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 Contents

List of Figures 4

Preface 7

Chapter One: The Historic Backgrounds of the Architectural and Urban 11

Conservation Movement

The historic origins of the conservation movement on the international level 14

The origins of the conservation movement in the United Kingdom 16

The historic roots of the French conservation movement 18

The historic origins of the conservation movement in Italy 20

The historic roots of the historic preservation movement in the United States of 21
America
The historic roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban 22
conservation

Chapter Two: Arguments for and Against Architectural and Urban 25

Conservation

The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement in Europe 26

The social factor: the reaction against comprehensive development 27
The environmental motive 28
The motives that stimulate further practice of urban conservation in Egypt 30
The economic motive 30
The architectural motive 37
The management of World Heritage Sites, as a motive for conservation 39
The didactic and cultural motives 43
Chapter Three: The Legislative Framework Involved with Architectural 44
and Urban Conservation
The international framework 44

1
The legislative framework in the United Kingdom 45
The French legislative framework 49
The legislative frameworks in Italy and the Netherlands 50
The American legislative framework concerned with conservation practice 51

The Irish and the Maltese legislative frameworks 53

The legislative framework in Egypt 54

Chapter Four: The Definitions and Classifications of the Cultural and 62

Natural Heritage

The definitions of the various patterns of heritage resources 63

The lingual definitions of heritage 63
The various definitions of heritage resources adopted by the international 64
charters and conventions
The definitions adopted in the United Kingdom 66
The definitions adopted in the United States of America 67
The definitions adopted in Ireland, Malta and Egypt 68
The classification of the various patterns of heritage resources 69

The classification of heritage resources on the international level 69

The classification of heritage resources in the United Kingdom 70

The French approach to classify the protected heritage resources 76

The classification of heritage resources in Malta and Egypt 77

Chapter Five: Conservation Protective and Intervening Measures 81

The lingual definitions of the various conservation interventions 83

The international framework 84
The definitions officially adopted in the United Kingdom 89
The official definitions adopted in the United States of America 92

2
The Egyptian officially adopted definitions 94

Chapter Six: Basic Architectural and Urban Conservation Concepts: 96

Analysis of Heritage Values, and Authenticity and Integrity Evaluation

The notion and definitions of heritage values 99

Value typologies 101
The implications of heritage values 103
The attributes of heritage values 110
The evaluation of the level of significance of heritage values 112

The notions and definitions of authenticity and Integrity 114

The evaluation of authenticity and integrity 119

Appendix One 124
Appendix Two 131
Appendix Three 137
Glossary 141

References 144

3
 List of Figures

Figure 1 Glasgow, in Scotland in the United Kingdom, is one of the 13

cities that witnessed a massive destruction of the urban
environment and the replacement of its historic
environment by modern patterns of urban development,
such as the modern development in the photograph.
Figure 2 ³0HPSKLV DQG LWV 1HFUopolis ± the Pyramid Fields from 17
*L]D WR 'DKVKXU´ LV RQH RI (J\SW¶V LQVFULEHG :RUOG
Heritage Sites, which has been inscribed on the World
Heritage List in 1979 (Memphis and its Necropolis ± the
Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur - UNESCO World
Heritage Centre 2012).
Figure 3 SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York, which has 24
been designated in 1973 (maps_manh.shtml 2012).
Figure 4 Rosetta, in Egypt, is one of many cities that has suffered a 31
severe decline in its historic urban core.
Figure 5 The Temple of Karnak, in Luxor in Egypt, is still one of the 35
major tourism destinations.
Figure 6 The mosque in New Gourna Village, in Luxor in Egypt. 38

Figure 7 The clock tower in Montazah Palace, in Alexandria in 40

Egypt, which is an example of the recent heritage in Egypt.
Figure 8 The courtyard of al-Suhaymi House, which is an example 42
RI &DLUR¶V PHGLHYDO KRXVHV LQ +LVWRULF &DLUR :RUOG
Heritage Site in Egypt.

4
Figure 9 Edinburgh Castle, in Edinburgh in Scotland, is one of the 49
most outstanding properties that has been listed as a listed
building (Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings
2012) and scheduled as a monument (Historic Scotland
2010).
Figure 10 3RPSH\¶V 3LOODU LQ WKH 6HUDSHXP ZKLFK LV DQ H[DPSOH RI 55
the many archaeological sites in Alexandria in Egypt.
Figure 11 The Royal Jewelry Museum, which is originally the 57
Princess Fatma al-Zahraa Palace, in Alexandria in Egypt.
The museum is one of the properties that have been granted
a statutory protection by means of the Act No. 144 (The
Egyptian Presidency 2008) and have also been scheduled as
an antiquity under the Act No. 117 (Department of the
Legislative Affairs 2009a).
Figure 12 Historic Cairo is one of the early areas in Egypt that have 59
been designated as areas enjoying a distinctive value (ΔѧϟΩϷ΍
ΔϳΩΎηέϹ΍ 2012).
Figure 13 Abu al-Abbas Square, in Alexandria in Egypt, which is an 61
example of the designated streets and areas of restricted
building regulations (Department of the Legislative Affairs
2008).
Figure 14 Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn World Heritage Site, 71
in Tallinn in Estonia, which represents the historic towns
and groups of buildings category of cultural World
Heritage Sites.
Figure 15 Montrose Conservation Area, in Montrose in Scotland, is 73
an example of the many conservation areas designated in
the United Kingdom.

5
Figure 16 Morgan Tower, in Dundee in Scotland, which is an A listed 75
building (Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings
2012), is an example of the many listed buildings listed in
the United Kingdom.
Figure 17 Valletta Urban Conservation Area, in Valletta in Malta, is 78
an example of the Maltese designated urban conservation
areas.
Figure 18 Gardyne's Land, which is a complex of five historic 85
buildings in Dundee in Scotland, has been re-used as a
youth hostel (gardynes 2012).
Figure 19 7UDMDQ¶V)RUXPDQG0DUNHWVLQ5RPHLQ,WDO\ 98

Figure 20 Arbroath Abbey, in Arbroath in Scotland. 100

Figure 21 The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican is an 104
example of the buildings that enjoy an exceptional religious
value.
Figure 22 Paimio Hospital, in Paimio in Finland, is an example of the 106
recent heritage that enjoys a clear newness value because of
its representation of the modernism architectural
movement. The hospital has been dHVLJQHG E\ )LQODQG¶V
most renowned architect Alvar Aalto.
Figure 23 Al-Azhar Mosque in Historic Cairo World Heritage Site in 118
Egypt.

6
 Preface

7KHXUEDQHQYLURQPHQWRIWRGD\¶VFLWLHVVHHPVWRHQFRXQWHUDP\ULDGRIFKDOOHQJHV
that justify the significance of urban conservation practice. Those challenges are not
OLPLWHGWRWKHGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVEXWDOVRHQFRXQWHUWKHGHYHORSHGZRUOG¶VFLWLHVDV
well. The very fast rate at which urban environments grow and change and the
association of this growth with a continuous introduction of modern developments
UHSUHVHQWLQJ WKH PRGHUQ DUFKLWHFWXUDO PRYHPHQW PLJKW UHSUHVHQW D WKUHDW WR FLWLHV¶
unique historic identity. The conservation of the historic environment is an efficient
way to sustain and emphaVL]HFLW\¶VXQLTXHLGHQWLW\7KHVXFFHVVIXOPDQDJHPHQWRI
the inscribed and the potential World Heritage Sites is another challenge that justifies
the further development of the national experiences in urban conservation. The
inscription of any property on the World Heritage List is contingent upon the ability
of the nominating State Party in demonstrating the availability of a successful
regulatory framework concerned with architectural and urban conservation. The
successful management of the already inscribed World Heritage Sites is also
dependent on the availability of such regulatory frameworks. Achieving a sustainable
life and sustainable cities is another challenge that is closely associated with the
arguments on the significance of urban conservation practice.
The challenges encountering third world cities, such as those in Egypt, are
greater and more sever. The growth in the size of cities, in relation to the size of their
populations, fueled by the rural-urban immiJUDWLRQLVDVHULRXVWKUHDWWRWKRVHFLWLHV¶
quality of life. Most of the major cities in the developing world suffer from the
prevalence of large rundown squatting areas. Rapid population growth in third world
cities and the dominance of squatting areas rHSUHVHQWDVHULRXVWKUHDWWRWKRVHFLWLHV¶
already dilapidated infrastructure. The prevalence of poverty in most of the areas in
those cities is another serious challenge. Most of the historic urban quarters in third
world cities are inhabited by low income residents who cannot afford the high costs
to maintain the historic buildings where they reside. The prevalence of low quality

7
modern architecture and visual chaos throughout most third world cities is another
serious challenge.
All the previous challenges seem to justify the significance of urban
conservation practice as one of the efficient means by which the quality of life in
WRGD\¶V FLWLHV FDQ EH HQKDQFHG %RWK WKH FRQFHSWV RI VXVWDLQDELOLW\ DQG XUEDQ
conservation seem to be capable of addressing the severe challenges facing third
world cities, such as poverty and the prevalence of low quality modern developments.
Architectural and urban conservation practice has always been associated with the re-
discovery of traditional architectural and construction ideas. By adopting these
traditional architectural and construction technologies it will be possible to introduce
new developments that enjoy high architectural and visual qualities and are more
affordable to low income citizens who reside in third world cities. Traditional
architecture can also provide more sustainable answers to present-day sever urban
challenges. Those traditional architectural ideas have been developed through the
successive generations and have passed the test of time successfully compared with
modern architectural technologies that still have not passed similar lengthy tests of
time. Conservation of historic urban quarters has always been associated with another
economic activity, which is cultural tourism. Tourism can contribute to the creation
of new jobs, which in turn can contribute to the economic development of the low-
income local communities residing those preserved historic quarters.
Urban conservation practice will always be a significant tool to enhance the
quality of life in our cities. Because of such significance, this book has been
dedicated to discuss some of the key subjects associated with architectural and urban
conservation practice. Those subjects involve the various perceptions of heritage
resources and the various approaches to classify those resources, the key conservation
intervention measures, the various arguments for and against urban conservation in
Egypt, and the various concepts of architectural and urban conservation. Because of
the variations among the various national experiences in architectural and urban
conservation, this book has tried to preview the corresponding conservation concepts
as they have been perceived by the various cultures and within their diverse national

8
experiences in urban conservation. This book has focused mainly on the European
and the American experiences in urban conservation, as well the Egyptian
experience. Finally, this book, which is an introduction to the concepts of
architectural and urbDQ FRQVHUYDWLRQ SUDFWLFH LV EDVHG RQ WKH DXWKRU¶V DFDGHPLF
experience and his few visits to some European countries as well as the United States
of America.

Ayman Abdel Tawab

Alexandria, Egypt
May 2013

9
10
Chapter One

The Historic Backgrounds of the Architectural and Urban

Conservation Movement

Some intellectuals attribute the emergence of the architectural and urban conservation
movement to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries largely as a response to the
writings of Ruskin, Le-Duc, Scott, Pugin, William Morris and others (the British
Standards 1998). Larkham (1996) cites the early writings of Pugin, Ruskin and
Eugene Emmanuel Viollet Le-Duc as a significant stage in the modern conservation
movement+HGHVFULEHVWKLVSHULRGDV³DNH\SHULRG´GHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWKHGRHV
not consider it as the early historic point when the conservation movement has first
emerged.
Some other writers refer to a certain historic period characterised by dramatic
patterns of urban development; such as Tiesdell, Taner and Heath (1998), Appleyard
(1981), and Jokilehto (1998). This historic period is the interwar, post war and the oil
crisis of 1973 period. This period has been characterised largely by the dominance of
comprehensive large scale development trends (Jokilehto 1998). The huge
destruction that many European cities underwent during World War I and World War
II might have been the main reason why the people had such an overwhelming desire
to achieve a new, much better life that entirely contradicts with the war memories of
massive destruction. Jokilehto (1998) cites the views of modernist architects, such as
Le Corbusier, which reflect a great opposition against any trial to mimic the past. He
points out that the post war period has also been characterised by the dominance of
modern planning and construction trends, which ³EHFDPHWKHUXOHRIWKHGD\´ as he
literarily describes them. The examples of these modern trends might involve the
large scale reconstruction works that took place in Warsaw and London (Jokilehto
1998). The conservation movement has been seen as a reaction against these modern

11
planning and reconstruction trends. Jokilehto (1998) attributes the emergence of the
modern conservation movement during the interwar period to the early writings of
Ruskin, Morris and others. While Appleyard (1981) attributes the emergence of the
modern conservation movement during this period to the public protest against the
massive destruction of the urban environment and the replacement of the historic
environment by modern patterns of urban development (Figure 1). He also
emphasizes that the conservation movement has flourished because of these urban
outrages. Tiesdell et al (1998) cite another factor that has stimulated the emergence
of the modern conservation movement, which is the impact of the oil crisis of 1973.
The oil crisis of the 1970s has been a consequence of the Arab Israeli conflict, which
was the key stimulus of the European Architectural Heritage Year, EAHY, in 1975.
Other intellectuals attribute the emergence of the conservation movement to
other historic periods. Earl (1997) attributes the emergence of the conservation
movement to the year 1802 when Canova was appointed as an inspector of antiquities
and fine arts for the Papal States. Other intellectuals attribute the emergence of this
movement to much earlier times, particularly to the times when the Greek and the
Roman preserved some of their honoured monuments. Larkham (1996) attributes the
early origins of the conservation movement to the Greek time when the Greek
preserved the Hellenic monuments motivated by the respect towards these
monuments. He also attributes the emergence of this movement to the Roman time as
well. He points out that some Roman emperors, such as Hadrian and Theodoric of
Rome, preserved some monuments of the ancient city of Rome.
Jokilehto (1999b) inspects the hypothesis that religions, such as Islam, have
had a strong influence on the emergence of the conservation movement and its ethics.
He indicates that history as a discipline has emerged during the early Islamic era
largely influenced by the ethics of Islam. According to these ethics, Moslems were
keen to keep a genuine record of the words and deeds of the profit. These records
KDYHWDNHQWKHIRUPRIZKDWLVQRZNQRZQDVWKHUXEULFRI³KDGLWK´6XFKDQLQWHUHVW
to develop such DJHQXLQH UHFRUG KDV KDG D SURIRXQG LPSDFW RQWKH 0RVOHPV¶ new
look towards history as a discipline. The Moslems' holy book, tKH4XU¶DQKDV also

12
Figure 1. Glasgow, in Scotland in the United Kingdom, is one of the
cities that witnessed a massive destruction of the urban environment and
the replacement of its historic environment by modern patterns of urban
development, such as the modern development in the photograph.
13
13
contributed towards the emergence and establishment of history, as a well established
discipline. 7KH 4XU¶DQ KDV been involved with two types of historical contexts, the
first of which is related to the creation and end of the world, while the other is
concerned with human life on earth. The Arabic word that stands for history is
³WDULNK´which has not been used in WKH4XU¶DQ. Other words have been used instead
of this word, which are ³qasas´ (to follow up, to be in search of reality), ³hadith´ (a
new statement, innovation), and ³nabaa´ (news that is free from lies). One of the
most famous historians in the Islamic era is Ibn Khaldun. Ibn Khaldun has been
famous for his social analytic approach to history. One of the most famous books that
he wrote is entitled ³WKH 0XTDGGLPDK´ ZKLFK FDQ EH WUDQVODWHG DV ³the
3UROHJRPHQD´. Authenticity, one of the key conservation ethics, has been adopted by
Islam as one of its key principles 7KH ³LVQDG´ D FKDLQ RI DXWKRULWLHV IRU WKH
verification and DXWKHQWLFDWLRQRIWKH ³KDGLWK´ can be considered as an evidence of
the adoption of the concept of ³DXWKHQWLFLW\´ LQ ,VODP -RNLOHKWR E 7KH RWKHU
key evidence of adopting the concept of authenticity in Islam is the prohibition of the
WUDQVODWLRQ RI WKH 4XU¶DQ into other languages, to guarantee the authenticity of its
texts.

The historic origins of the conservation movement on the international level

On the international level, the key international organization concerned with the
conservation of the cultural and natural heritage is the UNESCO; United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The UNESCO has been founded
following World War II (Jokilehto 1999a). The official establishing documents of the
UNESCO were signed in London on 16 November 1945 by thirty seven countries
and came into force on 4 November 1946. The main function of the organization is to
contribute towards peace and security by promoting collaboration among nations
through education, science and culture. The UNESCO has succeeded other earlier
international organizations that played a role almost similar to that of the UNESCO.
These earlier organizations were the International Committee of Intellectual Co-

14
operation (CICI), which was located in Geneva and functioned during the period
1922-1946; the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation (IICI) that was
located in Paris and functioned during the period 1925-1946; and the International
Bureau of Education (IBE), which was located in Geneva and functioned during the
period 1925-1968. The latter has become a part of the UNESCO since 1969
(UNESCO 1945-2000/ Background 2002).
The ICOMOS, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, is another
international organization concerned with conservation. The ICOMOS has been
founded in 1965 as a UNESCO subsidiary organization (About the International
Council of Monuments and Sites 2002). The ICCROM, the International Centre for
the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, is also another
international organization concerned with conservation. The ICCROM was founded
in Rome in 1959. The organization long name has been the reason why it has been
briefly called ³WKH5RPH&HQWUH´RU³WKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&HQWUHIRU&RQVHUYDWLRQ´. The
previous two brief names of the organization have been the source of its new official
abbreviation ³ICCROM´, which has been officially adopted in 1978 (ICCROM-Brief
History of ICCROM 2002). The other international organization concerned with
conservation is the International Council of Museums, which is known briefly as
³ICOM´ 7KH ,&20 ZKLFK KDV EHHQ founded in 1946 (about ICOM 2002), has
replaced an earlier international organization known as the Museum Office (Jokilehto
1999a).
The World Heritage Committee and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre
represent other significant international bodies concerned with the conservation of the
cultural and natural heritage. The World Heritage Committee has been founded as a
response to WKH ³&RQYHQWLRQ &RQFHUQLQJ WKH 3URWHFWLRQ RI WKH :RUOG &XOWXUDO DQG
NaturDO+HULWDJH´ZKLFKLVEULHIO\FDOOHGWKH ³:RUOG+HULWDJH&RQYHQWLRQ´ adopted
in 1972 (CONVENTION [navdoc.HTM] 2002). The UNESCO World Heritage
Centre has been founded in 1992. The first meeting of the World Heritage committee
has been held in 1972. The first session of the general assembly of states has been
held in 1976 in Nairobi. In 1977 and 1978, two other meetings were held. In 1979

15
two other meetings were held in Egypt, in Cairo and Luxor. During those two
meetings, Egypt inscribed its first five World Heritage Sites (Figure 2) (Welcome to
World Heritage Centre 2002).
As a consequence of the international activities concerned with the
conservation of the cultural and natural heritage, the first international conservation
charterZKLFKLVWKH³$WKHQV &KDUWHU´ (Appendix 1), has been adopted in 1931. The
³$WKHQV&KDUWHU´ has been adopted by ³the First International Congress of Architects
and Technicians of Historic Monuments´ (Earl 1997). The charter is mainly
concerned with the restoration of historic monuments. Later, the ICOMOS adopted
other charters concerned with the conservation of wider urban areas, such as ³the
Charter on the Conservation of Historic Towns´, which is known as the ³:DVKLQJWRQ
&KDUWHU´ (Appendix 3), in 1987 (Charter on the Conservation of the Historic Towns
2002). The International activities concerned with the conservation of the cultural
heritage, led by the UNESCO, have taken the shape of technical missions aiming at
helping member states to the UNESCO in their efforts to safeguard their cultural
heritage. Later, these activities took the shape of campaigns for the safeguarding of
endangered heritage areas. Examples of these campaigns might involve the campaign
that took place in Egypt in 1960, the campaign that took place in Venice in 1966 and
the campaign that took place in Moenjodaro in 1974 (Jokilehto 1999a).

The origins of the conservation movement in the United Kingdom

The conservation movement in the United Kingdom might be one of the earliest and
one of the richest conservation movements in Europe. The British conservation
PRYHPHQW KDV KDG SURIRXQG LQIOXHQFHV RQ RWKHU FRXQWULHV¶ QDWLRQDO H[SHULHQFHV LQ
architectural and urban conservation. Some references attribute the emergence of the
British conservation movement to the nineteenth century as a response to the writings
of intellectuals such as Scott, Ruskin and Morris (The British Standards 1998). Other
references attribute the historic origins of the British conservation movement to the
year 1865 when the ³Commons Preservation Society´ was first founded (Earl 1997).

