot wires required.
In case of long lines, charging current due to pilot –
wire capacitance effects may be sufficient to cause
relay operation even under normal conditions.
This system cannot be used for line voltages beyond
33 kV because of constructional difficulties in
matching the CT.
5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 128
Translay Scheme
This system is similar to voltage balance system
except that here balance or opposition is between the
voltages induced in the secondary windings wound on
the relay magnets and not between the secondary
voltages of the line CTs.
This permits to use CTs of normal design and
eliminates one of the most serious limitations of
original voltage balance system, namely; its limitation
to the system operating at voltages not exceeding 33
kV.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 129

Distance Protection
Both time-grade and pilot wire system are not suitable
for the protection of very long high voltage transmission
lines.
Action of relay depends upon the distance ( or
impedance) between the point where the relay is
installed and the point of fault.
This system provides discrimination protection without
employing pilot wires.

5/24/2021 Pr By: Ararso T 130

Cont’d

 Figure shows a simple system consisting of lines in series such

that power can flow from left to right.
 The relay at A, B and C are set to operate for impedance less
than Z1, Z2 and Z3 respectively.
 Suppose a fault occurs between sub-stations B and C, the fault
impedance at power station and sub-station A and B will be Z1 +
Z and Z respectively. It is clear that for the portion shown, only
relay at B will operate.
 Similarly, if a fault occurs within section AB, then only relay at
A will operate
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‘Three-zone’ distance protection

In this scheme of protection , three distance elements are used

at each terminal

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 ?

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