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Geology and solid mineral deposits of the Northern United Arab Emirates - A
review

Article  in  Applied Earth Science IMM Transactions section B · August 2001

DOI: 10.1179/aes.2001.110.2.59

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 Applied Earth Science
Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy: Section B

ISSN: 0371-7453 (Print) 1743-2758 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yaes20

Geology and solid mineral deposits of the

northern United Arab Emirates—a review

J. M. Eyre, M. Samarai, A. J. Beer & A. Wetherelt

To cite this article: J. M. Eyre, M. Samarai, A. J. Beer & A. Wetherelt (2001) Geology and solid
mineral deposits of the northern United Arab Emirates—a review, Applied Earth Science, 110:2,
59-65, DOI: 10.1179/aes.2001.110.2.59

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 Geology and solid mineral deposits of the northern United
Arab Emirates—a review
J. M. Eyre, M. Samarai, A. J. Beer and A. Wetherelt
Synopsis
Development projects in the northern United Arab
Emirates have created a demand for high-quality
industrial rocks and minerals. A thorough review of the
solid mineral resources has been undertaken to help
to maximize the use of domestic supplies of these
materials. The principal resources are hard, ophiolite-
derived aggregate and limestone of cement and
aggregate quality together with smaller amounts of
chromite, gypsum and construction sand. Standards
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for the products vary between the separate emirates
and these differences need to be resolved if a unified,
federation-wide minerals policy is to be achieved.
A table of principal aggregate producers has been pre-
pared to assist in the formulation of this policy. Further
exploration could also lead to the identification of eco-
nomic deposits of some other metalliferous minerals.
The United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) lies on the eastern side
of the Arabian peninsula, occupying a strategic position at the
entrance to the Arabian Gulf. The country is a federation of
seven emirates and is dominated geographically and econom-
ically by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, whose economy is based
on its extensive oil reserves. The smaller emirates, which lie at
the northeastern side of the U.A.E. (Fig. 1), are Dubai,
Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ras al-Khaimah and
Fig. 1 United Arab Emirates
Manuscript received by the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy on
5 March, 2001. Paper published in Trans. Instn Min. Metall.(Se ct. B:
Appl. earth sc i.), 110, May–August 2001. © The Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy 2001.
P ROFESSIONAL PAPER
Fujairah. Collectively known as the Northern Emirates, they
possess smaller reserves of oil than Abu Dhabi—if any—but
have a varied geology that has given rise to a range of other
mineral resources.
Mineral resources in the U.A.E. are administered by the
federal authorities through the officers of the Ministry of
Petroleum and Mineral Resources. These resources are, in
turn, owned and controlled by the individual emirates.
Although the range and output of minerals are small, there is
a strong demand for domestic production.
Geology of Northern Emirates
Geological history
The Arabian platform, which includes the area covered by the
Northern Emirates, is a continental region that has essentially
been tectonically stable since the end of the Cambrian period.
The Northern Emirates cover two of the geological provinces
of the Arabian peninsula defined by the U.S. Geological
Survey 2 (Fig. 2). The only significant tectonic events since
then have been the early Tertiary rifting, which formed the
Red Sea, and the closure of the Tethys Ocean. The former
affects only the eastern side of the Arabian peninsula and has
thus had no influence on the geology of the U.A.E. The latter
event affected the northern and eastern side of the Arabian
peninsula and has resulted in the obduction of ophiolite
sequences on to the northeastern margin of the platform,
including part of the northeast of the U.A.E.
The post-Cambrian geological history of the Northern
Emirates has been dominated, therefore, by transgression and
regression of the sea and the associated deposition of sedi-
B59