16
Figure 2. ³0HPSKLV DQGLWV 1HFURSROLV ± the Pyramid Fields from Giza tR'DKVKXU´LV
RQH RI (J\SW¶V LQVFULEHG :RUOG +HULWDJH 6LWHV ZKLFK KDV EHHQ LQVFULEHG RQ WKH :RUOG
Heritage List in 1979 (Memphis and its Necropolis ± the Pyramid Fields from Giza to
Dahshur - UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2012).
17
17
 The earliest date that seems to represent the historic origin in the United
Kingdom is the year ZKHQ-RKQ5XVNLQILUVWSXEOLVKHGKLVIDPRXVERRN³7HE
6(9(1 /$036 2) $5&+,7(&785(´ (Ruskin 1989). Jokilehto (1999b) cites a
British society called the ³Cambridge-Camden Society´ which had a great influence
on the debate about the principles of the treatment of historic structures. This society
has had a profound influence on the conservation movement in the United Kingdom.
7KH³&DPEULGJH-&DPGHQ6RFLHW\´was founded by John Mason Neale and Benjamin
Webb in 18397KHSULQFLSOHVRIWKLVVRFLHW\ZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQDERRNHQWLWOHG³7KH
(FFOHVLRORJLVW´ LQ . Later, WKH ³&DPEULGJH-&DPGHQ 6RFLHW\´ dissolved in
another society called the ³Ecclesiological Society´, which was founded in 1845
(Jokilehto 1999b). Amongst the most influential British intellectuals whose writings
have had a profound influence on the conservation movement in the United Kingdom
was William Morris. :LOOLDP0RUULV¶OHWWHUWRWKH$WKHQDHXPLQLVFRQVLGHUHGa
significant mark in the British conservation movement. William Morris also founded
the ³Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings´ SPAB, in 1877. SPAB is also
considered one of the key conservation bodies in the United Kingdom (Earl 1997).
The first British conservation legislation is the ³Ancient Monuments Protection
Act 1882´. The previous act has been developed based on the many Bills developed
by Sir John Lubbock MP since 1873 (Larkham 1996). The establishment of the
³1DWLRQDO7UXVWIRU3ODFHVRI+LVWRULF,QWHUHVWDQG1DWXUDO%HDXW\´LQFDQDOVR
be considered one of the significant stages in the British conservation movement
(Earl 1997).

The historic roots of the French conservation movement

The historic roots of the French conservation movement seem to enjoy some
similarities with those of the British conservation movement. Both conservation
movements have been influenced by the writings of enlightened intellectuals.
Amongst the most influential French writers was François René Vicomte de
Chateaubriand, ZKR SXEOLVKHG KLV ERRN ³*pQLH GX FKULVWLDQLVPH´ LQ . The

18
SUHYLRXV ERRN KDV LQIOXHQFHG WKH SHRSOH¶V DSSURDFK WR DVVHVVLQJ WKH YDOXH RI WKH
heritage of the Middle Ages (Jokilehto 1999b). Madame de Staël was another French
writer, who has contributed towards articulating the early origins of the French
conservation movement. She has published an influential book entitled ³'H
O¶$OOHPDJQH´LQ2QHRIWKHPRVWIDPRXV)Uench writers worldwide, who had
his own influence on conservation in France, was Victor Hugo. 9LFWRU+XJR¶Vbook
HQWLWOHG ³1RWUH-'DPH GH 3DULV´ ZKLFK ZDV SXEOLVKHG LQ  has had profound
impacts on the bases of architectural evaluation of historic buildings. Victor Hugo,
who was influenced by the English writer Sir Walter Scott, has had strong beliefs and
personal ideas concerning the conservation and restoration of the cultural heritage.
He has expressed those ideas through his appeal of 1825 that has been entitled
³Guerre aux Démolisseurs´ZKLFKPHDQVLQ(QJOLVK ³war against destroyers´ 7KH
previous appeal has been expanded in the ³Revue des Deux Mondes´ in 1832.
Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc is another French intellectual whose works and
writings had great influences not only on the French conservation movement but also
worldwide. He was the chief inspector of monuments. In 1846, he was nominated as
the chief of WKH)UHQFK³6HUYLFHGHV0RQXPHQWV+LVWRULTXH´ZKLFKFDQEHWUDQVODWHG
in English as the ³Office of Historic Monuments´ Le-Duc has published a great
QXPEHURIDUWLFOHVLQMRXUQDOVVXFKDV³$QQDOHV Archéologiques´. During the period
1854- KH SXEOLVKHG KLV IDPRXV WHQ YROXPHV RI WKH ³'LFWLRQDU\ RI )UHQFK
$UFKLWHFWXUH´-RNLOHKWRE
Some references attribute the early origins of the conservation movement in
France to the French revolution. Inspired by the American revolution in 1776, the
French revolution out broke when the French stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789.
The French revolution has contributed towards establishing new fundamental
concepts. These concepts involved the notion of the monuments that enjoy a historic
value, as well as the notion that considers science and art as a form of cultural
heritage. These new concepts also involved the responsibility of the nation to
safeguard their diverse cultural heritage. There are also a number of other dates that
represent significant historic stages, which marked the evolution of the French

19
experience in architectural and urban conservation. These historic stages involve the
delegation of the ³Commission des Monuments´ for the care of art and the
preparation of inventories in 1790, the foundation of the ³&RPLWq G¶Instruction
Publique´ in 1791 to become responsible for the protection of monuments, and the
replacement of the ³Commission des Monuments´ by the new ³Commission des
Arts´ in 1793 7KH ³&RPPLVVLRQ GHV $UWV´ ZDV later called WKH ³Commission
Temporaire des Arts´ (Jokilehto 1999b). Other references attribute the early
emergence of the French conservation movement to the year 1830 when France
appointed a ³General Inspector of Ancient Monuments´. Some other dates have
represented other significant historic stages in the evolution of the French
conservation movement, such as the year 1837 when France set up WKH³Commission
for Historical Monuments´, and the year 1852 when the ³French Commission´
introduced measures to protect great vistas and monumental perspectives (Earl 1997).

The historic origins of the conservation movement in Italy

The renaissance and the French withdrawal from Italy, and the subsequent unity of
Italy in 1870, can be considered as the most significant historic stages in the
evolution of the Italian conservation movement (Jokilehto 1999b). Jokilehto (1999b)
also attributes the early emergence of the Italian conservation movement to the year
1801 when Carlo Fea, a lawyer and an archaeologist, was nominated as the
³Commissario delle Antichità´. On the other hand, Earl (1997) attributes the early
emergence of the Italian conservation movement to the year 1802 when Canova was
appointed as the ³Inspector of Antiquities and Fine Arts for the Papal States´.
Jokilehto (1999b) also cites other significant historic stages that marked the
evolution of the Italian conservation movement, such as the appointment of
Camporesi as a responsible for the inspection of ancient monuments in 1803. These
historic stages also involve the introduction of the first law concerned with the
protection of the cultural heritage in 1802, and its subsequent revision in 1820.
Amongst these historic stages is the establishment of the first ³'LUH]LRQH *HQHUDOH

20
GHOJL6FDYLH0XVHL´ZKLFKFDQEHWUDQVODWHGLQ(QJOLVKDVWKH ³General Directorate
IRU([FDYDWLRQVDQG0XVHXPV´, by the Ministry of Education in 1872. These stages
also involve adopting a national conservation legislation in 1902 after the
presentation of several bills in the 1870s. The early restoration works in the Italian
conservation experience involve the restoration of the Christian Basilica of San
Paolo, which started in 1831 by Pasquale Belli and completed in 1869 by Luigi
Poletti; and the restoration of the town hall of Cremona that was restored in 1840
(Jokilehto 1999b).

The historic roots of the historic preservation movement in the United States of
America

Murtagh (1997) points out that the earliest known restoration work in the United
States of America was the preservation of the Touro Synagogue in Rhode Island
undertaken by an amateur architect named Peter Harrison. The previous restoration
work was undertaken during the period of 1827 till 1828. He also indicates that one
of the most famous and inspiring figures in the history of the American conservation
movement was Ann Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina. In 1853 Ann Pamela
Cunningham organized a patriotic group of women, who canvassed all the country
for support of the conservation movement. The earliest preservation legislation in
America is the ³Antiquities Act´ enacted in 1906. There are other significant historic
stages that have marked the historic preservation movement in the United States of
America. These historic stages include the establishment of the National Park Service
in 1916; the commencement of the restoration work in Williamsburg, founded by
John D. Rockefeller, in 1927; and the inauguration of a graduate course in historic
preservation in Columbia University, which is the first academic course in historic
preservation in the United States of America, in 1964 (Murtagh 1997).
The historic origins of the American experience in historic preservation have
been influenced by the writings of intellectuals, such as Jane Jacobs. The writings of
Jane Jacobs have had a profound influence on the modern conservation movement

21
not only in the United States of America, but also worldwide. The most influential
SXEOLFDWLRQ RI -DQH -DFREV LV HQWLWOHG ³7+( '($7+ $1' /,)( 2) *5($7
$0(5,&$1 &,7,(6´ 7KH SUHYLRXV ERRN KDV EHHQ SXEOLVKHG IRU WKH ILUVW WLPH LQ
1961 (Jacobs 1994).
The American experience in urban conservation is a very rich experience. The
American experience is characterised by its early success in providing a statutory
protection to entire urban areas. Despite that the European experience in the same
filed has had the reputation as a very early and mature experience; the American
experience seems to have preceded the European experience. The earliest European
attempt to adopt a statutory tool that allows a European government the right to
provide a statutory protection to an entire urban area seems to be the Dutch
experience. The historic origin of the Dutch experience in that filed goes back to the
year 1961 when the Dutch officially adopted the statutory designation of what is
known as protected town and village views (Larkham 1996). In the United States of
America, the similar trials go back to earlier dates. The similar American statutory
designation is the designation as what is known as historic districts (Figure 3). The
previous designation has been adopted in Charleston, South Carolina since 1931,
when the relevant legislation has been adopted (Anon. 1992).

The historic roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban

conservation

The early roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban conservation
might be attributed to the establishment of ³/H 6HUYLFH GH $QWLTXLWHV G¶(J\SWH´,
ZKLFKFDQEHWUDQVODWHGLQ(QJOLVKDV³WKH(J\SWLDQ6HUYLFHRI$QWLTXLWLHV´ in 1859.
The previous service was converted into the ³Egyptian Antiquities Organization´,
EAO, in 1971, which was converted again into the ³Supreme Council of Antiquities´
in 1994 (The Supreme Council of Antiquities 2002). The other relevant institution
that is involved with the management of the cultural heritage in Egypt is the
Endowments. The Endowments has been first founded in 1844 (al-Hadidi 2007). The

22
historic origin of the Egyptian legislation involved with architectural and urban
conservation is relatively very recent. The main act concerned with conservation,
which is ³the Egyptian Act No. 117 (1983) on Safeguarding Antiquities´, was
enacted in 1983 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a). The other early act
that was relevant to the conservation of urban areas and the control of new
development was ³the Egyptian Act No. 106 (1976) on the Control of Building
Works´, which was enacted in 1976 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008).
The previous act has been repealed by the coming into force of a new act that is
called ³WKH (J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ %XLOGLQJ :RUNV´ ZKLFK has been
enacted in 2008 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b). One of the key early
restoration projects in Egypt is the international project that aimed at safeguarding the
Nubian monuments in 1960 (Jokilehto 1999a).

23
Figure 3. SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York, which has been
designated in 1973 (maps_manh.shtml 2012).

24
24
Chapter Two

Arguments for and Against Architectural and Urban

Conservation

Despite that the conservation movement has emerged a long time ago, ongoing
arguments, for and against conservation, were and still represent a distinctive feature
of this movement. The arguments for conservation, stimulated as a response to the
anti-conservation arguments, underscore the motives of architectural and urban
conservation. The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement represent
a very significant concern that should be addressed carefully within the context of the
debates about architectural and urban conservation. The motives that have stimulated
the conservation movement vary from one country, or region, to the other. The
motives and arguments for conservation in Europe are entirely different from those
that stimulate the need for further conservation practice in Egypt. Irrelevancy of the
motives and arguments for conservation in Europe and those in Egypt does not imply
that the European experience in architectural and urban conservation, as principles
and ideas, is not applicable in Egypt.
Skea (2001a) discusses the various arguments for and against conservation, as
well as the various aspects of these arguments; such as the economic, the social, the
artistic and the historic aspects. Larkham (1996) also discusses the various arguments
for conservation. He addresses other aspects; which are the psychological, the
didactic, the economic, the artistic and the historic aspects. These arguments can be
considered general arguments and may be relevant to many countries, such as Egypt.
Nonetheless, in Egypt, these arguments might be considered as secondary arguments
if they are seen from a wider perspective that covers other relevant arguments. The
most relevant and significant anti-conservation argument is the architectural
DUJXPHQWZKLFKVWDWHVWKDW³WKHRYHUZKHOPLQJZDYHVRIDUFKLWHFWXUDODOLHQDWLRQOHIW

25
UHODWLYHO\ IHZ KHULWDJH UHVRXUFHV ZRUWK VDIHJXDUGLQJ LQ (J\SW´ 7KH SUHYLRXV DQWL-
conservation argument, as well as the other anti-conservation arguments relevant to
Egypt, will be further discussed within the context of this chapter.
Generally speaking, the motives that further stimulate the architectural and
urban conservation experiences are diverse. These motives might involve the didactic
and cultural motives (Drury 1996, Larkham 1996), the economic and tourism motives
(Drury 1996, Ross 1991, Larkham 1996, and Skea 2001a), and the artistic motive
(Ross 1991, Larkham 1996, and Skea 2001a). The social motive is another motive
that contributes towards stimulating the architectural and urban conservation
experiences (Ross 1991, and Skea 2001a). Ross (1991) points out that the
conservation movement has emerged as a reaction against the comprehensive
development waves that overwhelmed Europe during the post-war era. The
psychological and the historic motives are also considered some of the significant
motives that have stimulated the emergence of the conservation movement (Larkham
1996, and Skea 2001a). Ross (1991) addresses the archaeological motive as another
significant factor that has stimulated the architectural and urban conservation
experiences. All the previous motives can be considered as a broad group of motives
that might be relevant to any country. The motives that might be relevant to the
European countries might not conform to those that might further stimulate the
architectural and urban conservation experience in Egypt.

The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement in Europe

There is a wide range of motives that have contributed towards stimulating the
conservation movement in Europe, such as the previously addressed relevant
motives. Nevertheless, it seems that there have been mainly two key motives that
have had the greatest influences on the evolution of the European architectural and
urban conservation experiences. The first motive is the reaction against the profound
waves of demolition and comprehensive development that took place during the

26
inter-war and the post-war eras. The second is the environmental motive, which led to
the emergence of the sustainability movement later.

The social factor: the reaction against comprehensive development

Ross (1991) points out that the social factor, which is one of the many factors that
have contributed towards stimulating the conservation movement, is about a feeling
of denial of change and holding on to what is familiar. He adds that this change,
which was the subject of this denial, was the change witnessed during the post-war
era. Such change has been represented by the destruction of many city centres, and
the subsequent comprehensive development of these demolished areas. According to
5RVV¶V DQDO\VLV WKH UHDFWLRQ DJDLQVW WKH FRPSUHKHQVLYH GHYHORSPHQW DSSURDFK LV
considered a form of a social factor.
The living conditions, as well as the intellectual and emotional climate, in
Europe during the post-war era might explain the significance of adopting a
comprehensive approach to development, then the later shift towards a more
conservative approach. Burns (1979) cites the harsh living conditions in Britain
during the post-war era. Most of the British city centres suffered from severe
devastation by war bombing. He also points out that many people were living in very
bad residential conditions. City centres were also surrounded by vast slum areas.
These harsh living conditions, caused by the war, created this persistent demand for
achieving better living condition, and a more efficient approach to development.
Consequently, these demands have led to the adoption of the comprehensive
approach to development (Burns 1979). Jokilehto (1998) attributes the adoption of
the comprehensive approach to development to the influence of another factor, which
is the evolution of the modernism movement during the inter-war era. Accompanied
by modern technological and construction methods, the modernism movement
became even more influential. These modern construction methods have had their
profound impacts on the building and construction industry. Most modernism

27
architects insisted on the deliberate break with the past opposing any kind of
imitation (Jokilehto 1998).
Tiesdell et al (1998) discuss the reasons for the reaction against this
comprehensive approach to development. The reaction against comprehensive
development was motivated by public protest inspired by the writings of intellectuals.
Those influential intellectuals involve Jane Jacob, who published her book entitled
³7+( '($7+ $1' /,)( 2) *5($7 $0(5,&$1 &,7,(6´ LQ  -DFREV
 7KH RWKHU LQIOXHQWLDO SXEOLFDWLRQ LV WKH ERRN HQWLWOHG ³7KH 8UEDQ 9LOODJH´
which has been written by Herbert Gans. Throughout their writings, those
intellectuals have addressed many relevant subjects, such as the need for small-scale
building blocks and the beauty of the existing neighbourhood plan (Tiesdell et al
1998). Jokilehto (1998) points out that the massive destruction of the European cities
that took place during World War II provoked strong feelings towards the past.
Despite that many examples of the post-war developments reflected the
comprehensive approach to development, there were other examples that represented
a more sympathetic approach towards traditional urban patterns. The latter examples
RI QHZ GHYHORSPHQW KDYH UHIOHFWHG WKH GHVLJQHUV¶ FRQVFLRXV FRQVLGHUDWLRQ RI WKH
characteristics of the historic environment while designing new infill architecture
(Jokilehto 1998).

The environmental motive

The environmental motive represents another significant factor that had a profound
influence on the emergence of the conservation movement in Europe. The growing
concern in energy conservation has reflected the influences of this environmental
factor. Tiesdell et al (1998) point out that the oil crisis, in 1973, was the key factor
that influenced the change of the European perception towards the cautious and
efficient use of the non-renewable sources of energy. Larkham (1996) also
HPSKDVLVHVWKHLQIOXHQFHVRIWKHRLOFULVLVLQRQDZDNLQJ(XURSH¶VFRQFHUQIRU
the efficient use of the non-renewable sources of energy. The oil crisis seems to have

28
also influenced the green arguments and the emergence of the concept of the
³HPERGLHG HQHUJ\´ $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH SUHYLRXV FRQFHSW ZKLFK LV FDOOHG WKH
³HPERGLHGHQHUJ\´UH-using or recycling historic buildings is expected to consume
less energy than demolishing them and building anew (Larkham 1996).
The other significant factor that had a great influence on the conservation
movement is the sustainability concept that stemmed from the prevalent
environmental concerns. According to the definition adopted by the Brundtland
Commission in 1987, the notion of sustainability implies meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (Drakakis-Smith 1995). According to the chronology that he has quoted,
Barton (1996) attributes the origins of the sustainability movement to the works of
(OOHQ 6ZDOORZ 5LFKDUGV FRQFHUQLQJ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH FRQFHSW RI ³HFRORJ\´
which has been carried out in the early 1900s. Amongst the most important stages in
the evolution of the sustainability movement were the United Nations Conference on
the Human Environment, held in 1972; the United Nations Peoples Habitat
Conference, held in 1976; and the Brandt Commission activities, which took place in
1980 (Barton 1996). The sustainability movement has had profound impacts on
architectural and urban conservation since the principles of sustainability apply to all
OHYHOVDQGHOHPHQWVRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOVWRFN7KH³ORFDOKXPDQHQYLURQPHQW´DV
an element of the environmental stock, involves five aspects; which are buildings,
infrastructure, open spaces, aesthetic quality and cultural heritage aspects. The
objectives of sustainable development for any of the previous aspects might be
different from the objectives related to another aspect. For buildings, the objectives
might involve the renewal of the built environment. For the cultural heritage, the
objective might include safeguarding archaeological remains, protecting historic
monuments, providing good architecture, and providing attractive townscape and
landscape elements (Barton 1996). English Heritage adopted conservation policies
seem to reflect the obvious influences of sustainability on the conservation
PRYHPHQW(QJOLVK+HULWDJH  KDVSXEOLVKHGDOHDIOHWHQWLWOHG³6XVWDLQLQJWKH
historic environmHQW QHZ SHUVSHFWLYHV RQ WKH IXWXUH´ ZKLFK UHIOHFWV (QJOLVK

29
+HULWDJH¶V SHUVSHFWLYH RQ WKH LPSDFWV RI VXVWDLQDELOLW\ RQ XUEDQ FRQVHUYDWLRQ
According to its new policies adopted in the previous publication, English Heritage
indicates that its goals will no longer seek the static preservation, and that it sees
sustainability as a process as well as a goal. English Heritage also states that
sustainability of the historic environment depends on comprehensive and integrated
YLHZVRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGWKDW³VXstainability is about the continuous process of
FRQVHUYDWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ DFKLHYLQJ DQ\ SDUWLFXODU ILQDO SRVLWLRQ´ (QJOLVK +HULWDJH
1997, p6).

The motives that stimulate further practice of urban conservation in Egypt

All the previously discussed motives, which have stimulated the conservation
movement in Europe, can be considered relevant motives that can stimulate further
urban conservation practice in Egypt. Similar to the European experience in urban
conservation that had its own stimulus motives, the Egyptian experience has its
unique motives that can stimulate the further urban conservation practice in Egypt.
These motives might involve the economic motive, which involves the tourism
economy as an implicit motive; the architectural motive, and the educational and
cultural motives. The motives that stimulate the further urban conservation practice in
Egypt might also involve the severe decline of the historic urban cores of many
Egyptian cities (Figure 4), as well as the need for an efficient management of the
Egyptian inscribed World Heritage Sites.

The economic motive

The poor living conditions in which most of the residents in the historic urban areas
in Egypt live, as well as the very limited GNI and GNP per capita in Egypt (The
World Bank Group 2002), seem to embody the declining economic situation that
Egypt suffers from. The declining economic situation in Egypt has stimulated the
arguments about the relevance of adopting urban conservation as a new economic

30
tool, on the national level, which might contribute towards moderating such severe
economic challenges. To examine the potential economic influences of urban
conservation in Egypt, it is significant first to have a look at its economic impacts
worldwide. It seems that the debate on the economic feasibility of urban conservation
has enjoyed some controversy. Ross (1991) argues that to restore a building is
cheaper than demolishing it and building anew. Therefore, he considers conservation
as an economically feasible practice. Larkham (1996) argues that conservation can be
profitable in some aspects. He adds that the listing as a listed building has a
contradicting impact on building values since it might increase or decrease this value.
Vindicating the anti-conservation economic argument, implying the economic
LQIHDVLELOLW\ RI XUEDQ FRQVHUYDWLRQ /DUNKDP TXRWHV WKH SURYHUE VWDWLQJ WKDW ³LW LV
HDVLHUWREXLOGWZRFKLPQH\VWKDQWRPDLQWDLQRQH´/DUNKDPS:RUVNHWW
FLWHVDQRWKHUSURYHUERIKLVRZQZKLFKVWDWHVWKDW³SUHVHUYDWLRQIRU the rich, change
IRUWKHSRRU´:RUVNHWWS7KHSUHYLRXVSURYHUEVHHPVWRVXSSRUWWKHDQWL-
conservation economic argument. Skea (2001a) also addresses the economic
arguments of urban conservation. He indicates that urban conservation practice is
expected to increase real estate values, therefore it could be considered as a field for
investment and making financial profits. He adds that this increase in building values
and rents, as a consequence of urban conservation practice, is responsible for a
SKHQRPHQRQNQRZQDV³JHQWULILFDWLRQLQKLVWRULFDUHDV6NHDFRQVLGHUVWKHSUHYLRXV
phenomenon as a natural return to the original wealthy character of these historic
areas rather than a social change. Burman, Pickard and Taylor (1995) argue that
designating less affluent residential areas as conservation areas is more likely to lead
to the gentrification of these areas. They also argue that the listing of an individual
building, as a listed building, is expected to reduce its value, while designating an
area as a conservation area is more likely to increase the value of the listed buildings
located inside this conservation area.
The other potential economic value of urban conservation practice is its
contribution towards tourism as a key aspect of the national economy of many
countries (Drury 1996). Following World War II, tourism has witnessed an

32
outstanding prosperity. The diverse tourism destinations might involve costal areas,
rural areas, archaeological sites and urban areas such as historic city centres. Historic
city centres usually suffer from the prevalence of economic, social and environmental
decline (English Tourist Board 1981). Tourism and urban conservation usually have
mutual impacts on each other. Tourism has its own impacts on the economy, on the
historic city centre and on conservation. The impacts of tourism on the economy are
represented by the job opportunities that tourism contributes towards creating. These
job opportunities are usually taken by local residents. Tourism also has profound
impacts on historic city centres since it can bring investments and additional income
to these historic areas and contribute towards their economic prosperity (Department
of the Environment 1990). Tourism can also help in revitalising historic city centres
by restoring historic buildings and bringing museums to the area. Consequently,
WRXULVPFDQFRQWULEXWHWRZDUGVWKHSHRSOH¶VLPDJHRIWKHFLW\FHQWUH(QJOLVK7RXULVW
Board 1981). Tourism has positive impacts on conservation since it ensures the
restoration of the historic buildings. Tourism also ensures the provision of uses to
these historic buildings, and decreases the number of empty historic buildings.
Nevertheless, urban conservation still has some negative impacts on historic city
centres. These negative impacts might involve gentrification, local alienation and
change of the use of urban spaces. Conservation and tourism seem to have become so
integrated that conservation can be seen as a product of tourism. This integration has
resulted in a hasty approach towards investing in history, façadism and pastiche
creation, and over-sanitization of history and life in these historic city centres. The
major challenges that conservation, taking place inside the historic city centres that
represent key tourist destinations, might face in the developing countries involve the
lack of sufficient funds and the lack of commitment to conservation. These
FKDOOHQJHV PLJKW DOVR LQYROYH FRUUXSWLRQ DQG WKH LQKDELWDQWV¶ XQDZDUHQHVV RI WKH
value of the historic area (Orbasli 2000).
In Egypt, tourism represents one of the major sources of income. The major
sources of income in Egypt are the Suez Canal and tourism, both of which constitute
the largest share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This share has amounted to

33
around 55% of the Gross Domestic Product in 1995/1996 (EGYPTIAN
%86,1(660(1¶6 $662&,$7,21 (%$ +20( 3$*(  7RXULVP DOVR
contributes towards the total foreign exchange income in Egypt, by providing 25% of
this income. Recently, tourism in Egypt has witnessed a huge growth as a result of
the government policy on the diversification of tourism products. The increase in the
number of tourists from 3.4 millions in 1997/1998 to 5.3 millions in 1999 emphasizes
the huge growth in tourism in Egypt (The Egyptian State Information Service 2002).
The growth in tourism in Egypt seems to have taken place in the new tourism
destinations along the Red Sea, in Sinai and along the Mediterranean coast. The
previous list of new tourism destinations seems to indicate the goverQPHQW¶VREYLRXV
neglect of historic urban areas as key tourism destinations. Furthermore, the adopted
objectives concerned with the tourism sector in Egypt involve the encouragement of
investments in tourism destinations; such as the Red Sea, southern coasts of Sinai,
Siwa Oasis, an-Natroun Valley and the New Valley (The Egyptian State Information
Service 2002). The previous tourism objectives seem to indicate that historic city
centres, as key tourism destinations, are entirely missing from the tourism future
plans. It seems that the complicated planning challenges associated with historic
urban areas are the key reasons of this official neglect. The limitation of the
advertised and marketed tourism destinations in Egypt to the major archaeological
sites, such as the Giza Plateau and Ancient Thebes (Figure 5), seems to indicate the
JRYHUQPHQW¶V OLPLWHG VXFFHVV LQ SURPRWLQJ FRQVHUYDWLRQ SURJUDPPHV WDUJHWLQJ
historic city centres.
The other economic factor that can be considered as a stimulus for further
urban conservation practice in Egypt is the residential problem. The residential
problem seems to have emerged as a consequence of the declining economic situation
in Egypt. The residential problems in Egypt seem to have profound negative impacts
on urban conservation practice. The residential function of the majority of the historic
buildings located inside historic urban areas in Egypt seems to support the previous
hypothesis. The various factors that have contributed towards aggravating the
residential problems in Egypt might involve the concentration of the population in

34
Figure 5. The Temple of Karnak, in Luxor in Egypt, is still one of
the major tourism destinations.

35
35
Egypt in the Nile Valley. About 98% of the population live in the Nile Valley, which
FRQVWLWXWHV RQO\  RI WKH FRXQWU\¶V WRWDO DUHD 7KH SUHYLRXV VLWXDWLRQ KDV FUHDWHG
enormous pressures on the residential units and services inside urban areas. The
previous situation has also resulted in the prevalence of the overcrowded urban areas
over the entire city patterns. The population density in Cairo that has reached 120,000
inhabitants per square kilometre seems to support the previous argument. Migration
from rural areas to urban areas is another crucial factor that has contributed towards
the residential problems in Egypt. Such a migration has resulted in the creation of
squatting areas in and around the major Egyptian cities. The shortage of housing in
Egypt represents another factor that has contributed towards the residential problems.
The shortage of housing in 1975 was 1524000 units in urban areas and 110000 units
in rural areas (University of Newcastle upon Tyne, School of Architecture 1984). The
legislative and social aspects of the residential problem in Egypt made the problem
even more complicated. Responding to stringent social demands, the housing
legislation in Egypt has frozen the rental values of the rented residential unites at a
very low rate, and have prohibited the evacuation and the expropriation of the rented
residential units as well. The previous situation has led to a severe stagnation in the
real estate market. Although a new legislation involved with renting residential units
has been enacted, the impacts of this new legislation are still limited and the real
estate market still suffers from stagnation. Furthermore, the economic impacts of
conservation can be felt as a change in the value of the historic buildings or a change
in their rental values. The previous economic impacts of urban conservation can be
described as the mobility of the real estate market (Burman et al 1995). As long as
the real estate market in Egypt still suffers from severe stagnation, it is almost
impossible to feel the economic impacts of urban conservation, whether they are
positive or negative impacts. The positive economic impacts of urban conservation in
Egypt should take the shape of the reduction of the impacts of the residential
problems by providing cheaper residential units. The previous positive economic
impact can be achieved by using the cheap traditional construction techniques that
have been used in the construction of the historic buildings located inside historic

36
XUEDQ DUHDV +DVVDQ )DWK\¶V LQLWLDWLYH LQ 1HZ *RXUQD 9LOODJH )LJXUH  FDQ EH
considered a relevant example. The provision of more affordable and cheaper
residential units should be considered as a very significant economic motive that can
stimulate further urban conservation practice in Egypt.

The architectural motive

The negative influences of the modernism movement, which detracted from the
traditional character of many European cities during the post-war era, might be
considered of some relevance to what has happened in Egypt. The key difference is
that the role that the very early public protest played in Europe to stop the horrible
consequences of the modernism movement and its negative influences on the
traditional character of the European cities, was completely missing in Egypt. This
missing role of public awareness and public protest in Egypt has led to an ongoing
process of alienation, and an ongoing spiral of decline of the traditional character of
the Egyptian cities. The historic origins of this ongoing process of alienation seem to
go back to the Khedive Ismail reign, when the Haussmann plan for Cairo was first
developed. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that this process started during the
French campaign, whiFK SUHGDWHG .KHGLYH ,VPDLO UHLJQ WR PHHW %RQDSDUWH¶V
immediate needs (Hassan 2000). Since that time and till now the alienation process
has been going on led by contemporary architects, who seem to be utterly unaware of
the significance of the Egyptian traditional architecture. Consequently, contemporary
architecture in Egypt seems to suffer from its very poor quality. The poor quality of
the contemporary architecture in Egypt seems to motivate the arguments concerning
the significance of the further practice of urban conservation in Egypt.
The most relevant argument against architectural and urban conservation in
Egypt indicates that these waves of alienation were so strong that few heritage
resources survived to be preserved. The argument might be correct if it was seen in
the European context, where public protest against modernisation started earlier and
in the right time. This anti-conservation argument can be refuted if the official

37
Figure 6. The mosque in New Gourna Village, in Luxor in Egypt.
38
38
perspective of heritage resources is widened so that it incorporates other patterns of
cultural heritage that are still unrecognized in Egypt. These patterns of cultural
heritage might involve industrial heritage, modern heritage (Figure 7), cultural
landscapes, natural heritage and battlefields.
The need to develop a national architectural style, which reflects the genuine
Egyptian identity, is another architectural motive that stimulates further architectural
and urban conservation practice in Egypt. The traditional architectural styles can be
adopted as the major source to coin this new contemporary architectural style. In this
FRQWH[W +DVVDQ )DWK\¶V LQLWLDWLYH FDQ EH FRQVLGHUHG DV RQH RI WKH PRVW VXFFHVVIXO
trials to coin such a national architectural style that represents the Egyptian identity
and culture. To develop this genuine architectural style, Hassan Fathy referred to
earlier traditional architectural styles in Egypt; such as the architectural style of the
PHGLHYDOKHULWDJHLQ&DLURDQGWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDOVW\OHRIWKHLQGLJHQRXVFRPPXQLWLHV¶
cultural heritage IRXQG LQ WKH HDVWHUQ GHVHUW¶V RDVHV 0DQ\ RI WKH DUFKLWHFWXUDO
vocabularies that Hassan Fathy developed have been influenced by similar elements
IUHTXHQWO\XVHGLQ&DLUR¶VPHGLHYDOKRXVHV)LJXUHVXFKDV WKHPDVKUDEL\DWKH
PDT¶DGWKHTD¶DDQGPDQ\RWher architectural elements (Steel 1988).

The management of World Heritage Sites, as a motive for conservation

Until 2011, Egypt has inscribed only seven properties as World Heritage Sites. Six of
these properties are classified as cultural heritage, while only one property is
classified as natural heritage. Five of these properties have been inscribed in 1979.
7KHVH ILYH SURSHUWLHV DUH ³$EX 0HQD´ ³$QFLHQW 7KHEHV ZLWK LWV 1HFURSROLV´
³+LVWRULF &DLUR´ ³0HPSKLV DQG LWV 1HFURSROLV ± the Pyramid Fields from Giza to
'DKVKXU´DQG³1XELDQ0RQXPHQWVIURP$EX6LPEHOWR3KLODH´ Another property
KDV EHHQ LQVFULEHG LQ  ZKLFK LV ³6DLQW &DWKHULQH $UHD´. The last inscribed
(J\SWLDQ SURSHUW\ KDV EHHQ LQVFULEHG LQ  ZKLFK LV ³Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale
9DOOH\´ (Egypt - UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2011). The only World Heritage

39
Figure 7. The clock tower in Montazah Palace, in Alexandria in
Egypt, which is an example of the recent heritage in Egypt.

40 40
Site, of the previous seven properties, which represents a historic town located inside
DQXUEDQDUHDLV³+LVWRULF&DLUR´
The criteria that justify the inscription of the nominated properties on the
World Heritage List seem to represent a significant motive that stimulates further
architectural and urban conservation practice in Egypt. To qualify for the World
Heritage Site status, nominated properties have to satisfy at least one of a list of ten
criteria. They should also satisfy two conditions, which are the conditions of
authenticity and the conditions of integrity. States Parties, to the World Heritage
Convention, should also obtain adequate protection system that guarantees the
efficient protection of the nominated properties (UNESCO 2008). To satisfy the
conditions of authenticity and integrity, States Parties should first adopt the various
statutory tools that allow them to secure and sustain the authenticity and the integrity
of entire urban areas. These statutory tools should be concerned with the conservation
of entire urban areas and with the control of the quality of new urban development
introduced inside historic districts. Until a very recent time, many of such statutory
tools have not been adopted yet. One of the most significant tools of such statutory
tools is the designation as areas enjoying a distinctive value. The designation as areas
HQMR\LQJ D GLVWLQFWLYH YDOXH KDV EHHQ LQWURGXFHG XQGHU ³Whe Egyptian Act No. 119
(2 RQ %XLOGLQJ :RUNV´ ZKLFK KDV EHHQ HQDFWHG LQ  'HSDUWPHQW RI WKH
Legislative Affairs 2009b). Because of the lateness of adopting the statutory tools that
allow the government the right to provide a statutory protection to entire urban areas,
and the right to control the quality of new urban development inside these designated
DUHDV WKH DXWKHQWLF VSLULW DQG IHHOLQJ RI SURSHUWLHV VXFK DV ³+LVWRULF &DLUR´ KDV
declined dramatically. These statutory tools still suffer from many weaknesses and
still require further development to improve their efficiency. The previous arguments
seem to emphasize the need to further develop the Egyptian experience in
architectural and urban conservation so as to improve the management of the
inscribed World Heritage Sites, as well as the other potential sites. The previous
arguments might also explain the limited success in the management of inscribed
SURSHUWLHVVXFKDV³+LVWRULF&DLUR´:RUOG+HULWDJH6LWH

41
Figure 8. The courtyard of al-Suhaymi House, which is an
H[DPSOH RI &DLUR¶V PHGLHYDO KRXVHV LQ +LVWRULF &DLUR :RUOG
Heritage Site in Egypt.

42
42
The didactic and cultural motives

The motives that can stimulate further architectural and urban conservation practice
in Egypt might also involve didactic and cultural motives. Material cultural heritage
represents a rich resource that can provide access to history. Therefore, the
conservation of such significant resources will help in unveiling the historic
documents that this cultural heritage bears (Drury 1996). The previous role of
architectural and urban conservation emphasises the significance of the didactic and
cultural motives that can stimulate further architectural and urban conservation
practice, and the relevance of these motives for any country. The arguments
concerned with globalization might also be relevant to the debates on the cultural
motives that can stimulate urban conservation practice in developing countries, such
as Egypt. The debates on globalization, which have been aroused in Egypt during the
last few years, have addressed the fears of the detrimental impacts of globalization on
the national cultural identity. Architectural and urban conservation can be considered
as one of the means by which human societies can retain and emphasize their cultural
identity. Therefore, it is possible to consider urban conservation as one of the means
that can be adopted to confront the detrimental cultural impacts of globalization.
There are many other motives that can stimulate the further practice of
architectural and urban conservation in Egypt. These motives might involve the role
that urban conservation can play in revitalizing the declining historic urban cores in
most of the Egyptian cities. Nevertheless, it seems that the most significant motive
that can stimulate further urban conservation practice in Egypt is the economic
motive. The economic motive can guarantee the public support for urban
conservation practice in Egypt.

43
Chapter Three

The Legislative Framework Involved with Architectural and

Urban Conservation

There are many factors that can guarantee the prosperity of any architectural or urban
conservation experience. The most significant two factors seem to be the legislative
and the economic factors. Achieving an efficient legislative context is an essential
basis for architectural and urban conservation practice. Successful experiences in
architectural and urban conservation seem to be the product of governmental
LQVWLWXWLRQV¶HIILFLHQWPDQDJHPHQWUDWKHUWKDQ WKHRXWFRPHRI LQGLYLGXDORUSULYDWH
institutions efforts. Such an efficient governmental management of urban
conservation practice cannot be achieved unless an efficient legislative framework is
initially adopted. The legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation
might involve environmental laws, cultural laws, town planning laws and
archaeological laws. Achieving a successful conservation practice has always been
attributed to the integration of conservation within town planning practice. Despite
the previous fact, it seems that adopting a discrete conservation legislation is an
indicator of a mature conservation experience.

The international framework

In addition to the national legislation concerned with architectural and urban

conservation practice adopted by the various governments, there is a large array of
international charters and conventions. Governments that officially approved these
charters have to adapt their legislative frameworks so that they conform to these
charters (Earl 1997). There are many international bodies concerned with
conservation practice on the international level; such as the UNESCO, the ICOMOS,

44
the ICCROM, and the ICOM. One of the most significant organisations involved
with architectural and urban conservation is the ICOMOS. The ICOMOS has adopted
a group of international charters and conventions. The first charter adopted by the
,&2026LVWKH³$WKHQV&KDUWHUIRUWKH5HVWRUDWLRQRI +LVWRULF0RQXPHQWV´ZKLFK
has been adopted in 1931 (Appendix 1). The early ICOMOS charters have been
mainly concerned with the restoration of monuments, such as the Athens Charter
$WKHQV&KDUWHUIRUWKH5HVWRUDWLRQRI+LVWRULF0RQXPHQWV7KH³,QWHrnational
&KDUWHUIRU WKH &RQVHUYDWLRQ DQG 5HVWRUDWLRQRI 0RQXPHQWV DQG 6LWHV´ ZKLFK KDV
been adopted in 1964, has also been concerned with restoration; nevertheless it has
involved other sections concerned with conservation, historic sites, and the sites of
the monuments. The previous charter has been called the Venice Charter (Appendix
2) (ICOMOS ___). Later, the ICOMOS adopted other charters and resolutions
FRQFHUQHGZLWKKLVWRULFXUEDQDUHDV7KHUHVROXWLRQVRIWKH³,QWHUQDWLRQDO6\PSRVLXP
on the ConseUYDWLRQ RI 6PDOOHU +LVWRULF 7RZQV´ ZKLFK KDV EHHQ KHOG LQ %UXJH LQ
1975, represent the earliest of such resolutions. The previous resolutions have been
called the Bruge Resolutions (Conservation of Smaller Historic Towns 2011). In
1987, the ICOMOS adopted another charter concerned with historic urban areas,
ZKLFKLVWKH³&KDUWHUIRUWKH&RQVHUYDWLRQRI+LVWRULF7RZQVDQG8UEDQ$UHDV´7KH
previous charter has been called the Washington Charter (Appendix 3) (ICOMOS
___).