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Fig. 2 Geological map (simplified) and geological provinces of Northern Emirates (adapted from Pollastro and co-workers2)
ment. Palaeozoic sediments are not extensively exposed and
consist principally of shale and siltstone. Mesozoic deposits
are represented by limestones and dolomites ranging from
Jurassic to late Cretaceous in age, which form the main
reservoir rock for the western U.A.E. oil reserves. Their
depositional environment is thought to be similar to the con-
ditions prevailing today as they include sabkha-type deposits.
The lack of early Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments in the
Northern Emirates reflects the emergent conditions in those
periods. Post-Cretaceous uplift has produced topographic
highs, which now form hills, such as Jebel Ali and Jebel
Dhana, and also offshore islands, such as Das and Zirku. The
most recent sea-level changes during the Pleistocene glacia-
tions and the associated climate changes have given rise to
many of the superficial sediments that cover the older rocks.
As already stated, the most important tectonic event that
affected the Northern Emirates after the end of the Cambrian
period was the closure of the Tethys Ocean to the east. This
resulted in the emplacement of an immense ophiolite com-
plex, consisting of sea-floor rocks, which now form the Hajar
Mountains, on to the margin of the Arabian platform. The
current height and rugged topography of the Hajar
Mountains are the result of uplift that began in the Oligocene
period and continues to this day.
Present-day geology
The Hajar Mountains form the highest part of the U.A.E.
and have the most extensive outcrops of solid geology. Much
of the rest of the U.A.E. is covered in recent deposits and
what is known about the geology has been deduced from
boreholes and seismic profiling. The Hajar Mountains thus
form one of the three present-day geological environments
in the Northern Emirates; 3 the others—the desert and the
sabkha—are characterized by their superficial deposits.
B60
Q: Quaternary
Qf: Quaternary fluvial
Qe: Quaternary aeolian
Qsk: Quaternary sabkha
QT: Quaternary Tertiary
T: Tertiary
TK: Tertiary Cretaceous
K: Cretaceous
KJ: Cretaceous Jurassic
TrP: Triassic Permian
Geological province boundary
Political boundary
Geological contact
Oil and gas fields
The Hajar Mountains
The Hajar Mountains, although principally an ophiolite com-
plex consisting of peridotites, gabbros, basalts and sea-floor
sediments (shown as K in Fig. 2), have been partially sub-
merged at times since the emplacement of the ophiolite.
Deposits of shallow-sea limestones have thus been formed,
which are today exposed mainly in the northern part of the
Hajar Mountains (principally, the unit shown as TK in Fig.
2). The palaeo-coastlines around the islands of the partially
submerged mountains are characterized today by deposits of
beach conglomerates and boulder beds that contain ophio-
lite-derived material. The gullies and wadis that dissect the
Hajar Mountains are filled with coarse alluvial gravels also
derived from the ophiolitic rocks, which are potential sources
of aggregate.
Desert
Most of the U.A.E. today is covered by recent sand deposits,
which extend into the Rub al-Khali of the Arabian peninsula.
The eastern part of the desert, where it abuts the Hajar
Mountains, is characterized by gravel plains (Qf in Fig. 2)
that are dissected by wadis filled with ophiolite-derived gravel
similar to that found in the wadis of the Hajar Mountains.
The rest of the desert is covered with sand dunes thought to
date from the last glacial period about 10 000 years ago.
Horizons within the dunes, which are slightly cemented by
calcium carbonate and other salts, are thought to have been
formed during epochs when the phreatic zone was higher
than it is today.
Sabkha
The northern coastal margin of the U.A.E. is the area in
which the sabkha environment is most frequently found. The
water-table is high and the land is occasionally flooded,
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
 although subject to a high rate of evaporation. The rapid
evaporation, coupled with frequent recharge, leads to the for-
mation of thick, hard crusts of gypsum, calcium carbonate,
anhydrite and sodium chloride about 50 cm below the
ground surface. This saline environment is not favourable for
plant growth and the impermeability of the hard layer (duri-
crust) prevents water from draining away and results in the
precipitation of brilliant white salt deposits as surface waters
evaporate after flooding.
Solid mineral resources
A mineral survey of the Northern Emirates was undertaken in
the late 1970s by Hunting Geology and Geophysics, Ltd.,4,5
for the Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. This
regional reconnaissance programme permitted, for the first
time, an assessment of the mineral potential of the Northern
Emirates. The results of the programme indicated important
zones of copper mineralization and possible sources of
industrial mineral deposits, including chromite, iron and
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Copper
Ancient copper workings were discovered at Bulaydah,
Najdayn, Baqarah, Huwaylat and Hilu, where evidence of old
shafts and remnants of smelting slag testify to prehistoric and
subsequent mining activity. Copper mineralization is con-
fined to metamorphic, gabbroic and sheeted diabase rocks.
Within the metamorphic rocks the main occurrence of sul-
phide mineralization at Wadi Ham is important because of its
copper content, although it has limited expression at surface.
Occurrences in other areas tend to be small and sporadic, but
the grouping may indicate more extensive mineralization at
depth. By far the most numerous occurrences appear in the
complex gabbro and ultrabasic rocks south of Wadi Ham and
near the east coast, north of Fujairah. The mineralization has
been shown to be associated with shears and fracture fillings
that follow a northwest or NNW trend in these regions. The
mineral potential of the sheeted diabase has been only theo-
retically evaluated.
Iron