The legislative framework in the United Kingdom

The legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban conservation

practice in the United Kingdom involves a number of laws and other subsidiary
OHJLVODWLYH WRROV 7KHVH WRROV LQYROYH UHJXODWLRQV VXFK DV WKH ³3ODQQLQJ /LVWHG
BuilGLQJVDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ$UHDV5HJXODWLRQV´DQGRUGHUVVXFKDVWKH³7RZQ
DQG&RXQWU\3ODQQLQJ*HQHUDO3HUPLWWHG'HYHORSPHQW2UGHU´,QDGGLWLRQWR
the previous regulations and orders, the legislative tools concerned with architectural
and urban conservation in the United Kingdom involve circulars and planning policy

45
guidance notes, PPGs. The most relevant PPGs are PPG1, concerned with general
policy and principles; PPG6, concerned with town centres and retail developments;
PPG7, concerned with the countryside and rural economy; PPG13, concerned with
transport; PPG12, concerned with development plans and regional planning
guidance; PPG15, concerned with planning and the historic environment and adopted
in 1994; PPG16, concerned with archaeology and planning and adopted in 1990; and
PPG19, concerned with outdoor advertisement control (English Heritage 1995).
Article 4 Directions can also be considered another legislative tool used to control
new development in conservation areas (The Royal Town Planning Institute 1992).
7KH ³&LYLF $PHQLWLHV $FW ´ KDV KDG WKH UHSXWDWLRQ RI EHLQJ D WXUQLQJ
point in the British legislation concerned with heritage conservation, since it
strengthened the concept of listing buildings and adopted the concept of designating
areas for conservation purposes. Despite the previous fact, there have been other
earlier legislation that officially adopted the concept of listing buildings. Those
HDUOLHUOHJLVODWLRQVXFKDVWKH³7RZQDQG&RXQWU\3ODQQLQJ$FW´ZHUHQRWYHU\
effective in protecting listed buildings and led to the loss of many of them. The
SUHYLRXVIDFWPLJKWKDYHEHHQWKHUHDVRQZK\WKHQHZ³&LYLF$PHQLWLHV$FW´
has been enacted (Anon. 1967). The key heritage legislation concerned with listed
buildings anG FRQVHUYDWLRQ DUHDV DUH WKH ³3ODQQLQJ /LVWHG %XLOGLQJV DQG
&RQVHUYDWLRQ$UHDV$FW´LQ(QJODQGDQGWKH³3ODQQLQJ/LVWHG%XLOGLQJVDQG
&RQVHUYDWLRQ $UHDV 6FRWODQG $FW ´ LQ 6FRWODQG 6RPH RWKHU KHULWDJH
legislation might be considered archaeological laws. These legislation might involve
WKH³+LVWRULF%XLOGLQJVDQG$QFLHQW0RQXPHQWV$FW3DUW,´³7KH3URWHFWLRQ
RI :UHFNV $FW ´ DQG ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG $UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW
´ LQ (QJODQG 7KH\ PLJKW DOVR LQYROYH WKH ³+LVWRric Buildings and Ancient
0RQXPHQWV $FW ´ ³7KH 3URWHFWLRQ RI :UHFNV $FW ´ DQG WKH ³$QFLHQW
0RQXPHQWV DQG $UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW ´ LQ 6FRWODQG 7KHVH KHULWDJH
OHJLVODWLRQDOVRLQFOXGHWKH³1DWLRQDO+HULWDJH$FW´LQ(QJODQG1DWLonal
Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du Patrimoine a
2011). There are also other town planning legislation that are involved with urban

46
FRQVHUYDWLRQ SUDFWLFH VXFK DV WKH ³7RZQ DQG &RXQWU\ 3ODQQLQJ $FW ´ WKH
³7RZQ DQG &RXQWU\ $PHQLWLHV $FW  &RQVHUYDWLRQ $UHDV´ LQ (QJODQG
(National Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du
3DWULPRLQHE7KH\DOVRLQYROYHWKH³7RZQDQG&RXQWU\3ODQQLQJ6FRWODQG
$FW ´ LQ 6FRWODQG 1DWLRQDO +HULWDge Policies : European Heritage Network -
Réseau Européen du Patrimoine a 2011). These Scottish town planning legislation
PLJKWDOVRLQFOXGHWKH³7RZQDQG&RXQWU\3ODQQLQJ6FRWODQG$FW´DQGWKH
³&LYLF $PHQLWLHV $FW ´ +LVWRULF 6FRWODQG BBB ,Q addition to the previous
legislation, there is a group of environmental laws that might be involved with
FRQVHUYDWLRQ VXFK DV ³7KH (QYLURQPHQW $FW ´ ³7KH (QYLURQPHQW $FW
6FRWODQG´WKH³1DWLRQDO3DUNVDQG$FFHVVWRWKH&RXQWU\VLGH$FW´ the
³&RXQWU\VLGH$FW´DQGWKH³+RXVLQJ$FW´1DWLRQDO+HULWDJH3ROLFLHV
European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du Patrimoine b 2011).
7KH ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG $UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW ´ LQ (QJODQG
has been involved with providing a statutory protection to monuments by scheduling
WKHP2QWKH RWKHUKDQGWKH ³3ODQQLQJ/LVWHG%XLOGLQJVDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ $UHDV
$FW´LQ(QJODQGKDVEHHQLQYROYHGZLWKWKHSURWHFWLRQRIOLVWHGEXLOGLQJV,Q
6FRWODQG DQRWKHU ODZ ZKLFK LV WKH ³3ODnning (Listed Buildings and Conservation
$UHDV 6FRWODQG $FW ´ KDV EHHQ LQYROYHG ZLWK WKH PDQDJHPHQW RI OLVWHG
buildings. Most of the properties that have been protected by the scheduling as
monuments have been either archaeological sites or ruined buildings. On the other
hand, most of the properties that have been protected by the listing as listed buildings
have been occupied properties. One of the key criteria that can be used to determine
whether to protect a heritage resource by scheduling it as a monument or by listing it
as a listed building is the level of significance of the concerned heritage resource.
Scheduled monuments should be of national importance (Historic Scotland 1998).
The previous preview seems to indicate the significance of another criterion that can
be used to determine whether to protect a heritage resource by either scheduling it as
a monument, or listing it as a listed building, which is the use value of the heritage
resource. Properties that enjoy a use value, or the properties that enjoy the potentials

47
that allow their adaptive reuse, are usually protected by the listing as listed buildings.
On the other hand, ruins of historic buildings that do not enjoy a use value or that do
not enjoy the potentials that allow for their rehabilitation for contemporary uses are
usually protected by scheduling them as monuments. The archaeological value of the
heritage resource is another decisive criterion. Properties that enjoy an archaeological
value are usually protected by scheduling them as monuments. The historic value of
the heritage resource is another criterion that can be used to determine the appropriate
statutory protection status for the heritage resource. Properties that represent modern
heritage, in the United Kingdom, have been protected by the listing as listed
buildings. The final criterion that can be adopted to determine the appropriate
protection status for the concerned heritage resource is the age value of the heritage
resource. Properties that enjoy an age value, represented largely by their
incompleteness or by their clear lack of integrity, such as ruins, are usually protected
by scheduling them as monuments, provided that the age value is considered one of
the key values that contribute towards their overall significance.
Many of the properties representing modern heritage in the United Kingdom
have been granted a statutory protection by listing them as listed buildings.
Nevertheless, some of these properties have been listed as listed buildings, and have
also been scheduled as monuments. The previous few properties represent the overlap
WKDW WRRN SODFH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR ODZV ZKLFK DUH WKH ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG
$UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW ´ DQG WKH ³3ODQQLQJ /LVWHG %XLOGLQJV DQG
&RQVHUYDWLRQ $UHDV $FW ´ 7KH SUoperties that represent this overlap might
involve uninhabited castles and early industrial structures that are no longer in use
(Historic Scotland 1998). One of the most outstanding properties that has been listed
as a listed building and scheduled as a monument is Edinburgh Castel, in Scotland
(Figure 9). Many elements inside Edinburgh Castel have been listed as listed
EXLOGLQJV2QHRIVXFKHOHPHQWVLVOLVWHGXQGHUWKHQDPH³(GLQEXUJK&DVWOH3DODFH
%ORFN´ 7KH SUHYLRXV OLVWHG EXLOGLQJ ZKLFK KDV EHHQ OLsted in 1970, has been
classified as a category A listed building (Listed Building Report 2011). Edinburgh

48
Castle has also been scheduled as a scheduled monument in 1993 (PASTMAP -
Report Page 2011).

The French legislative framework

The French experience in enacting effective heritage legislation concerned with

architectural and urban conservation has been said to be one of the most innovative
European experiences. Although Kain (1982) indicates that the Malraux Act of 1962
represents the early superiority of the French experience in urban conservation, the
origins of the French experience go back to the beginning of the 19 th century. Kain
(1981a) points out that the first European lists of buildings were those published in
France under the leadership of Prosper Merimee in 1840. What might also support
the argument on the French superiority in heritage legislation enactment is that the
Italian urban conservation system is said to have been influenced by the French
Malraux Act. In the United Kingdom, the English Civic Trust also studied the
0DOUDX[ $FW FORVHO\ ZKLOH SUHSDULQJ WKH ³&LYLF $PHQLWLHV $FW ´ 7KH ODZ RI
1913 can be considered the earliest French legislation concerned with architectural

Figure 9. Edinburgh Castle, in Edinburgh in Scotland, is one of the most outstanding

properties that has been listed as a listed building (Historic Scotland Data Website -
Listed Buildings 2012) and scheduled as a monument (Historic Scotland 2010).

49
49
and urban conservation. The previous law has established the two categories of the
French listed buildings. The law of 1913 has also established the concept of
designating protected perimeters around the French classified monuments (Kain
1982).
The Malraux Act of 1962, which has been developed under the auspices of the
then French Minister of Culture Andre Malraux, is considered the key legislation
concerned with urban conservation in France (The Royal Town Planning Institute
1992). There are other legislation concerned with the conservation of the cultural and
natural heritage in France. These legislation involve the act of 1913 on historic
monuments; the act of 1943 on the surroundings of historic monuments; the act of
1930 on the protection of natural monuments and sites of artistic, historical,
scientific, legendary or scenic interest; the act of 1983 concerned with the French
]RQHVGHSURWHFWLRQGXSDWULPRLQHDUFKLWHFWXUDOXUEDLQHWSD\VDJHU´=33$83DQG
the act of 1993 on the protection and enhancement of landscapes (Ballester 1996a).
There are other French town planning legislation that are involved with urban
conservation. These legislation involve the act of 1985 on the development and
SURWHFWLRQ RI PRXQWDLQ DUHDV WKH ³0RXQWDLQ $FW´ DQG WKH DFW RI  RQ WKH
development, protection and enhancement of WKH FRDVWOLQH WKH ³&RDVWOLQH $FW´
(Ballester 1996a). There are also other French archaeological laws concerned with
architectural and urban conservation. These laws might involve the law of 1980 on
the protection of public collections against malicious acts, the law of 1989 on
underwater cultural property, and the law of 1989 on the use of metal detectors (Ibid).

The legislative frameworks in Italy and the Netherlands

The key Italian legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation,
which LVWKH³&RQVHUYDWLRQRIWKH&XOWXUDO+HULWDJHRI0RQXPHQWVDQG6LWHV7RZQ
3ODQQLQJ$FW´KDVEHHQLQIOXHQFHGE\WKH)UHQFK0DOUDX[$FW.DLQ
7KH ,WDOLDQ ODZV FRQFHUQHG ZLWK KHULWDJH FRQVHUYDWLRQ LQYROYH WKH ³3URWHFWLRQ RI
Objects of Historic DQG $UWLVWLF ,QWHUHVW $FW ´ 7KH SUHYLRXV ODZ KDV EHHQ

50
amended later to involve historic centres and groups of urban and rural buildings
%DOOHVWHU E 7KH ³3URWHFWLRQ RI 1DWXUDO DQG 6FHQLF %HDXWLHV $FW ´ LV
another heritage law that can be used to protect sites according to their specific
character (Ballester 1996b). Heritage conservation laws in Italy also include the
³&RQVHUYDWLRQRIWKH&XOWXUDO+HULWDJHRI0RQXPHQWVDQG6LWHV7RZQ3ODQQLQJ$FW
´ ZKLFK LV NQRZQ DV WKH ³3RQWH $FW´ DQG WKH ³&RQVHUYDWLRQ RI 1DWXUDO
%HDXWLHV $FW ´ ZKLFK LV NQRZQ DV WKH ³*DODVVR $FW´ %DOOHVWHU E 7KH
,WDOLDQ UHOHYDQW WRZQ SODQQLQJ DFWV LQFOXGH WKH ³3ODQQLQJ $FW ´ DQG WKH
³+RXVLQJ5HIRUP $FW ´ ZKLFK KDV EHHQXVHG PDLQO\ IRU WKH H[SURSULation of
buildings in historic centres, such as Bologna (Bandarin 1981). These town planning
ODZVDOVRLQYROYHWKH³+LVWRULF&HQWUHV3ODQQHG5HKDELOLWDWLRQ$FW´ZKLFKLV
also concerned with development control in protected areas (Ballester 1996b).
In the Netherlands, one of the key and early legislation that is concerned with
DUFKLWHFWXUDODQGXUEDQFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWKH³0RQXPHQWVDQG+LVWRULF%XLOGLQJV$FW
´7KHSUHYLRXVODZLVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQRILQGLYLGXDOEXLOGLQJV
and planned townscape elements (the Royal Town Planning Institute 1992). Later, the
previous law has been considered inadequate and has been replaced by another law,
ZKLFKLVWKH³0RQXPHQWVDQG+LVWRULF%XLOGLQJV$FW´%DOOHVWHUF

The American legislative framework concerned with conservation practice

The American legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban

conservation is very developed and complicated. This legislative framework involves
an array of laws, codes of regulations, standards and guidelines, and executive
memorandums and orders. The list of the American legislation concerned with
architectural and urban conservation, or historic preservation as it is called in the
United States of America, is a huge list. The following laws are considered the most
relevant American laws involved with historic preservation. The historic origins of
the American legislation concerned with historic preservation go back to 1906 when
the earliest relevant law has been enacted. The previous law is the ³$QWLTXLWLHV$FW

51
´ ZKLFK LV FRQFHUQHG ZLWK WKH SUHVHUYDWLRQ RI WKH $PHULFDQ DQWLTXLWLHV
(Murtagh 1997). In 1916, another relevant and significant law has been enacted,
ZKLFKLVWKH³1DWLRQDO3DUN6\VWHP2UJDQLF$FW´7KHSUHYLRXVODZKDVEHHQ
enacted to establish the National Park Service in the United States of America. The
³+LVWRULF6LWHVDQG%XLOGLQJV$FW´LVDQRWKHU$PHULFDQOHJLVODWLRQFRQFHUQHG
with historic preservation. The previous law is involved with the preservation of
historic American sites, buildings, objects, and antiquities of national significance
(Ibid). The American legislation concerned with historic preservation also involve the
³&KDUWHURIWKH1DWLRQDO7UXVWIRU+LVWRULF3UHVHUYDWLRQ´0XUWDJKWKH
³2XWGRRU5HFUHDWLRQ$FW´5HODWHG/DZV1362IILFHRI3ROLF\DQGWKH
³1DWLRQDO+LVWRULF3UHVHUYDWLRQ$FW´,ELG7KHODWWHULVDOHJLVODWLRQWKDWKDV
been enacted to establish a program concerned with the preservation of additional
historic properties throughout the nation (Ibid). The other American legislation
LQYROYHG ZLWK KLVWRULF SUHVHUYDWLRQ LQFOXGH WKH ³$EDQGRQHG 6KLSZUHFN $FW ´
DQGWKH³$UFKDHRORJLFDO5HVRXUFHV3URWHFWLRQ$FW´5HODWHG/DZV1362IILFH
of Policy 2011).
The other legislative tools concerned with historic preservation in the United
States of America involve regulations, standards of guidelines, and executive
memorandum and orders. The relevant regulations include, for instance, the
³1DWLRQDO +LVWRULF /DQGPDUNV 3URJUDP´ WKH ³National Natural Landmarks
Program´ DQG WKH UHJXODWLRQV HQWLWOHG ³Protection of Archaeological Resources´
(Related Regulations NPS Office of Policy 2011). The relevant guidelines include,
IRU H[DPSOH WKH ³6HFUHWDU\ RI WKH ,QWHULRU¶V 6WDQGDUGV DQG *Xidelines for
$UFKDHRORJ\ DQG +LVWRULF 3UHVHUYDWLRQ´ 6HFUHWDU\
V 6WDQGDUGV--Archeology and
+LVWRULF 3UHVHUYDWLRQ  DQG WKH ³6HFUHWDU\ RI WKH ,QWHULRU¶V 6WDQGDUGV IRU WKH
7UHDWPHQWRI+LVWRULF3URSHUWLHV´7KH6HFUHWDU\RIWKH,QWHULRU
V6WDQGDUGV for
the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines on Preserving, Rehabilitating,
Restoring and Reconstructing Historic Buildings 2011). The relevant executive
PHPRUDQGXPDQGRUGHUVLQFOXGHIRULQVWDQFHWKH³Memorandum on Government-to-
Government 5HODWLRQV :LWK 1DWLYH $PHULFDQ ´ DQG WKH executive order

52
³3URWHFWLRQ RI :HWODQGV ´ (Related Executive Orders NPS Office of Policy
2011).

The Irish and the Maltese legislative frameworks

The Republic of Ireland has always had the reputation of being one of the belated
European countries in urban conservation. Despite the previous argument, the Irish
legislation concerned with the conservation of monuments seems to have predated
many other similar European legislation. The previous Irish legislation is the
³$QFLHQW0RQXPHQWV3URWHFWLRQ$FW´1DWLRQDO0RQXPHQWV$FW
2QHRIWKHPRVWUHFHQW,ULVKODZVFRQFHUQHGZLWKXUEDQFRQVHUYDWLRQLVWKH³3ODQQLQJ
DQG'HYHORSPHQW$FW´'HVSLWHWKDWWKHSUHYLRXVODZLVPDLQO\DWRZQSODQQLQJ
law, it involves a chapter that is concerned with urban conservation and area-based
conservation. The previous chapter, which is chapter II in part IV, is concerned with
the management of the Irish architectural conservation areas and areas of special
planning control (Planning and Development Act, 2000 2011). The previous law,
which has been developed in 1999, has come into force in 2000. The previous law
also represents the final amendment, of several earlier amendments, undertaken to the
³3ODQQLQJDQG'HYHORSPHQW$FW´%DOOHVWHUG7KH,ULVKOHJLVODWLRQFRQFHUQHG
ZLWKDUFKLWHFWXUDODQG XUEDQFRQVHUYDWLRQLQYROYH RWKHUODZVVXFK DVWKH ³$QFLHQW
0RQXPHQWV 3URWHFWLRQ $FW ´ 1DWLRQDO 0RQXPHQWV $FW   WKH
³1DWLRQDO0RQXPHQW $FW ´DQG WKH ³1DWLRQDO&XOWXUDO ,QVWLWXWLRQV $FW ´
(National Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du
Patrimoine c 2011). The Irish town planning legislation concerned with urban
FRQVHUYDWLRQLQYROYHWKH³3ODQQLQJDQG'HYHORSPHQW$FW´7KHSUHYLRXVODZ
has been amended several times; in 1976, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 1999 (Ballester
1996d).
The Maltese experience in architectural and urban conservation, as well as its
town planning system, is largely based on the British experience in conservation
/DUNKDP&RPSDUHGZLWKPDQ\RWKHU(XURSHDQFRXQWULHV¶OHJLVODWLYHV\VWHPV

53
the Maltese legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation are
considered belated, to some extent. The Maltese discrete legislation concerned with
KHULWDJHFRQVHUYDWLRQZKLFKLVWKH³&XOWXUDO+HULWDJH$FW´KDVFRPHLQWRIRUFH
in 2002 (MEPA - Malta Environment & Planning Authority 2011). The Maltese
legislative system concerned with architectural and urban conservation involves
primary and secondary legislation. The primary legislation involve the various laws
concerned with architectural and urban conservation in Malta. The secondary
legislation, on the other hand, involve legal and governmental notices (Ibid). The
³&XOWXUDO +HULWDJH $FW ´ LV 0DOWD¶V NH\ GLVFUHWH OHJLVODWLRQ FRQFHUQHG ZLWK
architectural and urban conservation, as mentioned earlier. The other Maltese
UHOHYDQW OHJLVODWLRQ PLJKW LQYROYH DUFKDHRORJLFDO ODZV VXFK DV WKH ³$QWLTXLWLHV
3URWHFWLRQ$FW´ZKLFKKDVEHHQDPHQGHGin 1955 and 1966 (Ballester 1996e).
Other Maltese town planning laws are involved with urban conservation practice;
VXFK DV WKH ³'HYHORSPHQW 3ODQQLQJ $FW ´ ,ELG DQG WKH ³7RZQ DQG &RXQWU\
3ODQQLQJ $FW ´ ZKLFK KDV QHYHU FRPH LQWR IRUFH $TXLOLQD 1999). The
³(QYLURQPHQW 3URWHFWLRQ $FW ´ LV DQRWKHU 0DOWHVH HQYLURQPHQWDO ODZ WKDW LV
concerned with heritage conservation (Ballester 1996e).

The legislative framework in Egypt

The Egyptian legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban

conservation seems to suffer from serious drawbacks. Compared with the European
FRXQWULHV¶ UHOHYDQW OHJLVODWLYH IUDPHZRUNV WKH (J\SWLDQ OHJLVODWLYH IUDPHZRUN
concerned with architectural and urban conservation seems to be less efficient and
very belated. The key and the oldest Egyptian legislation concerned with heritage
FRQVHUYDWLRQLVWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQ6DIHJXDUGLQJ$QWLTXLWLHV´7KH
previous law is concerned mainly with antiquities, archaeological sites (Figure 10),
and protected perimeters designated around antiquities. Article 1 in the Act No. 117
provides the definition of antiquities. According to Article 1, antiquities might be
movable or immovable properties that have been produced by ancient civilizations.

54
Figure 10. 3RPSH\¶V3LOODULQWKH6HUDSHXPZKLFKLVDQH[DPSOH
of the many archaeological sites in Alexandria in Egypt.

55 55
These properties might enjoy archaeological or historic values, and should be at least
one hundred years old. On the other hand, Article 2 in the Act No. 117 allows the
scheduling of antiquities whose age is less than one hundred years old. Scheduling
antiquities, whose age is less than one hundred years old, can only be achieved by
means of a decree issued by the Prime Minister. The previous decree should be based
on the proposal made by the Minister of Culture. Depending on Article 2, the Act No.
117 has been employed to provide statutory protection to many properties
representing the modern heritage in Egypt. The previous law involves two articles
concerned with land expropriation and the designation of archaeological sites, which
are Articles 18 and 19 respectively (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a).
There are other Egyptian laws concerned with architectural and urban
FRQVHUYDWLRQ VXFK DV WKH ³Egyptian Act No. 144 (2006) on the Control of the
Demolition of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the
$UFKLWHFWXUDO +HULWDJH´ 7KH SUHYLRXV ODZ LV PDLQO\ FRQFHUQHG ZLWK SURYLGLQJ D
statutory protection to a new category of heritage resources that is almost similar to
the British listed buildings. The previous law is mainly concerned with the protection
of what the law called the buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural
style. To clarify what these buildings might involve, a Prime Minister decree has
been adopted in 2006. The previous decree indicates that these buildings also involve
groups of buildings and gardens. The Act No. 144 has also provided for the
establishment of conservation committees in every governorate (Department of the
Legislative Affairs 2008). The Act No. 144 has been enacted to replace a previous
presidential decree that has been issued to prohibit the overwhelming trend of
demolishing historic villas. The previous presidential decree has been proven, by the
Supreme Constitutional Court, to be unconstitutional. Therefore, the Act No. 144 has
been enacted, mainly to stop the demolition of historic villas. The previous law has
been employed to provide a statutory protection to modern heritage in Egypt. Many
of the properties that have been granted a statutory protection by means of the Act
No. 144 have also been scheduled as antiquities under the Act No. 117. These
properties represent the overlap that took place between the two laws, which are the

56
Act No. 117 and the Act No. 144 (Figure 11). The previous overlap seems to
represent a serious drawback of the Egyptian legislation concerned with architectural
and urban conservation. The previous overlap of the application of the two laws
might be attributed to the misunderstanding of the function and role of each law.
7KH ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ %XLOGLQJ :RUNV´ LV RQH RI WKH NH\
Egyptian legislation involved with urban conservation. The Act No. 119 has allowed
for the designation of entire urban areas inside which the townscape and urban values
can be provided a statutory protection. These designated urban areas are referred to,
in the Act, as areas enjoying a distinctive value (Figure 12) (Department of the
/HJLVODWLYH $IIDLUV E $UHDV HQMR\LQJ D GLVWLQFWLYH YDOXH DUH GHILQHG DV ³WKH
areas that are characterized by the richness of their constituting elements enjoying
heritage, architectural, urban, symbolic, aesthetic or natural values, and require to be
DGGUHVVHGDVLQWHJUDWHGXQLWVVRDVWRSUHVHUYHWKHP´,ELGS7KHHQDFWPHQWRI
the Act No. 119 has been associated with the revocation of another earlier and
UHOHYDQWOHJLVODWLRQ7KHSUHYLRXVDEROLVKHGOHJLVODWLRQLVWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1R
(1976) on the Control of Building Works" (Ibid).

Figure 11. The Royal Jewelry Museum, which is originally the Princess Fatma al-Zahraa
Palace, in Alexandria in Egypt. The museum is one of the properties that have been
granted a statutory protection by means of the Act No. 144 (The Egyptian Presidency
2008) and have also been scheduled as an antiquity under the Act No. 117 (Department of
the Legislative Affairs 2009a).
57
57
 The Act No. 106 was also concerned with urban conservation. The Act No.
106, and its implementing bylaw, was involved with the designation of protected
urban areas, inside which the townscape value can be provided a statutory protection.
These urban protected areas, which are almost similar to the British conservation
areas, can be called streets and areas of restricted building regulations (Figure 13).
Article 29 in the implementing bylaw of the Act No. 106 indicates that it is possible
for the Minister of Housing, depending on a request made by the relevant governor
and depending on a proposal made by the relevant local authority, by means of a
decree, to designate streets or areas where some features of the new developments
introduced inside these areas might be predetermined. These features involve, among
other things; the architectural styles, the applied finishing materials and their colors;
and the setbacks, behind the approved regulation lines, of the new developments. The
Act No. 106 has been amended by the Act No. 101 (1996). Accordingly, Article 13,
in the Act No. 106, has been amended to allow the Prime Minister the right to impose
restrictions on the maximum allowed building height in any given city or any urban
area inside this city. Based on the Act No. 106, its implementing bylaw and the
amending Act No. 101, a number of Prime Minister Decrees have been adopted to
designate a number of such protected urban areas (Department of the Legislative
Affairs 2008).
The enactment of the Act No. 119 has also been associated with the revocation
RIDQRWKHUUHOHYDQWOHJLVODWLRQ7KHSUHYLRXVOHJLVODWLRQLVWKH³(J\SWLDn Act No. 3
RQ7RZQ3ODQQLQJ´'HSDUWPHQWRIWKH/HJLVODWLYH$IIDLUVE The Act
No. 3 was involved with urban conservation to some extent. Article 25 in the Act No.
3 has provided for the necessity to locate the areas that enjoy heritage values; whether
these values are architectural values, historic values, tourism or natural values; in the
detailed plans, so that they can be preserved (Department of the Legislative Affairs
1997).
There are other Egyptian laws that are involved with heritage conservation.
7KHVHODZVPLJKWLQYROYHWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQ1DWXUDO5HVHUYHV´
The previous law is concerned with the designation of what is called natural reserves

58
Figure 12. Historic Cairo is one of the early areas in Egypt that have been designated as
areas enjoying a distinctive value (ΔϳΩΎηέϹ΍ΔϟΩϷ΍ ).

59
59
(Department of the Legislative Affairs ___). The designation as a natural reserve has
been used to provide a statutory protection to the cultural heritage in Siwa Oasis
(Protectorates 2008). The other Egyptian laws concerned with heritage conservation
PLJKWLQYROYHWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQWKH(QYLURQPHQW´'HSDUWPHQW of
the Legislative Affairs 2005).

60
Figure 13. Abu al-Abbas Square, in Alexandria in Egypt, which is an
example of the designated streets and areas of restricted building
regulations (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008).

61 61
Chapter Four

The Definitions and Classifications of the Cultural and

Natural Heritage

The arguments on the various classifications of heritage resources represent a very

significant and relevant subject. These arguments reflect a serious challenge that
faces the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban conservation. Till a very
recent time, the official Egyptian perception of heritage resources was very narrow.
Heritage resources were classified under a single group, which is called antiquities or
monuments. At that time, heritage resources, protected officially by the Egyptian
laws, did not involve a category concerned with historic urban areas, nor did they
involve a discrete category of listed buildings. The previous situation represented a
serious challenge facing the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban
FRQVHUYDWLRQ ,Q  WKH ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ WKH &RQWURO RI WKH
Demolition of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the
$UFKLWHFWXUDO +HULWDJH´ LQWURGXFHG IRU WKH ILUVW WLPH D QHZ RIILFLDO FDWHJRU\ RI
heritage resources concerned mainly with what can be called listed buildings
'HSDUWPHQW RI WKH /HJLVODWLYH $IIDLUV  ,Q  WKH ³(J\SWLan Act No. 119
 RQ %XLOGLQJ :RUNV´ KDV RIILFLDOO\ LQWURGXFHG DQRWKHU FDWHJRU\ RI KHULWDJH
resources that is concerned with historic urban areas. The previous category is called
areas enjoying a distinctive value (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b). At a
certain historic time, in Europe, the situation was almost similar to that in Egypt. The
official perception of heritage resources, at that time, was also very narrow.
Nonetheless, the arguments on environmental issues and sustainability seem to have
contributed towards widening the official perception of heritage resources in Europe.
This chapter will focus, initially, on the various definitions of the various patterns of

62
heritage resources. Thereafter, this chapter will preview the various approaches to
classify the various patterns of heritage resources.
Heritage resources represent the subjects, or the assets, which are processed
during architectural and urban conservation processes. A proposed definition of
KHULWDJHDVVHWVUHDGV³>KHULWDJH asset is] a term which is all-embracing and is used for
any artefact from painting to vintage cars to areas of ancient woodland. It is not
meant to imply a degree of significance. It is now frequently used to refer to any
component of the historic built environment from archaeological remains outwards to
EXLOGLQJVDQGFRQVHUYDWLRQDUHDVDQGWRSDUNVDQGJDUGHQV´7+(&216(59$7,21
GLOSSARY a 2011). Lowenthal (2000) indicates that heritage resources might
involve monuments of great moment, grand personage and unique treasures of art and
architecture. He adds that, recently, the notion of heritage has been broadened to
involve two other realms, which are the intangible culture and the environment.
Harrison (1996) indicates that heritage resources might involve a variety of aspects;
such as buildings, sites, monuments, ruins, earth works and buried remains. While
0\QRUVUDLVHVWKHTXHVWLRQ³ZKDWLVWKHKHULWDJHWKDWVKRXOGEHFRQVHUYHG"´
He enquires whether it should involve all the old buildings, all the interesting
buildings or all the old and interesting buildings. Roberts (1995) cites the Australian
definition of heritage. According to the previous definition, heritage resources are
³WKRVHSODFHVEHLQJFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHQDWXUDOFXOWXUDOHQYLURQPHQWRf Australia, that
have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for the
IXWXUHJHQHUDWLRQDVZHOODVIRUWKHSUHVHQWFRPPXQLW\´5REHUWVSS-50).

The definitions of the various patterns of heritage resources

The lingual definitions of heritage

7KHOLQJXDOGHILQLWLRQRIKHULWDJHUHDGV³>KHULWDJHLV@WKDWZKLFKKDVEHHQRUPD\EH
inherited; any property, and especially land, which devolves by right of inheritance.
Land and similar property which devolves by law upon the heir and not on executors

63
RUDGPLQLVWUDWRUVKHULWDEOHHVWDWH´2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\S7KHH[SUHVVLRQ
³KHULWDJH´ KDV RWKHU V\QRQ\PV VXFK DV OHJDF\ DQG SDWULPRQ\ 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ
³OHJDF\´ LV OLQJXDOO\ GHILQHG DV ³WKH DFWLRQ RU DQ DFW RI EHqueathing. A sum of
money, or a specific article, given to another by will: bequest. Anything handed down
E\ DQ DQFHVWRU RU SUHGHFHVVRU´ 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\  S 7KH H[SUHVVLRQ
³SDWULPRQ\´ZKLFKLVDQRWKHUV\QRQ\PRIKHULWDJHVHHPVWRVKDUHWKHVame lingual
RULJLQRIWKH)UHQFKZRUG³SDWULPRLQH´7KHWHUP³SDWULPRQ\´LVGHILQHGOLQJXDOO\DV
³SURSHUW\RUDQHVWDWHLQKHULWHGIURPRQH¶VIDWKHURUDQFHVWRUVKHULWDJH7KHDQFLHQW
estate or endowment of a church or religious body. The fact of inheriting from an
DQFHVWRU´ 2[IRUG 8QLYHUVLW\  S 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH )UHQFK ZRUG
³SDWULPRLQH´LVGHILQHGOLJXDOO\DV³SRVVHVVLRQVKHULWHHV,QKHULWDQFHSDWULPRQ\DQG
KHULWDJH´ &DUQH\  S 7KH )UHQFK ZRUG ³SDWULPRLQH´ LV PDGH XS RI WZR
LDWLQZRUGV7KHILUVWRIWKHVHWZRZRUGVPHDQV³SDUHQW´RU³IDWKHU´ZKLOHWKHRWKHU
ZRUGPHDQV³HGXFDWLRQ´RU³DGYLFH´7KHUHIRUHWKH)UHQFKZRUG³SDWULPRLQH´VHHPV
to mean the things that are associated with our parents or ancestors in general. The
French word seems also to focus on the meaning of respecting history, and the things
DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK KLVWRU\ 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH (QJOLVK ZRUG ³KHULWDJH´ VHHPV WR
focus on the meaning of devolving possessions from an older generation to their
descendants. Therefore, the English word seems to focus on the notion of the
responsibility of each generation towards the protection of their heritage (Lopez
2004).

The various definitions of heritage resources adopted by the international

charters and conventions

On WKHLQWHUQDWLRQDOOHYHOWKH³(XURSHDQ&KDUWHURIWKH$UFKLWHFWXUDO+HULWDJH´KDV
adopted a number of definitions of the architectural heritage. The previous charter
GHILQHV DUFKLWHFWXUDO KHULWDJH DV ³DQ LUUHSODFHDEOH H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH ZHDOWK DQG
diversit\RI(XURSHDQFXOWXUH´(XURSHDQ&KDUWHURIWKH$UFKLWHFWXUDO+HULWDJH
p1). The charter has also adopted another definition of architectural heritage, which

64
UHDGV ³WKH DUFKLWHFWXUDO KHULWDJH LV DQ H[SUHVVLRQ RI WKH KLVWRU\ DQG KHOSV XV WR
understand WKH UHOHYDQFH RI WKH SDVW WR FRQWHPSRUDU\ OLIH « 7KH DUFKLWHFWXUDO
KHULWDJHLVDFDSLWDORILUUHSODFHDEOHVSLULWXDOFXOWXUDOVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFYDOXHV´
(European Charter of the Architectural Heritage 2011, p2). The previous charter has
adopted a wider perception of architectural heritage. This perception involves
patterns of architectural heritage, such as groups of lesser buildings and man-made
settings (European Charter of the Architectural Heritage 2011).
7KH³&KDUWHUIRUWKH3UHVHUYDWLRQRI4XHEHF¶V +HULWDJH´KDVDGRSWHGDQRWKHU
GHILQLWLRQRIKHULWDJHZKLFKUHDGV³>KHULWDJHLV@WKHFRPELQHGFUHDWLRQVDQGSURGXFWV
of nature and man, in their entirety, that make up the environment in which we live in
space and time. Heritage is a reality, a possession of the community, and a rich
inheritance that may be passed on, which invites our recognition and our
SDUWLFLSDWLRQ´ ,&2026 &DQDGD 'RFXPHQWV  S 7KH SUHYLRXV FKDUWHU KDV
adopted a wider notion of heritage that involves three major entities. These three key
entities are the material culture, or what can be called the cultural properties, the
geographic environment and the human environment. Cultural properties might
involve all forms of material evidence; such as archaeological and ethnographical
objects, written archives, furniture, art objects and the whole of the material
environment in which all human beings live (ICOMOS Canada Documents 2011).
The Venice Charter (Appendix 2) has addressed the meaning of a single
pattern of heritage resources, which is referred to as historic monuments. Article 1 in
the previous charter indicates that historic monuments not only involve the single
architectural work but also its urban and rural setting (ICOMOS ___). The World
Heritage Convention is concerned mainly with two groups of heritage resources,
which are the cultural heritage and the natural heritage. Article 1 of the previous
convention indicates that cultural heritage might involve three subsidiary patterns of
heritage resources; which are monuments, groups of buildings and sites. Article 1
also provides the definition of each pattern of the previous three patterns of cultural
heritage. Article 2 of the previous convention indicates that natural heritage might
also involve three subsidiary patterns of heritage resources. These three subsidiary

65
patterns involve natural features, geological and physiographical formations and
natural sites. Article 2 also provides the definition of each subsidiary pattern of the
previous three patterns of the natural heritage (UNESCO 2005a).

The definitions adopted in the United Kingdom

The key British legislation concerned with heritage conservation seem to lack a clear
GHILQLWLRQRIWKHH[SUHVVLRQ³KHULWDJH´1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHVHOHJLVODWLRQKDYHSURYLGHG
definitions for the various patterns of heritage resources that are protected by means
RI WKHVH ODZV 7KH ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG $UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW ´ KDV
tried to provide a definition, or description, of what is meant by scheduled
monuments. Article 1 in the previous law provides an explanation of what is meant
E\ D VFKHGXOHG PRQXPHQW ZKLFK UHDGV ³LQ WKLV $FW ³VFKHGXOHG PRQXPHQW´ PHDQV
DQ\ PRQXPHQW ZKLFK LV IRU WKH WLPH EHLQJ LQFOXGHG LQ WKH 6FKHGXOH´ HER
0$-(67<¶6 67$7,21(5< 2)),&(  S 7KH ³3ODQQLQJ /LVWHd Buildings
DQG &RQVHUYDWLRQ $UHDV $FW ´ KDV DOVR SURYLGHG WKH VWDWXWRU\ GHILQLWLRQ RI
FRQVHUYDWLRQDUHDV7KHSUHYLRXVGHILQLWLRQUHDGV³>FRQVHUYDWLRQDUHDVDUH@DUHDVRI
special architectural or historic interest the character or appearance of which it is
GHVLUDEOHWRSUHVHUYHRUHQKDQFH´+(50$-(67<¶667$7,21(5<2)),&(,
p42).
Despite that the British legislation concerned with architectural and urban
FRQVHUYDWLRQ KDYH ODFNHG DQ\ GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³KHULWDJH´ (QJOLVK
Heritage has tried to provide a definition of the assets that represent the subjects of
WKHFRQVHUYDWLRQSURFHVV(QJOLVK+HULWDJHKDVDGGUHVVHGWKHQRWLRQRIWKH³KLVWRULF
HQYLURQPHQW´DVWKHDVVHWVRUWKHVXEMHFWRIWKHFRQVHUYDWLRQSURFHVV7KHSUHYLRXV
QRWLRQ RI WKH ³KLVWRULF HQYLURQPHQW´ KDV EHHQ DGGUHVVHG DV DQ DOWHUQDWLYH RI WKH
QRWLRQRI ³KHULWDJH UHVRXUFHV´7KH GHILQLWLRQRI WKH ³KLVWRULFHQYLURQPHQW´ ZKLFK
KDV EHHQ DGRSWHG E\ (QJOLVK +HULWDJH UHDGV ³WKH KLVWRULF HQYLURQPHQW LV ZKDW
generations of people made oIWKHSODFHVLQZKLFKWKH\OLYHG«,WLVLQHYHU\VHQVHD
common wealth. Most of our towns and cities, and all of our countryside, are made

66
up of layer upon layer of human activity. Each generation has made its mark. And
each makes its decisions about thH IXWXUH LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI ZKDW LW KDV LQKHULWHG´
(QJOLVK +HULWDJH  S (QJOLVK +HULWDJH  DOVR FODVVLILHV WKH ³KLVWRULF
HQYLURQPHQW FDSLWDO´ LQWR WZR FDWHJRULHV ZKLFK DUH WKH FULWLFDO KLVWRULF
environmental capital and the tradable historic environmental capital.

The definitions adopted in the United States of America

,Q WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV RI $PHULFD WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³FXOWXUDO UHVRXUFH´ VHHPV WR KDYH
been largely used to describe the subjects of the historic preservation process. The
definitioQ RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³FXOWXUDO UHVRXUFH´ UHDGV ³>D FXOWXUDO UHVRXUFH LV D@
building, site, structure, object, or district evaluated as having significance in
SUHKLVWRU\RUKLVWRU\´86'HSDUWPHQWRIWKH,QWHULRUS7KH$PHULFDQODZ
³+LVWRULF 6LWHV %XLOGLQJV 2EMHFWV DQG $QWLTXLWLHV $FW ´ DGGUHVVHV DQRWKHU
UHOHYDQW H[SUHVVLRQ ZKLFK LV ³KLVWRULF SURSHUW\´ 7KH SUHYLRXV ODZ SURYLGHV WKH
GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³KLVWRULF SURSHUW\´ ZKLFK UHDGV ³KLVWRULF SURSHUW\ RU
historic resource means any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or
object included in, or eligible for inclusion on the National Register, including
DUWHIDFWVUHFRUGVDQGPDWHULDOUHPDLQVUHODWHGWRVXFKSURSHUW\RUUHVRXUFH´8QLWHG
States Code: Title 16,470w. Definitions | LII / Legal Information Institute 2011, p1).
The National Register Bulletin, published by the National Park Service, has adopted
WZRGHILQLWLRQVRIWKHWZRH[SUHVVLRQV³SURSHUW\´DQG³UHVRXUFH´7KHGHILQLWLRQRI
SURSHUW\UHDGV³>DSURperty is an] area of land containing a single historic resource or
a group of resources, and constituting a single entry in the National Register of
+LVWRULF3ODFHV´86 'HSDUWPHQWRI WKH,QWHULRU S 2Q WKH RWKHUKDQG WKH
definition of resource rHDGV³>DUHVRXUFHLV@DQ\EXLOGLQJVWUXFWXUHVLWHRUREMHFWWKDW
LVSDUWRIRUFRQVWLWXWHVDKLVWRULFSURSHUW\´,ELGS

67
The definitions adopted in Ireland, Malta and Egypt

,Q WKH 5HSXEOLF RI ,UHODQG WKH ³$UFKLWHFWXUDO +HULWDJH 1DWLRQDO ,QYHQWRUy) and
+LVWRULF0RQXPHQWV0LVFHOODQHRXV3UHVHUYDWLRQ$FW´KDVDGRSWHGDGHILQLWLRQ
RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³DUFKLWHFWXUDO KHULWDJH´ 7KH GHILQLWLRQ RI DUFKLWHFWXUDO KHULWDJH
UHDGV ³DUFKLWHFWXUDO KHULWDJH PHDQV DOO VWUXFWXUHV DQG EXLOGLQJV WRJHWKHU ZLWK WKeir
settings and attendant grounds, fixtures and fittings, groups of such structures and
buildings, and sites which are of architectural, historical, archaeological, artistic,
FXOWXUDO VFLHQWLILF VRFLDO RU WHFKQLFDO LQWHUHVW´ 1XPEHU 
ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE (NATIONAL INVENTORY) AND HISTORIC
MONUMENTS (MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS) ACT, 1999 2011, p2).
7KH ³&XOWXUDO +HULWDJH $FW ´ LQ 0DOWD KDV DGRSWHG D GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH
H[SUHVVLRQ ³FXOWXUDO KHULWDJH´ 7KH GHILQLWLRQ RI FXOWXUDO KHULWDJH UHDGV ³FXOtural
heritage means movable or immovable objects of artistic, architectural, historical,
archaeological, ethnographic, palaeontological and geological importance and
includes information or data relative to cultural heritage pertaining to Malta or to any
other country. This includes archaeological, palaeontological or geological sites and
deposits, landscapes, groups of buildings, as well as scientific collections, collections
of arts objects, manuscripts, books, published material, archives, audio-visual
material and reproductions of any of the preceding, or collections of historical value,
as well as intangible cultural assets comprising arts, traditions, customs and skills
employed in the performing arts, in applied arts and in crafts and other intangible
DVVHWV ZKLFK KDYH D KLVWRULFDO DUWLVWLF RU HWKQRJUDSKLF YDOXH´ Ministry for Justice
and Home Affairs 2002, p2). In Egypt, tKH ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ
6DIHJXDUGLQJ $QWLTXLWLHV´ KDV SURYLGHG WKH GHILQLWLRQ RI DQWLTXLWLHV 7KH SUHYLRXV
definition UHDGV ³DQ DQWLTXLW\ is any real-estate or movable object produced by the
various civilizations or evolved by fine arts, science, arts and religions from the pre-
historic era and through the consecutive historic eras till prior to one hundred years
ago, as long as it enjoys an outstanding archaeological or historical importance, as a
feature of the various civilizations resided on the Egyptian land, or as an evidence of

68
a historic relationship with these civilizations, and also the remains of human strains
oUDQ\FRQWHPSRUDQHRXVOLYLQJEHLQJV´Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a,
p3).