manganese, that had not been revealed by previous surveys.
More particularly, the project area was shown to be a possible
source of supply of a wide range of rocks suitable for use in
the building industry. These included a variety of aggregates,
dimension or ornamental stones and shale, lime and silica for
use in the manufacture of building blocks or bricks.
Theoretical mineral potential
Desert
Post-Upper Cretaceous rocks outcrop on the western edge
of the mountains; further west, however, these are almost
entirely obscured by superficial deposits. An examination
of the sediments and superficial deposits indicates that
their most likely uses are as bulk or industrial minerals.
Construction materials may be extracted in the forms of
sands, gravels, rock fill, clays (for bricks, tiles and pipes) and
silica sand for glass. Limestone may be found for aggregate,
dimension stone, cement or construction purposes. Other
possible targets include gypsum and halite, which may be
found in older sediments.
The Hajar Mountains
The greater variety of rock types and structural environments
in the Hajar Mountains could host a broader range of
minerals and metals. The widespread igneous rocks have
potential for base-metal mineralization. The zone north of
Dibba contains mostly carbonate sediments of limestone,
dolomite and argillaceous rocks. These rock types have a use
in the rock fill, aggregate and cement markets. The area was
also considered by Hunting Geology and Geophysics, Ltd.,
to have a low potential for lead, zinc, copper and silver miner-
alization. To the south of Dibba a variety of extrusive and
pyroclastic volcanics are present. It was thought that these
could host copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver. A similar range
of metals, including iron and manganese, could also be found
in the metamorphic rocks. The ophiolite sequence in this
region was considered a potential host for a variety of metals,
worthy of further investigation. Chromium is commonly
found in association with ultrabasics, but the larger deposits
are not associated with ophiolites.
The metamorphic zones were examined for iron mineraliza-
tion, but the largest zones were found to be too siliceous to
have commercial value.
Manganese
Several lenses of manganese ore have been discovered, but
they are of doubtful economic value.
Platinoid metals
Assays of samples taken from wadis indicated higher than
expected values of platinum-group metals. Processing trials,
however, showed that liberation of the platinum was difficult.
This was thought to be due to the platinum being locked with
other constituent minerals.
Chromite
Chromite mining continues at Fujairah by Derwent Mining,
Ltd., of Ireland. Chemical-grade chromium resources have
been found near Hamfariah, Manama, Masfut and Siji;
the Siji deposits offer ease both of access and of extraction.
Other metals
Hunting’s survey (1) concluded that gold, silver and cobalt
were unlikely to be found; (2) did not detect any radioactive
minerals; (3) confirmed a low potential for lead and zinc min-
eralization through fieldwork and geochemical sampling; and
(4) found no traces of nickel.
Asbestos
Veins of asbestos were found during the survey, but it was
thought that the material was of poor quality with short or
brittle fibres.
Gypsum
Gypsum occurrences are found at Jebel Ali and Sir Abu
Nu’Air.
Table 1 U.A.E. annual production of solid minerals
Commodity 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Cement, hydraulic,* 103 t 6000 6000 5200 6000 6000