The classification of the various patterns of heritage resources

The classification of heritage resources on the international level

Some of the international conservation charters have tried to address some patterns of
heritage resources. The Athens Charter addresses some patterns of heritage resources,
which are historic monuments and groups of monuments (Athens Charter for the
Restoration of Historic Monuments 2002). The Venice Charter addresses some
patterns of heritage resources, which are historic monuments and historic sites
(ICOMOS ___).
7KH ³Resolutions of the International Symposium on the Conservation of
6PDOOHU+LVWRULF7RZQV´KDVWULHGWRSURYLGHDFODVVLIication of historic towns, as a
pattern of heritage resources. The resolutions indicate that historic towns can be
classified according to their common challenges and according to some common
features. These common features might involve size, cultural context and economic
function (Conservation of Smaller Historic Towns 2011). The Washington Charter,
which is concerned with the conservation of historic towns, has also tried to provide a
classification of heritage resources. The previous charter has classified urban
communities as either communities developed gradually over time or communities
that have been created deliberately. The charter classifies historic urban areas by size
into either large or small historic urban areas. The charter also classifies historic
urban areas into cities, towns, and historic centres or quarters. It also classifies the
environment of these historic urban areas into either natural environments or man-
made environments (ICOMOS ___).
The World Heritage Convention classifies heritage resources into a group of
categories. The key categories involve cultural sites, natural sites, and another new

69
FDWHJRU\RIKHULWDJHUHVRXUFHVWKDWLVFDOOHG³FXOWXUDOODQGVFDSHV´7KHODWWHUFDWHJRU\
ZKLFKLV³FXOWXUDOODQGVFDSHV´KDVEHHQDGRSWHGin 1993. Cultural sites also involve
WKUHH RWKHU VXEVLGLDU\ FDWHJRULHV RI KHULWDJH UHVRXUFHV ZKLFK DUH ³PRQXPHQWV´
³JURXSV RI EXLOGLQJV´ DQG ³VLWHV´ 7KH VHFRQG FDWHJRU\ ZKLFK LV ³JURXSV RI
EXLOGLQJV´ LV FRQFHUQHG ZLWK KLVWRULF WRZQV )LJXUH  6KDFNley 1998). Historic
towns, in turn, can be classified into a group of other subsidiary categories. These
VXEVLGLDU\FDWHJRULHVLQYROYH³WRZQVWKDWDUHQRORQJHULQKDELWHG´, ³LQKDELWHGKLVWRULF
WRZQV´ DQG ³QHZ WRZQV RI WKH WZHQWLHWK FHQWXU\´ ,QKDELWHG KLVtoric towns, which
represent one of the previous three categories, involve other subsidiary categories,
which are ³WRZQVZKLFKDUHW\SLFDORIDVSHFLILFSHULRGRUFXOWXUH´³WRZQVWKDWKDYH
evolved along characteristic lines and have preserved spatial arrangements and
VWUXFWXUHVWKDWDUHW\SLFDORIWKHVXFFHVVLYHVWDJHVLQWKHLUKLVWRU\´³KLVWRULFFHQWUHV´
DQG³VHFWRUVDUHDVRULVRODWHGXQLWV´UNESCO 2008).

The classification of heritage resources in the United Kingdom

Protected heritage resources in the United Kingdom seem to be classified into two
broad groups. These two broad groups are protected areas and protected individual
resources. Protected areas might involve areas designated as conservation areas
(Figure 15), while the protected individual heritage resources might involve historic
buildings listed as listed buildings (Figure 16). In addition to conservation areas,
protected areas might involve other designated areas; such as archaeological areas or
areas of archaeological importance, registered battlefields, and historic parks and
gardens (Mynors 1995). There are other patterns of protected urban areas; such as
areas of archaeological interest, areas of great landscape value, and areas of
outstanding natural beauty (THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2011).
Protected individual heritage resources can also be classified into two
categories, which are listed buildings and scheduled monuments. Listed buildings
might be defined as buildings of special architectural or historic interest (English
Heritage 2001). Both Mynors (1995) and Ross (1991) discuss the controversy of the

70
Figure 14. Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn World Heritage Site, in
Tallinn in Estonia, which represents the historic towns and groups of
buildings category of cultural World Heritage Sites.

71 71
definition of listed buildings. The previous controversy is mainly associated with the
PHDQLQJ RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³EXLOGLQJ´ 5RVV  FLWHV WKH GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH
expreVVLRQ³EXLOGLQJ´WKDWKDVEHHQDGRSWHGE\WKH³7RZQDQG&RXQWU\3ODQQLQJ$FW
´7KHSUHYLRXVGHILQLWLRQUHDGV³>D@EXLOGLQJLQFOXGHVDQ\VWUXFWXUHRUHUHFWLRQ
and any part of a building, as so defined, but does not include plant or machinery
comprised LQDEXLOGLQJ´5RVVS2QWKHRWKHUKDQG0\QRUVFLWHVRQHRI
WKH HDUOLHVW GHILQLWLRQV RI WKH H[SUHVVLRQ ³EXLOGLQJ´ ZKLFK UHDGV ³>D EXLOGLQJ LV@
something that is artificial, the construction of man, put together of bricks and mortar,
and used IRU D SDUWLFXODU SXUSRVH´ 0\QRUV  S 0\QRUV DOVR FLWHV DQRWKHU
GHILQLWLRQDOPRVWVLPLODUWR5RVV¶GHILQLWLRQZKLFKLV³>DEXLOGLQJ@E\WKHGHILQLWLRQ
... includes a structure, and therefore things which would not ordinarily be called
buildings aUHLQFOXGHGLQWKDWWHUPZKHUHLWLVXVHGLQWKH$FW´0\QRUVS
The previous controversy might be the reason why many landscape elements have
been listed as listed buildings. The process of preparing inventories of listed buildings
LVFDOOHG³OLVWLQJ´7KHOLVWRIOLVWHGEXLOGLQJVLVSUHSDUHGEDVHGRQDVXUYH\RIDOOWKH
buildings that enjoy an architectural or historical interest carried out within the area
of each planning authority. The prepared list of listed buildings is usually divided into
smaller units. These smaller units involve districts, parishes and burghs (Historic
Scotland ___). The address of any property listed as a listed building is the statutory
element in the list. The list of listed buildings includes, in addition to the statutory
addresses of the listed buildings, the grades or the categories of the listed buildings, a
category map reference, the name of the architect who designed the listed building, a
brief description of the listed building, and any relevant references. In addition to the
official list of listed buildings, there is another list prepared by English Heritage in
(QJODQGDQG+LVWRULF6FRWODQGLQ6FRWODQGZKLFKLVFDOOHGWKH³OLVWRIWKHEXLOGLQJVDW
ULVN´ 7KH SUHYLRXV OLVW LQFOXGHV WKH OLVWHG EXLOGLQJV WKDW DUe considered seriously
vulnerable.
Listed buildings are also classified into three grades. Neither the classification
of listed buildings into three grades nor the grades themselves are statutory. Despite
the previous fact, it is very crucial to assign every listed building a grade of these

72
Figure 15. Montrose Conservation Area, in Montrose in Scotland, is an
example of the many conservation areas designated in the United Kingdom.
73
73
three grades to determine its priority for grant aids (Ross 1991). The three grades of
listed buildings in England are grade I, grade II* and grade II. Grade I listed buildings
are those buildings that enjoy an exceptional interest. Grade II* listed buildings are
those important buildings that enjoy more than a special interest. Finally, the grade II
listed buildings are the buildings that enjoy a special interest (English Heritage 2001).
In Scotland, the grades are called categories and are different from those in England.
The three categories in Scotland are category A, category B and category C(s).
Category A is assigned to the listed buildings that enjoy a national or international
importance. Category B is assigned to the listed buildings that enjoy a regional or
more than a local importance. Finally, category C (s) is assigned to the listed
buildings that enjoy a local importance (Historic Scotland ___).
The selection of properties for listing as listed buildings is usually carried out
depending on a set of criteria. The selection criteria adopted by PPG15 involve the
architectural interest, the historic interest, the close historical association and the
group value (Mynors 1995). On the other hand, Larkham (1996) cites another more
detailed group of criteria, which are usually briefed as an acronym, which is B
'$03 ),6+(6 7KH OHWWHU % VWDQGV IRU ³EXLOGLQJ W\SH´ WKH OHWWHU ' VWDQGV IRU
³GDWH´ WKH OHWWHU $ VWDQGV IRU ³DUFKLWHFWFUDIWVPDQSDWURQ´ WKH OHWWHU 0 VWDnds for
³PDWHULDOV´WKHOHWWHU3VWDQGVIRU³SODQVW\OH´WKHOHWWHU)VWDQGVIRU³IDoDGHV´WKH
OHWWHU,VWDQGVIRU³LQWHULRU´WKHOHWWHU6VWDQGVIRU³VXEVLGLDU\IHDWXUHV´WKHOHWWHU+
VWDQGVIRU³KLVWRU\´WKHOHWWHU(VWDQGVIRU³H[WUDLQIRUPDWLRQ´ and the letter S stands
IRU³VRXUFHV´/DUNKDP
Protected individual heritage resources involve another category concerned
with scheduled monuments. The definition of monuments, which has been adopted
E\ WKH ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG $UFKDHRORJLFDO $UHDV $FW ´ UHDGV ³>D
monument is] any building, structure or work, whether above or below the surface of
WKHODQGDQGDQ\FDYHRUH[FDYDWLRQ´7KHGHILQLWLRQFRQWLQXHV³>$PRQXPHQWPLJKW
also involve] any site comprising the remains of any such building, structure or work
or of any cave or excavation; and any site comprising, or comprising the remain of,
any vehicle, vessel, aircrafts, or other movable structure or part thereof which neither

74
Figure 16. Morgan Tower, in Dundee in Scotland, which is an A listed building
(Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings 2012), is an example of the
many listed buildings listed in the United Kingdom.

75
75
constitutes nor forms part of any work which is a monument [according to the former
VHFWLRQ RI WKH GHILQLWLRQ@´ 5RVV  S 7KH ³$QFLHQW 0RQXPHQWV DQG
$UFKDHRORJLFDO$UHDV$FW´KDVDOVRDGRSWHGDGHILQLWLRQRIDQFLHQWPRQXPHQWV
ZKLFKUHDGV³WKHGHILQLWLRQRIDQFLHQWPRQXPHQWVHPEUDFHVPRQXPHQWVZKich are
in the opinion of the Secretary of State of public interest by reason of the historic,
DUFKLWHFWXUDO WUDGLWLRQDO DUWLVWLF RU DUFKDHRORJLFDO LQWHUHVW DWWDFKHG WR WKHP´ 5RVV
1991, p139). Similar to listed buildings, scheduled monuments are compiled in
inventories in a process similar to that of listed buildings except that it is called
³VFKHGXOLQJ´UDWKHUWKDQ³OLVWLQJ´
Ross (1991) has adopted a classification of scheduled monuments in the United
Kingdom. The previous classification has been based on the historic era to which
scheduled monuments belong. According to the previous classification, scheduled
monuments might be classified as either prehistoric, Roman, early medieval,
medieval, and post-medieval scheduled monuments. Ross (1991) has also listed a
group of criteria based on which scheduled monuments can be selected for
scheduling. These criteria involve the survival and the condition, the period, the
rarity, the fragility and the vulnerability, the diversity, the availability of
documentation records, the group value, and the potentiality of the potential
scheduled monuments.

The French approach to classify the protected heritage resources

Heritage resources in France can also be classified into the same two broad categories
that are relevant to the British experience. These two categories are the protected
areas and the protected individual heritage resources. Protected urban areas in France
involve various models, such as secteur sauvegardés (Kain 1981) and zones de
protection du patrimoine architectural, urbain et paysager (Ballester 1996a). The
French approach to classify the various protected individual heritage resources seems
to be entirely different from the British approach. In the United Kingdom, protected
individual heritage resources are classified as either listed buildings or scheduled

76
monuments. Unlike the British experience, the French approach to classify the
protected individual heritage resources tends to compile all these individual resources
under the single category of monuments. Monuments, in turn, are classified into three
subsidiary categories. The criterion based on which monuments are classified is the
level of significance of these monuments. The level of significance of some
monuments might be limited to the regional level, while, for other monuments, the
level of significance might reach the national level (Skea 2002). Rodwell (1975)
points out that the French monuments were first classified into two categories, later a
third category has been added to these two categories. The two early categories are
monument classés, or what can be called classified monuments, and monument
inscrits, or what can be called listed monuments (Skea 2002). Monument classés,
which are considered as national monuments (Ibid) and as works of major
architectural importance, might involve cathedrals, palaces, the most important
churches, châteaux and hôtels (Rodwell 1975). On the other hand, monument inscrits,
whose level of significance does not exceed the regional level (Skea 2002), are less
important than monument classés (Rodwell 1975). The third category that has been
recently added to the previous two categories is called agreed monuments.
Monuments belonging to the previous third category are not eligible for grant aids
(Ibid).

The classification of heritage resources in Malta and Egypt

In Malta, heritage resources can be classified into the previous two categories, which
are either protected urban areas or protected individual heritage resources. The
Maltese protected areas involve a number of models of conservation areas, such as
the Maltese urban conservation areas (Figure 17), areas of ecological importance,
sites of scientific importance, areas of archaeological importance and sites of
archaeological importance (Buchanan and the Planning Services Division in the
Government of Malta 1990). Individual heritage resources in Malta, particularly
buildings, are provided an official protection by listing them as listed buildings. The

77
Figure 17. Valletta Urban Conservation Area, in Valletta in
Malta, is an example of the Maltese designated urban
conservation areas.
78
78
Maltese listed buildings are classified into three groups. Each group is given a grade
of three grades. The three grades are grade 1 listed buildings, grade 2 listed buildings
and grade 3 listed buildings. The criterion based on which listed buildings are
classified into any of the previous three groups is the provided level of protection.
Grade 1 listed buildings are the buildings that enjoy an outstanding architectural or
historical value. These buildings will be preserved in their entirety. Internal
alterations to grade 1 listed buildings might be exceptionally consented if these
alterations were found essential to keep the building in an active use. Grade 2 listed
buildings are those buildings that enjoy some architectural or historical interest, or
those buildings that contribute to the visual image of urban conservation areas.
Applications to demolish grade 2 listed buildings will not be normally consented.
Internal alterations to these buildings might be consented if it was found that they do
not affect the character and the architectural homogeneity of the concerned listed
building. Finally, grade 3 listed buildings are the buildings that do not enjoy any
historical value and enjoy a minor architectural value. Demolition of these buildings
might be consented as long as the new building that will replace the demolished one
is in harmony with its surroundings (Ibid).
The previous preview seems to emphasize a common approach to classify the
various heritage resources. According to this common approach, heritage resources
can be classified into two broad groups. These two broad groups are either the
protected urban areas or the protected individual heritage resources. The previous
approach seems to be relevant to all the previously previewed experiences in
architectural and urban conservation; such as the British, the French and the Maltese
experiences. Till 2008, the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban
conservation has lacked such an approach towards the classification of heritage
resources. Till that time, heritage resources in Egypt were classified under a single
category, which can be called protected individual heritage resources. The previous
category involved, in addition to antiquities, the properties that have been listed as
buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural style. The last category,
which is buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural style, has been

79
introduced under the "Egyptian Act No. 144 (2006) on the Control of the Demolition
of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the Architectural
Heritage" (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008). On the other hand, properties
are selected for scheduling as antiquities based on a group of criteria. The key
criterion, of these criteria, is the age of the property, or what can be called its historic
value. The age of the selected property should be at least one hundred years old. The
selected property should also enjoy other values, such as the archaeological value.
Article 1 in the ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ 6DIHJXDUGLQJ $QWLTXLWLHV´
addresses the various criteria based on which properties might be selected for
scheduling as antiquities. While Article 2, in the same law, allows the scheduling of
some properties as antiquities despite that their age is less than one hundred years old
as long as they enjoy some values, such as the archaeological value and the historic
value (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a). The Supreme Council of
Antiquities has adopted a classification of the scheduled Egyptian antiquities that is
based on the era to which antiquities belong. According to this classification,
antiquities might be classified as either Egyptian, Greco-Roman, Coptic or Islamic
antiquities (Eternal Egypt 2011).
In 2008, a new category of heritage resources has been adopted in Egypt for
the first time. This new category is the previously discussed category that can be
called protected urban areas. Adopting a statutory model of conservation areas,
almost similar to the British conservation areas, in Egypt has led to the introduction
of this second category of heritage resources in Egypt. The Egyptian model of
conservation areas has been called areas enjoying a distinctive value. The previous
DUHDV KDYH EHHQ HVWDEOLVKHG XQGHU WKH ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   RQ %XLOGLQJ
:RUNV´(Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

80
Chapter Five

Conservation Protective and Intervening Measures

One of the key challenges facing architectural and urban conservation practice
worldwide is the lack of a common conception of the various conservation protective
and intervening measures. Murtagh (1997) addresses the previous challenge, which is
recognized on the national level in the United States of America. Murtagh indicates
that the conception of the various conservation protective and intervening measures
varies among conservation practitioners according to their professional backgrounds,
and according to the disciplines to which they belong. These varying conceptions
might take place among practitioners belonging to different disciplines; such as
museum curators, historians and planners. Such varying conceptions might result in a
confusion of the connotations of the various lingual expressions describing the
various conservation protective measures. The previous problem seems to extend
beyond the limited national level to the international level. The previous problem
might also be attributed to the lack of an agreed-upon international glossary of the
various conservation protective measures (Murtagh 1997). The previous problem
might also be attributed to other cultural and lingual factors. The notions of the key
conservation principles, such as authenticity and integrity, might vary from one
culture to the other. The notion of authenticity adopted by eastern cultures is different
from that adopted by western cultures (Cumming 2002). The notion of integrity
officially adopted in the United States of America is similar to that of authenticity
adopted elsewhere.
6NHDEKDVDGRSWHGDVLQJOHDFURQ\PZKLFKLV³35$6$&´WRUHSUHVHQW
the various conservation protective and intervening measures. The acronym
³35$6$&´ LV PDGH XS RI WKH LQLWLDOV RI WKH ZRUGV SUHVHUYDWLRQ UHVWRUDWLRQ
alterations, subtraction, addition and control. Grieve has adopted a definition of the
ZRUG³FRQVHUYDWLRQ´DVZHll as definitions of the other conservation protective and

81
LQWHUYHQLQJPHDVXUHVLQKLV³8UEDQ&RQVHUYDWLRQ*ORVVDU\´*ULHYH¶VGHILQLWLRQRI
WKHZRUG³FRQVHUYDWLRQ´KDVEHHQEDVHGRQ&ROLQ0FZLOOLDP¶VGHILQLWLRQFLWHGLQKLV
ERRN ³6FRWWLVK 7RZQVFDSH´ 7+( CONSERVATION GLOSSARY b 2011).
$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH SUHYLRXV GHILQLWLRQ FRQVHUYDWLRQ PHDQV ³WKH DFWLRQ QHFHVVDU\ WR
SUHVHUYHDQ\WKLQJRIDFNQRZOHGJHGYDOXH´,ELGS,QWKHSUHYLRXVGHILQLWLRQWKH
WHUP ³SUHVHUYDWLRQ´ KDV EHHQ XVHG WR GHVFULEH ZKDW LV PHDnt by the word
³FRQVHUYDWLRQ´ &RQVHTXHQWO\ WKH SUHYLRXV GHILQLWLRQ GRHV QRW VHHP WR KHOS LQ
resolving the ambiguity concerning the boundaries between the two expressions,
³FRQVHUYDWLRQ´DQG³SUHVHUYDWLRQ´*ULHYHKDVDOVRFLWHGRWKHUGHILQLWLRQVRIWKHRther
conservation protective measures; such as restoration, preservation and
UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWRWKHVHGHILQLWLRQVUHVWRUDWLRQPHDQV³WKHDOWHUDWLRQRID
buildings structure or fabric to return it to the state or condition it was in at a
particulDU SRLQW LQ LWV KLVWRU\´ 7+( &216(59$7,21 */266$5< F  S
3UHVHUYDWLRQPHDQV³ZRUNXQGHUWDNHQRQO\ZKHQQHFHVVDU\WRHQVXUHWKHVXUYLYDORI
RULJLQDO IDEULF 1R QHZ ZRUN RU DGGLWLRQ LV LQYROYHG´ 7+( &216(59$7,21
GLOSSARY d 2011, p1). Finally, reconsWUXFWLRQ KDV EHHQ GHILQHG DV ³D SURFHVV
limited to the reproduction of fabric, the original form of which is known and
XQGHUVWRRG LQ D PDQQHU ZKLFK FDQ EH LGHQWLILHG DV EHLQJ QHZ ZRUN´ 7+(
CONSERVATION GLOSSARY e 2011, p1).
Kain (1981b) points out that conservation is a global expression that involves a
wide range of subsidiary notions associated with the various disciplines interested in
conservation. His definition of conservation states that:

³&RQVHUYDWLRQ DV D ZRUG LV RSHQ WR D QXPEHU RI LQWHUSUHWDWLons and can
describe a variety of philosophical stances in relation to the natural and
built environments. Its ethic can be invoked from motives as hard-headed
and materialistic as cost minimization by those concerned, for example,
with energy conservation and the efficient use of scarce resources. Its
umbrella is also wide enough to shelter those who subscribe to the tenet
that the rich collage of time expressed in the fabric of historic cities on the

82
 hand, and the rudeness of nature in the wildness on the other hand, are
HVVHQWLDOWRPDQ¶VSV\FKRORJLFDOZHOO-being and can add to the quality of
OLIH´.DLQES

The lingual definitions of the various conservation interventions

The differences between the various lingual definitions describing the various
conservation interventions also reflect the problem of the lack of an internationally
approved set of definitions of conservation interventions. Oxford Dictionary (Oxford
University 1971) provides lingual meanings and descriptions of some conservation
interventions; such as conservation, salvage, preservation, restoration, rehabilitation,
refurbishment, reconstitution, reconstruction, replication, renovation and remodelling.
Those definitions seem to be overlapping and so vague that it is very hard to find
FOHDUERXQGDULHVDPRQJWKHP)RULQVWDQFHFRQVHUYDWLRQLVGHILQHGDV³WKHDFWLRQRI
conserving; preservation from destructive influences, natural decay, or waste;
SUHVHUYDWLRQLQEHLQJOLIHKHDOWKSHUIHFWLRQHWF´2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\ S
The previous definition of conservation, which describes conservation as a process to
preserve heritage resources, seems to be confusing, since it does not clarify the
differences between the two processes, which are conservation and preservation. The
lingual definition of restoration also reflects the same problem. Restoration is defined
DV ³WKH SURFHVV RI FDUU\LQJ RXW DOWHUDWLRQV DQG UHSDLUV ZLWK WKH LGHD RI UHVWRULQJ D
EXLOGLQJWRVRPHWKLQJOLNHLWVRULJLQDOIRUPDJHQHUDOUHQRYDWLRQ´,ELGS7KH
previous definition seems to be very confusing; since carrying out alterations to
heritage resources, or generally renovating them, does not seem to conform to the
notion of restoring them to their original condition. The lingual definition of
rehabilitatLRQUHIOHFWVWKHVDPHFRQIXVLRQ5HKDELOLWDWLRQLVGHILQHGDV³WKHDFWLRQRI
replacing a thing in, or restoring it to, a previous condition or status. Restoration to a
KLJKHU PRUDO VWDWH´ ,ELG S 7KH SUHYLRXV GHILQLWLRQ VHHPV WR EH FRQIXVLQJ
since the concept of rehabilitating heritage resources might not conform to the notion
of restoring them to a previous condition. The process of the rehabilitation of disused

83
historic buildings has always been known as a process that allows reusing such
buildings either by putting them to new uses or by sustaining their original uses
(Figure 18). The lingual definition of reconstruction is also ambiguous.
5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ LV GHILQHG DV ³WR FRQVWUXFW DQHZ WR UHVWRUH VRPHWKLQJ SDVW
PHQWDOO\´ ,ELG S 7KH GLIference between the demolition of the remnants of
historic buildings and rebuilding them anew and the restoration of existing historic
fabrics seems to be unclear, according to the previous definition. Renovation is
GHILQHG DV ³WKH DFWLRQ RI UHQRYDWLRQ RU the condition of having been renovated;
UHQHZDOUHVWRUDWLRQDQLQVWDQFHRIWKLVDFKDQJHHIIHFWHGE\UHQHZDO´,ELGS
The previous definition explains the process of the renovation of historic buildings as
if it is a restoration process. The concept of renovation seems to contradict with the
concept of restoration, which is a process concerned with the reinstatement of
heritage resources to a particular historic condition. The explanation of the process of
renovation as a restoration work might nRWEHDFFXUDWH5HPRGHOOLQJLVGHILQHGDV³WR
PRGHODJDLQUHFRQVWUXFW´,ELGS7KHIROORZLQJDUHRWKHUOLQJXDOGHILQLWLRQV
of other conservation interventions:

³6DOYDJH 7KH VDYLQJ RI D SURSHUW\ IURP ILUH RU RWKHU GDPDJH´ ,ELG
p2630)
³3UHVHUYDWion: The action of preserving or keeping from injury or
destruction; the act of being preserved. The state or condition of being
ZHOORULOOSUHVHUYHGVWDWHRINHHSLQJ´,ELGS
³5HIXUELVKPHQW7RIXUELVKDQHZWRUHSROLVKGRXSDJDLQ´,ELGS468)
³5HSOLFDWLRQ$FRS\UHSURGXFWLRQDOVRWKHDFWLRQRIUHSURGXFLQJ´,ELG
p2496)

The international framework

On the international level, the ICOMOS charters are considered the official
international documents that control conservation practice worldwide. Most of those

84
Figure 18. Gardyne's Land, which is a complex of five historic
buildings in Dundee in Scotland, has been re-used as a youth
hostel (gardynes 2012).
85
85
charters tend to use general language and mostly include recommendations
concerning the various aspects of conservation practice. It seems that those charters
tend to leave the introduction of specific definitions of conservation interventions for
every country that is expected to adopt its own official list of definitions. Only the
national charters might include detailed lists of definitions of the various conservation
interventions. The Athens Charter (Appendix 1) includes a number of
recommendations concerning the various conservation interventions; such as
restoration, reuse and preservation. However, the charter does not seem to include
any concrete definitions. For instance, in relation to restoration, the charter states that
³ZKHQDVWKHUHVXOWRIGHFD\RUGHVWUXFWLRQUHVWRUDWLRQDSSHDUVWREHLQGLVSHQVDEOHLW
recommends that the historic and artistic work of the past should be respected,
ZLWKRXW H[FOXGLQJ WKH VW\OH RI DQ\ JLYHQ SHULRG´ 7KH $WKHQV &KDUWHU IRU WKH
Restoration of Historic Monuments - 1931 - International Council on Monuments and
Sites 2012, p1). The charter also points out that, for restoration or consolidation
works, the cautious use of modern materials in ancient monuments is accepted as
long as it is concealed (Ibid). In relation to preservation, the Athens Charter states
WKDW ³ZLWK UHJDUG WRWKH SUHVHUYDWLRQRI PRQXPHQWDO VFXOSWXUH WKH FRQIHUHQFH LVRI
opinion that the removal of works of art from the surroundings for which they were
designed is, in principle, to be discouraged. The charter recommends, by way of
precaution, the preservation of original models whenever these still exist or if this
SURYHVLPSRVVLEOHWKHWDNLQJRIFDVWV´ ,ELGS7KH FKDUWHUDOVRUHFRPPHQGVWKH
occupation of historic buildings so as to ensure the continuity of their lives, and
UHFRPPHQGVWKHUHWHQWLRQRIWKHKLVWRULFEXLOGLQJV¶RULJLQDOXVHVRUDGDSWLQJWKHPWR
RWKHUXVHVDVORQJDVWKRVHQHZXVHVUHVSHFWWKHEXLOGLQJV¶KLVWRULFFKDUDFWHU,ELG
The Venice Charter (Appendix 2) has been the first charter to adopt a definition of
one of these conservation interventions, which has been the definition of restoration.
,QUHODWLRQWRWKHGHILQLWLRQRIUHVWRUDWLRQWKH9HQLFH&KDUWHUVWDWHVWKDW³WKHSURFHVV
of restoration is a highly specialised operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the
aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original
PDWHULDODQGDXWKHQWLFGRFXPHQWV,WPXVWVWRSDWWKHSRLQWZKHUHFRQMHFWXUHEHJLQV´

86
(Earl 1997, p96). The charter also includes a number of recommendations concerned
with the use and reuse of monuments, and the conservation and restoration of historic
sites (Earl 1997).
The Burra Carter, adopted in 1981 (Ibid), can be considered one of the earliest
charters to adopt a comprehensive list of definitions of the various conservation
interventions. This list of definitions includes definitions of conservation
interventions; such as conservation, maintenance, preservation, restoration,
reconstruction and adaptation (Ibid). The definitions of the previous conservation
interventions are:

³&RQVHUYDWLRQ PHDQV DOO WKH SURFHVVHV RI ORRNLQJ DIWHU D SODFH VR DV WR
retain its cultural significance. It includes maintenance and may according
to circumstance include preservation, restoration, reconstruction and
adaptation and will be commonly a combination of more than one of these.
Maintenance means the continuous protective care of the fabric, contents
and setting of a place, and is to be distinguished from repair. Repair
involves restoration or reconstruction and it should be treated accordingly.
Preservation means maintaining the fabric of a place in its existing state
and retarding deterioration.
Restoration means returning the existing fabric of a place to a known
earlier state by removing accretions or by reassembling existing
components without the introduction of new material.
Reconstruction means returning a place as nearly as possible to a known
earlier state and is distinguished by the introduction of materials (new or
old) into the fabric. This is not to be confused with either re-creation or
conjectural reconstruction, which are outside the scope of this charter.
$GDSWDWLRQ PHDQV PRGLI\LQJ D SODFH WR VXLW SURSRVHG FRPSDWLEOH XVHV´
(Ibid, p100)

87
The code of ethics, developed by the International Institute for Conservation in
Ottawa, includes some definitions of some conservation interventions; such as
conservation, preservation, reconstruction and restoration (Ibid). Those definitions
are completely different from the previous definitions adopted by the Burra Charter.
Although the definitions are different, they do not contradict with each other. It is
even possible to find some similarities among corresponding definitions, such as the
definition of preservation. The definition of preservation in the Burra Charter implies
retaining the fabric in its state and carrying out all necessary remedial works. In the
Canadian code the definition of preservation implies stopping the damage and
deterioration by all possible means, and also implies the possibility to maintain the
current condition of the fabric. It is also possible to find such similarities between the
definitions of restoration in both charters, since both definitions imply the
reinstatement of the heritage resource to an early state. The definitions of the
conservation interventions adopted by the Canadian code are:

³&RQVHUYDWLRQ $OO DFWLRQV DLPHG DW WKH VDIHJXDUGLQJ RI FXOWXUDO SURSHUW\
for the future. Its purpose is to study, record, retain and restore the
culturally significant qualities of the object with the least possible
intervention.
Preservation: All actions taken to retard deterioration of or prevent damage
to cultural property, it involves controlling the environment and conditions
of use, and may include treatment in order to maintain a cultural property,
as nearly as possible, in an unchanging state.
Reconstruction: All actions taken to recreate, in whole or in part, a cultural
property, based upon historical, literary, graphic, pictorial, archaeological
and scientific evidence. Its aim is to provide an understanding of a cultural
property, and is based on little or no original material but clear evidence of
a former state.
Restoration: All actions taken to modify the existing materials and structure
of a cultural property to represent a known earlier state. Its aim is to

88
 preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic value of a cultural property
and it is based on respect for remaining original material and clear evidence
RIWKHHDUOLHUVWDWH´,ELd, p111)

The problem of the inconsistency among the definitions of the various conservation
interventions can also be found in the official definitions adopted by a number of
different countries. The lingual differences between the English and the American
dialects can be considered the reason for the inconsistency between the corresponding
vocabularies describing the various conservation interventions that are adopted by
both countries. In England, conservation is used as the umbrella expression sheltering
all the other subsidiary conservation interventions. On the other hand, in the United
States of America, the equivalent expression is historic preservation.

The definitions officially adopted in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the key legislation concerned with architectural and urban
FRQVHUYDWLRQLVWKH³3ODQQLQJ/LVWHG%XLOGLQJVDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ$UHDV$FW
LQ(QJODQGDQGWKH³3ODQQLQJ/LVWHG%XLOGLQJVDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ$UHDV6FRWODQG
Act 1997" in Scotland. Both acts include definitions of some conservation
vocabularies; such as the definition of a building, the definition of listed buildings,
and the meaning of listed building consent. They also include a supplement in Part
IV, which includes explanations of what is meant by some conservation expressions;
such as conservation area, conservation area consent and listed building. However, it
seems that both acts have not adopted any official definitions of the various
conservation interventions (The Stationery Office 1990, Planning (Listed Buildings
and Conservation Areas) (Scotland) Act 1997 2012).
The MEMORANDUM OF GUIDANCE on listed buildings and conservation
areas (Historic Scotland 1998) includes a number of recommendations concerned
with the various undertakings affecting the built heritage; such as the demolition of
old buildings, the adaptive re-use of historic buildings, and the change of use of old

89
buildings. Article 2.10 in the sub-VHFWLRQ HQWLWOHG ³3ROLF\ LQ 2SHUDWLQJ /LVWHG
%XLOGLQJ &RQWURO 'HPROLWLRQ´ LQ WKH VHFRQG FKDSWHr of the memorandum includes
VRPHRIVXFKUHOHYDQWUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV7KLVDUWLFOHVWDWHVWKDW³JRYHUQPHQWSROLF\
with regard to the demolition of listed buildings is that no worthwhile building should
be lost to our environment unless it is demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that
HYHU\HIIRUWKDVEHHQH[HUWHGE\DOOFRQFHUQHGWRILQGSUDFWLFDOZD\VRINHHSLQJLW´
(Ibid, p14). The memorandum also includes few definitions, such as the definition of
the demolition of listed buildings adopted in section 7.0.0 HQWLWOHG ³'HPROLWLRQ´
ZKLFKVWDWHVWKDW³GHPROLWLRQLQYROYHVWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRUVXEVWDQWLDOGHVWUXFWLRQRID
whole building. Demolition of a lesser part of the building should usually be regarded
as an alteration to it and applications for such work handlHG DFFRUGLQJO\´ ,ELG
p175). Except for the previous definition, the memorandum does not seem to include
any other definitions of any of the conservation interventions.
The British Standards include a separate standard concerned with conservation
practice, which has adopted a list of the definitions of the various conservation
interventions (The British Standards 1998). The British standard number 7913: 1998,
ZKLFKLVHQWLWOHG³7KH%ULWLVK6WDQGDUG*XLGHWRWKH3ULQFLSOHVRIWKH&RQVHUYDWLRQRI
Historic BuLOGLQJV´ LV WKH VHSDUDWH VWDQGDUG FRQFHUQHG ZLWK FRQVHUYDWLRQ SUDFWLFH
This British standard has adopted a list of definitions of conservation interventions;
such as alteration, conservation, conversion, design, intervention, maintenance,
preservation, protection, rebuilding, reconstruction, repair, replication, restoration and
reversibility. The definitions that this standard has adopted are:

³$OWHUDWLRQV :RUN WKH REMHFW RI ZKLFK LV WR FKDQJH RU LPSURYH WKH
function of a building or artefact or to modify its appearance.
Conservation: Action to secure the survival or preservation of buildings,
cultural artefacts, natural resources, energy or any other thing of
acknowledged value for the future.
Conversion: Alteration, the object of which is a change of use of a building
or artefact, from one use or type to another.

90
Design: Abstract concept of a building or artefact. It can exist in the mind
or on paper and if realized, it can be represented in the building or artefact
itself.
Intervention: Any action which has a physical effect on the fabric of a
building or artefact.
Maintenance: Routine work necessary to keep the fabric of a building, the
moving parts of machinery, grounds, gardens or any other artefact, in good
order.
Preservation: State of survival of building or artefact, whether by historical
accident or through a combination of protection and active conservation.
Protection: Provision of legal restraints or controls on the destruction or
damage of buildings or artefacts, natural features, systems, sites, areas or
other things of acknowledged value, with a view to their survival or
preservation for the future.
Rebuilding: Remaking, on the basis of a recorded or reconstructed design, a
building or part of a building or artefact which has been irretrievably
damaged or destroyed.
Reconstruction: Re-establishment of what occurred or what existed in the
past, on the basis of documentary or physical evidence.
Repair: Work beyond the scope of regular maintenance to remedy defects,
significant decay or damage caused deliberately or by accident, neglect,
normal weathering or wear and tear, the object of which is to retain the
building or artefact to good order, without alteration or restoration.
Replication: Making an exact copy or copies of a building or artefact.
Restoration: Alteration of a building, part of a building or artefact which
has decayed, been lost or damaged or is thought to have been
inappropriately repaired or altered in the past, the objective of which is to
make it conform again to its design or appearance at a previous date.

91
 Reversibility: Concept of work to a building, part of a building or artefact
being carried out in such a way that it can be reversed at some future time,
ZLWKRXWDQ\VLJQLILFDQWGDPDJHKDYLQJEHLQJGRQH´,ELGSS-3)

The previous British standard includes other definitions and explanations of other
relevant conservation vocabularies. The Stirling Charter (Historic Scotland 2000) has
DGRSWHG WKH SUHYLRXV %ULWLVK 6WDQGDUGV¶ GHILQLWLRQV OLWHUDOO\ DQG DGGHG WKUHH RWKHU
definitions to the previous list.