Mineral survey results
Chromite, gross weight, t 37 000 56 000 61 000 77 000 60 000
The theoretical analysis of mineral potential was followed by
Gypsum, t 90 000 90 000 90 000 90 000 90 000
a series of investigations and trials during the period Lime, t 50 000 50 000 50 000 50 000 50 000
1977–79. These tests identified the most favourable target
prospects for further investigation or exploitation. The results Source: U. S. Geological Survey.6
were as follows. *Includes white cement.
P ROFESSIONAL PAPER B61
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 Ornamental stone
Abundant resources of ‘semi-marble’ are available within the
Northern Emirates, some of which are worked and processed
at a marble plant between Dubai and Sharjah.
Other non-metallic minerals
Magnesite deposits were observed, but none has been found
to be viable for quarrying. Mica and feldspar have not been
found in commercial quantities. Phosphate was observed only
in small nodules within limestones. Talc zones contained
only minor amounts of material that would not be suitable
even for the lowest grade of industrial applications.
Production figures for other selected minerals are given in
Table 1.
Aggregate production and supply
Limestone is widespread and large tonnages are available
from the Ru’us Al Jibal area in the Musandam Limestone
Group. High-grade material occurs in the Hawasina Series,
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southwest of Dibba and in Wadi Hatta. Limestone is used in
cement manufacture and, together with dolomite, is a princi-
pal source of building aggregate in many areas.
Aggregates are used for armourstone and rock fill, fine
aggregate is employed in concrete and roadmaking and sand
is put to use in building applications. There is a large demand
for armourstone on the western coastal zone south of Ras al-
Khaimah. It is estimated that the combined market for
crushed, semi-crushed and natural rock aggregate for the pro-
duction of construction materials (i.e. ready-mixed concrete,
blocks, asphalt, fill and road base) in the Northern Emirates,
is around 25 000 000 t/year.
Table 2 shows the sources of supply and production capac-
ity of aggregates in the Northern Emirates as determined
from enquiries made in 1999–2000.
There appears to be no shortage of aggregate material in
the Hajar Mountain zone, which comprises all the rock
groups of the Ru’us-Al Jibal, limestone and cherts of the
Hawasina Series and quartz-rich rocks in the metamorphics.
Most fine aggregates are derived from secondary crushing
of quarried material or natural aggregates that occur in wadis
and on gravel plains near the mountains. Limestone and
dolomite have poor polished stone values (PSV), but show
good adherence to bitumen. Generally, limestone is used
infrequently in asphalt, and then only in small quantities, as
it is inferior for this purpose; examples include roadworks
schemes in Ras al-Khaimah, where there is an abundant
supply. The granitoidal dykes probably represent the best
material for road-surfacing, but their distribution is such that
large transport costs are incurred when delivery to the west
coast market is required. All asphalt materials used in Dubai
municipality projects are transported from the east coast at
Fujairah.
The gabbro material from Fujairah and the limestone from
Ras al-Khaimah are excellent concrete aggregates, which
clearly meet international quality standards for ready-mixed
concrete. The gabbro is marginally better in general perfor-
mance terms and is also used for road-surfacing. It has a PSV
of 55 and a 10% fines value of 420 kN. Both the gabbro and
the limestone have very good soundness and low absorption.
High strength and durability are essential properties of con-
crete used for construction in the Gulf region because the
environment is much more aggressive than that of temperate
zones. The Middle East is probably one of the largest
consumers of concrete durability-enhancing cementitious
products, such as micro silica (silica fume), slag and fly ash.
Strengths of 60 N/mm2 are commonly expected, coupled
with extremely low water/cement ratios for durability. The
B64
chloride permeability test is a standard test carried out on
concrete in Dubai.
The reserves of sand are large, but much of it is not
suitable (<70% SiO2) where high-grade building sand is
required. Inland sands are contaminated by magnesium
carbonate and iron oxides and most of the flat-lying coastal
sands are heavily contaminated with sulphate and chloride.
Some carbonate sands are found away from areas contami-
nated by marine salts, in the higher parts of inland dunes, and
these may be suitable for construction purposes.
Chert is distributed in the sediments of the Hawasina
Series in the west of the mountains. In view of the shortage of
high-silica materials it may be possible to use chert with
crushed limestone or carbonate sands in the manufacture of
lime silica blocks.
A large thickness of good-quality dolomite forms part of
the Ru’us Al Jibal Group exposed in Wadi Bih. Possible
future applications of this material could be for furnace lin-
ings and as a flux in steel manufacture, in the production of
magnesia from sea water and as a filler in paints. At present,
however, these industries have yet to be established.
Cement production and supply
The cement industry, dating back to the mid-1970s, is one of
the oldest manufacturing industries in the U.A.E. The first
factory, Al Ittihad Cement Company of Ras al-Khaimah,
started commercial production in 1975. This was followed by
the construction of several other factories in Al Ain, Sharjah,
Dubai, Fujairah, Ajman and Umm al-Qaiwain.
The total number of cement factories throughout the
country had reached nine by the end of 1998.7 Eight of these
factories produce Portland cement and one, in Ras al-
Khaimah, manufactures white cement. The total capacity of
the Portland cement factories is estimated at 9 000 000 t. They
employ nearly 3000 workers and represent a total investment
of approximately Dh 1800 000 000. The Ras al-Khaimah
Company for White Cement and Construction Materials is
expanding its production capacity to 450 000 t/year.
Test production at a new Dh 550 000 000 cement plant in
Ras al-Khaimah commenced in mid-August 1999.7 The
plant, the fourth in Ras al-Khaimah, is owned by the Ras
al-Khaimah Cement Company. It will have a production
capacity of 1 000 000 t/year Portland cement.
A Dh 80 000 000 cement plant in Dubai’s Jebel Ali indus-
trial area was fully operational by mid-September 1999.7
Plans are under way to raise production capacity immediately
from the initial 250 000 t/year to 400 000 t.
Falcon Cement is the first purpose-built, ground, granu-
lated, blast-furnace slag processing plant in the Middle East.
This operation is owned by RMC, the British concrete group.
It is a grinding plant and uses imported slag clinker as its
feedstock. Prospects for this plant have been hampered by the
recent downturn in the construction sector in U.A.E. This
downturn occurred just as record Portland cement produc-
tion capacity was being made available by the recent large
expansions. There has been a consequent vast reduction in
the price of Portland cement owing to this overcapacity in
the region as a whole, which has made the use of slag less
attractive.
Conmix, Ltd., in Sharjah has also achieved high levels of
output, ranging from 660 000 t in 1996 to 850 000 t in 1999.
The company produces ready-mixed concrete and cement–
gypsum and cement–lime products in bags for sale to the
construction industry. In 1996 the company registered with
BSI, United Kingdom, as an accredited registered holder of
ISO 9002 and all of its products have been Kite-marked by
BSI.
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
 Conclusions

The Northern Emirates possess a range of solid mineral

resources. Present production is focused on the aggregate and
industrial minerals markets. Good potential exists for
expanded quarrying of these minerals, but there is a need to
ensure quality control to meet market requirements. At pre-
sent, each company produces, and each municipality uses,
aggregates to its own specifications. How these are prescribed
by the municipalities is generally based on an adaptation of
ASTM methods or British Standards. There is no country-
wide asphalt or ready-mixed concrete specification as each
emirate has built up its own with the aid of consultants (often
British companies). Unified codes of practice and standards
must now be established to direct the extraction and use of
aggregates for domestic consumption.

Acknowledgement

The authors thank the companies and individuals who con-

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tributed information—in particular, Gordon Ogden, Al

Futtaim Tarmac; Ismail Wahid and Salim Rashid Sahoo,
Petroleum and Mineral Department, Government of Sharjah;
Jim Henderson, Stevin Rock; Sami Reda, RAK Rock; and
Conmix Ltd.

References
1. Central Intelligence Agency. The world factbook 2000
(Washington: CIA, 2000).
2. Pollastro R. M., Karschbaum A. S. and Viger R. J. Maps show-
ing geology, oil and gas fields and geologic provinces of the Arabian
peninsula. Open-file Rep. U. S. geol. Surv. 97-470B, 1997.
3. Vine P. Natural Emirates—wildlife and environment of the United
Arab Emirates (London: Trident Press, 1997).
4. Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited. Report on a mineral
survey of the Northern Emirates, 1975, 1–4.
5. Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited. Report on a mineral
survey of the U.A.E., 1979, 1–9.
6. Mobbs P. M. The mineral industry of the United Arab Emirates.
Minerals Information Rep. U. S. geol. Surv. 9242099, 2000
7. U.A.E. Yearbook, 1999 (London: Trident Press, 2000).

Authors

J. M. Eyre Member is a lecturer in minerals management at the

Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, United Kingdom,
and during 1999 was assistant professor in the College of
Engineering, University of Sharjah, U.A.E.

Address: Camborne School of Mines, Pool, Redruth, Cornwall,

TR15 3SE, England.

M. Samarai is Professor of Civil Engineering in the College of

Engineering, University of Sharjah, U.A.E.

A. J. Beer is a lecturer in geology at the Camborne School of Mines,

University of Exeter.

A. Wetherelt Member is a lecturer in mining engineering at the

Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, and during 1999
was assistant professor in the College of Engineering, University of
Sharjah, U.A.E.

PROFESSIONAL PAPER B65

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