The official definitions adopted in the United States of America

In the United States of America, the key federal legislation concerned with historic
SUHVHUYDWLRQLVWKH³1DWLRQDO+LVWRULF3UHVHUYDWLRQ$FW´7KHSUHYLRXV act has
not adopted any official list of definitions of the various conservation interventions.
Nevertheless, one of the relevant historic preservation guidelines; which is the
guidelines for preserving, rehabilitating, restoring, and reconstructing historic
buildings; has adopted a separate list of the definitions of these measures. The
previous guidelines include definitions of a number of conservation interventions;
which are preservation, rehabilitation, restoration and reconstruction (Weeks 1995).
Murtagh (1997) provides a glossary of the definitions of the various conservation
vocabularies, which also includes definitions of some conservation interventions.
Although this glossary is based on the National Park Service and the National Trust
for HistoriF3UHVHUYDWLRQ¶VSXEOLFDWLRQVWKHUHZHUHVRPHLQFRQVLVWHQFLHVEHWZHHQWKH
GHILQLWLRQV DGRSWHG E\ WKH JXLGHOLQHV DQG WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ 0XUWDJK JORVVDU\¶V
GHILQLWLRQV 7KH GHILQLWLRQV RI ³SUHVHUYDWLRQ´ DGRSWHG E\ ERWK GRFXPHQWV VHHP WR
reflect these inconsistencies. The definition that the guidelines for preserving,
rehabilitating, restoring, and reconstructing historic buildings have adopted for
preservation is:

92
 ³3UHVHUYDWLRQ LV GHILQHG DV WKH DFW RU SURFHVV RI DSSO\LQJ PHDVXUHV
necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of an historic
property. Work, including preliminary measures to protect and stabilize the
property, generally focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and repair of
historic materials and features rather than extensive replacement and new
FRQVWUXFWLRQ´ 6WDQGDUGV IRU 3UHVHUYDWLRQ DQG *XLGHOLQHV IRU 3UHVHUYLQJ
Historic Buildings: Home Page 2012, p1)

2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHGHILQLWLRQRISUHVHUYDWLRQZKLFKKDVEHHQOLVWHGLQ0XUWDJK¶V
glossary, is:

³3UHVHUYDWLRQ 7KH DFW or process of applying measures to sustain the

existing form, integrity, and material of a building or structure and the
existing form and vegetative cover of a site. It may include initial
stabilization work, where necessary, as well as ongoing maintenance of the
KLVWRULFEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOVDQGYHJHWDWLRQ´0XUWDJKS

0XUWDJK¶V JORVVDU\ LQFOXGHV GHILQLWLRQV RI VRPH FRQVHUYDWLRQ YRFDEXODULHV

explaining some conservation interventions; such as adaptive use, demolition,
destruction, preservation, reconstruction, rehabilitation, relocation, renovation,
restoration, rural preservation and stabilization. The following are the definitions
officially adopted by the guidelines for preserving, rehabilitating, restoring, and
reconstructing historic buildings of the conservation interventions; which are
rehabilitation, restoration and reconstruction:

³5HKDELOLWDWLRQ LV GHILQHG DV WKH DFW RU SURFHVV RI PDNLQJ SRVVLEOH D
compatible use for a property through repair, alterations, and additions
while preserving those portions or features which convey its historical,
FXOWXUDO RU DUFKLWHFWXUDO YDOXHV´ 6WDQGDUGV IRU 5HKDELOLWDWLRQ DQG
Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings: Home Page 2012, p1)

93
 ³5HVWRUDWLRQ LV GHILQHG DV WKH DFW RU SURFHVV RI DFFXUDWHO\ depicting the
form, features, and character of a property, as it appeared at a particular
period of time by means of the removal of features from other periods in its
history and reconstruction of missing features from the restoration period.
The limited and sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and
plumbing systems and other code-required work to make properties
IXQFWLRQDO LV DSSURSULDWH ZLWKLQ D UHVWRUDWLRQ SURMHFW´ 6WDQGDUGV IRU
Restoration and Guidelines for Restoring Historic Buildings 2012, p1)
³5HFRQVWUXFWLRQLVGHILQHGDVWKHDFWRUSURFHVVRIGHSLFWLRQ E\PHDQVRI
new construction, the form, features, and detailing of a non-surviving site,
landscape, building, structure, or object for the purpose of replicating its
appearance at a specifLF SHULRG RI WLPH DQG LQ LWV KLVWRULF ORFDWLRQ´
(Standards for Reconstruction and Guidelines for Reconstructing Historic
Buildings 2012, p1)

The Egyptian officially adopted definitions

$UWLFOHLQWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQ6DIHJXDUGLQJ$QWLTXLWLHV´LQFOXGHV

H[SODQDWLRQVRIVRPHH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWDUHXVHGLQWKHDFWVXFKDVWKH³RUJDQL]DWLRQ´
DQG WKH ³SHUPDQHQW FRPPLWWHH´ 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH DFW GRHV QRW VHHP WR LQFOXGH
definitions of any of conservation interventions. Article 13 in the previous act
addresses some procedures concerned with undertaking alterations to antiquities,
while article 30 addresses other procedures concerned with the restoration and
preservation of antiquities. Nevertheless, none of these articles has included any
definitions of these conservation interventions (Department of the Legislative Affairs
D7KHRWKHUUHOHYDQWDFWZDV³WKH(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQWKH&RQWURO
RI %XLOGLQJ:RUNV´7KHSUHYLRXVDFWLQFOXGHGDOLVWRIH[SODQDWLRQVRIWKH YDULRXV
vocabularies used in the act. Nevertheless, it did not involve any definitions of any
conservation interventions (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008). The
³(J\SWLDQ$FW1RRQ%XLOGLQJ:RUNV´ZKLFKKDVEHHQHQDFWHGLQ

94
can be considered the main legislation concerned with architectural and urban
conservation in Egypt. The previous act has adopted some definitions of some
relevant conservation vocabularies, such as the definitions of the buildings enjoying a
distinctive value and the areas enjoying a distinctive value. Nevertheless, the previous
act does not seem to have adopted any definitions of any conservation interventions
(Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

95
Chapter Six

Basic Architectural and Urban Conservation Concepts:

Analysis of Heritage Values, and Authenticity and Integrity
Evaluation

The architectural and urban conservation of the various heritage resources is expected
to involve material intervention influencing the heritage resources concerned.
Undertaking such material interventions should be based on clear conservation
strategy and philosophy. In some cases, the material conservation intervention in
heritage resources has been limited to the preservation of the relics of such heritage
resources, despite the availability of elaborate and accurate historic documents of the
original design of such relics. In other cases, the material intervention might take the
form of re-building the dilapidated historic buildings and adapting them to new uses.
The previous two examples seem to highlight one of the most significant
controversies associated with architectural and urban conservation practice.
To address the previous conservation controversy, many arguments have been
put forward. One of the arguments resorted to the historic era, to which the heritage
resource belongs, as a crucial factor that guides the conservation philosophy of such a
heritage resource. Common conservation practices seem to indicate that the
conservation of ancient monuments belonging to ancient eras, such as ancient
Egyptian or Roman eras, has always avoided the reconstruction of the missing
features of such monuments. The conservation of such monuments has also avoided
adapting them to alternative uses. On the other hand, the conservation of many
historic buildings, belonging either to the medieval or to the modern eras, has
succeeded in giving them alternative uses. Despite that the previous argument seems
to be sound, it might be weakened by other instances when the conservation of
ancient monuments successfully adapted them to modern uses. The successful

96
LQVWDOODWLRQRIDPRGHUQPXVHXPXVHLQVLGHDVPDOOVHFWLRQRIWKH7UDMDQ¶V)RUXPDQG
Markets, in Rome (Figure 19), is an example of such conservation practices. Some
other instances might even aggravate the previous controversy. The conservation
approach to some monuments, such as the Arbroath Abbey in Scotland (Figure 20),
seems to conform to the conservation approach adopted at ancient sites, such as the
Egyptian and Roman ancient sites. The missing parts of the abbey have not been
reconstructed, nor has it been given an alternative function. The abbey, which has
been founded in 1178 (Mackie and Cruden 1998), can be considered relatively very
modern if compared with the much older ancient Egyptian or Roman monuments.
Another argument has attributed the adopted conservation strategy of any site
to the influences of the heritage legislation or the international conservation charters.
In the United Kingdom, some historic sites are scheduled as ancient monuments,
while other historic sites are listed as listed buildings. The crucial criterion according
to which the historic site might be either scheduled or listed is the potentials of the
site and whether it can accommodate a new function or not. Some properties in the
United Kingdom are scheduled as ancient monuments and listed as listed buildings.
Edinburgh castle in Scotland is an example of such properties. The heritage
legislation that is involved with the management of ancient monuments is totally
different from the legislation that is concerned with the management of listed
buildings. The allowed physical conservation interventions in each case are expected
to differ according to the relevant legislation.
The previous two arguments are relevant, to some extent, despite that they miss
some points. It seems that the crucial factor, according to which the conservation
strategy of any historic site can be coined, is the potentials and qualities of the
heritage resource concerned. These qualities are usually referred to as the heritage
values satisfied by the heritage resource. Before adopting any conservation strategy,
and before making and decisions concerned with the conservation of any heritage
resource, conservationists should firstly understand and analyze the various values
satisfied by the heritage resource concerned. Feilden (2003) points out that the main
objective of architectural and urban conservation should be to preserve, and if

97
Figure 19. TraMDQ¶V)RUXPDQG0DUNHWVLQ5RPHLQ,WDO\

98
98
possible to enhance the values of the heritage resource. Therefore, conservationists
should first identify the values satisfied by the heritage resource concerned. They also
should decide on the values that should be preserved and enhanced. Regarding that
the enhancement of some values might be associated with the decline in other values.
The previous argument, which considers value analysis as the crucial factor that
should guide conservation strategies, seems to support the other argument that
attributes conservation strategies to the influences of heritage legislation in the United
Kingdom. It is obvious that the criterion according to which historic sites, in the
United Kingdom, can be either scheduled as scheduled monuments or listed as listed
buildings is the use value. Conservation strategies should also be developed based on
thorough evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the heritage resource. Value
analysis and authenticity and integrity evaluation are considered as the basic concepts
of architectural and urban conservation.

The notion and definitions of heritage values

Jokilehto defines heritage value, in relation to cultural heritage, as "a social

association of qualities to things" (Jokilehto 2006, p2). He also indicates that values
evolve through cultural-social processes, and that learning and awareness experiences
influence the development of heritage values. Value can also be defined as "a socially
constructed phenomenon" (Throsby 2000, p27). The establishment of a heritage value
is a process closely associated with its social context (Ibid). Mason (2002)
emphasizes that heritage values evolve as a result of the interaction of the artifact and
its context. He adds that heritage values do not evolve from the absolute qualities of
the artifacts. Heritage values can also be defined as "those qualities regarded by a
person, group or community as important and desirable" (Carter and Bramley 2002,
p178). Heritage values can be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic values. Intrinsic
values are those values that are inherently existent in the heritage resource and do not
need manipulation so that they can be realized. On the other hand, extrinsic values
are those values that depend on the human perception of the heritage resource and

99
Figure 20. Arbroath Abbey, in Arbroath in Scotland.

100
100
always need to be experienced so that such values can be appreciated (Ibid). The
previously emphasized association of heritage values to their context seems to
indicate that values enjoy a relative nature. The values held by one generation might
differ from those held by other generations (Spennemann 2006).

Value typologies

Values are usually classified and grouped in subsidiary sets under what can be called
typologies of values. The Burra Charter is the most prominent international document
that has adopted a clear typology of values. The charter has adopted a typology of
YDOXHV WKDW FODVVLILHV WKH YDULRXV YDOXHV XQGHU IRXU NH\ JURXSV ZKLFK DUH ³WKH
DHVWKHWLF YDOXH´ ³WKH KLVWRULF YDOXH´ ³WKH VFLHQWLILF YDOXH´ DQG ³WKH VRFLDO YDOXH´
According to the Burra Charter, the aesthetic value involves aspects of the cultural
heritage that can be experienced by means of the human senses. The sensory
perception of the aesthetic value involves aspects of the cultural heritage; such as
form, scale, colour, texture and material of the fabric, the smells and the sounds
associated with the place of the concerned heritage resource, and its use. The historic
value of the heritage resource is concerned with the historic associations of the
heritage resource with events or people in the past. The scientific value of the
heritage resource is involved with the educational and research values of the property.
Finally, the social value of the heritage resource is concerned with the qualities of the
heritage resource that have contributed towards making the heritage resource the
focus of a spiritual, political, national, or other cultural sentiment to a particular
cultural group (Australia ICOMOS 1999).
One of the earliest typologies of values is the typology developed by Alois
Riegl in the book that he published, and which is entitled "The modern cult of
monuments: its character and its origin". Riegl classifies heritage values into two
JURXSV ZKLFK DUH WKH ³PHPRULDO YDOXHV´ DQG WKH ³SUHVHQW-GD\ YDOXHV´ 7KH
³PHPRULDO YDOXHV´ LQFOXGH WKH DJH YDOXH WKH KLVWRULFDO YDOXH DQG the intended
PHPRULDOYDOXH2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKH³SUHVHQW-GD\YDOXHV´LQFOXGHWKHXVHYDOXH

101
the art value, the newness value and the relative art value (Jokilehto 1999b). Feilden
(2003) has developed another typology of heritage values. He classifies heritage
values into three broad groups; which are the emotional values, the cultural values
DQG WKH XVH YDOXHV $FFRUGLQJ WR )HLOGHQ¶V W\SRORJ\ WKH HPRWLRQDO YDOXHV LQFOXGH
values; such as the wonder value, the identity value, the continuity value, the respect
and veneration values, and the symbolic and spiritual values. The cultural values
involve values; such as the documentary value, the historic value, the archaeological
and the age values, the aesthetic and the architectural values, the townscape value, the
landscape and the ecological values, and the technological and scientific values.
Finally, the use values include values; such as the functional value, the economic
value, the social value, the educational value, and the political value.
English Heritage has also developed a typology of values, which has been
detailed in its publication entitled "Sustaining the historic environment: new
perspectives on the future" (English Heritage 1997). English Heritage has classified
heritage values into six groups; which are the cultural values, the educational and
academic values, the economic values, the resource values, the recreational values,
and the aesthetic values. Compared with other typologies, the previous typology is
very distinctive because of its concerns about the sustainability dimension in
conservation. Adopting a new value that has been called the resource value manifests
(QJOLVK +HULWDJH¶V SUHYLRXV FRQFHUQV (QJOLVK +HULWDJH¶V H[SODQDWLRQ RI ZKDW LV
PHDQWE\WKHUHVRXUFH YDOXHVWDWHVWKDW³ORQJHr-lived buildings usually make better
use of the energy and resources that were used during their construction, and reuse is
usually more economic than demolition and redevelopment. Conservation is
LQKHUHQWO\ VXVWDLQDEOH´ (QJOLVK +HULWDJH  S ,Q 08, English Heritage has
adopted another more developed typology of values, which has been detailed in the
publication entitled "CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES, POLICIES AND
GUIDANCE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE HISTORIC
ENVIRONMENT" (English Heritage 2008). The previous typology has classified the
YDULRXV KHULWDJH YDOXHV LQWR IRXU JURXSV ZKLFK DUH HQWLWOHG ³WKH HYLGHQWLDO YDOXH´
³WKHKLVWRULFDOYDOXH´³WKHDHVWKHWLFYDOXH´DQG³WKHFRPPXQDOYDOXH´

102
 In addition to the previous officially adopted typologies of heritage values,
other scholars have developed their typologies of values. Mason (2002) has proposed
a typology of heritage values that involves two groups of values. These two groups
are the sociocultural values and the economic values. The sociocultural values
include the historical value, the cultural/symbolic value, the social value, the
spiritual/religious value and the aesthetic value. On the other hand, the economic
values include the use (market) value, the none use (nonmarket) value, the existence
value, the option value and the bequest value.
The Egyptian legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation,
ZKLFK DUH WKH ³(J\SWLDQ $FW 1R   on the Control of the Demolition of
Buildings and Stable Structures and the ConVHUYDWLRQRIWKH$UFKLWHFWXUDO+HULWDJH´
DQGWKH³(J\SWLDQ$FW1R RQ%XLOGLQJ:RUNV´, have also been involved
with particular values. The Act No. 144 is involved with values; such as the
architectural value, the historic value and the economic value (Department of the
Legislative Affairs 2008). On the other hand, the Act No. 119 is involved with
values; such as the architectural value, the historic value, the artistic value, the
functional value, the townscape value, the aesthetic value, and the landscape and the
ecological values (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

The implications of heritage values

The conservation of any heritage resource should be based on a clear understanding

of the various values satisfied by the concerned heritage resource. Therefore, the
conservation of any heritage resource should be preceded by a thorough analysis of
the various values that are satisfied by the concerned heritage resource. This initial
analysis should focus on identifying the various values satisfied by the heritage
resource, as well as on evaluating the level of significance of each value and of the
resource as a whole. Prior to undertaking the initial value analysis process,
conservationists should first define the implications and meanings of each heritage
value. These heritage values are diverse and can be classified and grouped according

103
a large number of value typologies. One of the key groups of heritage values, which
might be incorporated within many value typologies, can be called the emotional
values. Emotional values might involve other subsidiary values, such as the wonder
value, the identity value, the spiritual/religious value, and the respect and veneration
values. The wonder value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability
in stimulating secular emotions, such as wonder. The identity value of the heritage
resource can be revealed by its capability in stimulating the nation or the
FRPPXQLW\¶VVHQWLPHQWVRILWVLGHQWLW\)HLOGHQ7KHVSLULWXDOUHOLJLRXVYDOue of
the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability in stimulating the religious
emotions associated with the beliefs of the various religions (Mason 2002). The
spiritual/religious value of the heritage resource might also be manifested by its
retention of physical elements that embody its spiritual/religious value, such as
religious buildings (Figure 21) or its relics like spires or minarets (Feilden 2003).
Finally, the respect and veneration values of the heritage resource, which are similar
to the spiritual/religious value, can be manifested by its ability to stimulate the

Figure 21. The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican is an

example of the buildings that enjoy an exceptional religious value.
104
104
FRPPXQLW\¶V HPRWLRQV RI UHVSHFW DQG YHQHUDWLRQ HLWKHU WRZDUGV WKH FRQFHUQHG
KHULWDJHUHVRXUFHDVRQHRIWKHFRPPXQLW\¶VKLVWRULFIHDWVRUWRZDUGVKLVWRULFILJXUHV
that are historically associated with the concerned heritage resource.
The cultural values represent another well-established subsidiary group of
many value typologies. Cultural values might involve values, such as the historic
value, the age value, the archaeological value, the newness value, the aesthetic value,
the artistic value, the architectural value, the townscape and urban values, the
landscape and ecological values, and the scientific value. The historic value of the
heritage resource might be manifested by its retention of its original style and
condition (Jokilehto 1999b). The age of the heritage resource might also indicate its
historic value. The historic value of the heritage resource can also be expressed by its
historic association with events or people in the past, or by its association with an
outstanding designer or architect. The technological qualities of the heritage resource
might also indicate its historic value (Mason 2002). The age value is another value
that might be classified as a cultural value. The age value of the heritage resource
might be expressed by its retention of evidences of weathering and use over time, and
by its retention of patina of age and evidences of lack of integrity (Jokilehto 1999b).
The cultural values also involve the archaeological value. The archaeological value of
the heritage resource might be manifested by its archaeological qualities and
potentials. The cultural values might also involve another value that is called the
newness value. The newness value of the heritage resource might be manifested by
its representation of a contemporary architectural or artistic school of design (Figure
22).
The aesthetic value is another value that can be classified as a cultural value.
The aesthetic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its unique and
exceptional visual qualities, and by its ability to offer exceptional sensual experiences
(Mason 2002). The cultural values involve other values, such as the artistic value.
The artistic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its retention of
exceptional works of art.

105
Figure 22. Paimio Hospital, in Paimio in Finland, is an example of the recent
heritage that enjoys a clear newness value because of its representation of the
modernism architectural movement. The hospital has been designed by
)LQODQG¶VPRVWUHQRZQHGDUFKLWHFW$Ovar Aalto.

106 106
 The architectural value is another significance value that can be classified
under the cultural values group. Evaluating the architectural value of the heritage
resource is still bDVHGRQ9LWUXYLXV¶IDPRXVGHILQLWLRQRIDUFKLWHFWXUH9LWUXYLXVKDV
FLWHG KLV GHILQLWLRQ RI DUFKLWHFWXUH LQ KLV ERRN HQWLWOHG ³7+( 7(1 %22.6 21
$5&+,7(&785(´0RUJDQ9LWUXYLXV¶GHILQLWLRQRIDUFKLWHFWXUHKDVIRFXVHG
on three key aspects; which are durability, convenience and beauty. In the third
chapter of the first book, in the previous publication, Vitruvius discusses the various
departments of architecture. While discussing the various departments of architecture,
Vitruvius addresses the previous three aspects of architecture, which reflect his
GHILQLWLRQ RI DUFKLWHFWXUH 9LWUXYLXV UHDGV ³ 7KHUH DUH WKUHH GHSDUWPHQWV RI
architecture: the art of building, the making of time-pieces, and the construction of
machinery. Building is, in its turn, divided into two parts, of which the first is the
construction of fortified towns and of works for general use in public places, and the
second is the putting up of structures for private individuals. There are three classes
of public buildings: the first for defensive, the second for religious, and the third for
utilitarian purposes. Under defence comes the planning of walls, towers, and gates,
SHUPDQHQWGHYLFHVIRUUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWKRVWLOHDWWDFNV«$OOWKHVHPXVWEHEXLOW
with due reference to durabilityFRQYHQLHQFHDQGEHDXW\´0RUJDQSS-17).
)HLOGHQ  KDV DOVR FLWHG 6LU +HQU\ :RRWHQ¶V GHILQLWLRQ RI WKH DUFKLWHFWXUDO
YDOXHVWKDWDJUHHVZLWK9LWUXYLXV¶SUHYLRXVDUJXPHQWDQGZKLFKDGGUHVVHVWKHVDPH
three aspects of architecture: commodity, firmness and delight. Based on the previous
definitions and arguments, the architectural value of the heritage resource might be
PDQLIHVWHG E\ WKH H[FHSWLRQDO ³GHOLJKW´ DVSHFWV RI LWV GHVLJQ DV ZHOO DV WKH
³ILUPQHVV´ DQG ³FRPPRGLW\´ DVSHFWV RI LWV GHVLJn. The delight aspects of the
architectural value of the heritage resource might involve the relationship of the built
elements to the site of the heritage resource, the massing and silhouette of the
resource, the proportions of the elements that constitute the heritage resource, the size
of the various elements constituting the resource and its relationship to the human
GLPHQVLRQVDQGWKHVXLWDELOLW\RIWKHKHULWDJHUHVRXUFH¶VDUFKLWHFWXUDOPDWHULDOVDQG
ornaments. The firmness aspects of the architectural value might be manifested by the

107
structure system of the built elements of the heritage resource, its resistance to all
kinds of loads, and its durability. Finally, the commodity aspects of the architectural
value of the heritage resource might be manifested by the usefulness of the built
elements of the resource, and its ability to meet a variety of functions (Feilden 2003).
The architectural value of the heritage resource might also involve another subsidiary
aspect that can be called the sustainability, or environmental aspects of the
architectural value. The sustainability qualities of the heritage resource might be
manifested by its efficient use of energy and the natural resources that were used in
the construction of the built elements of the heritage resource (English Heritage
1997).
The cultural values might also involve another significant value that is
associated with historic urban areas, as a form of heritage resources, which can be
called the townscape and urban values. The townscape value of the heritage resource
might be manifested by the visual association and the unity of groups of buildings, as
well as the urban spaces encompassed among these buildings, which occupy the site
of the historic urban area. The townscape value of the heritage resource might be
indicated by the treatment of the street and pavement surfaces of the urban spaces in
the historic urban area. The inward and outward views of the historic urban area, as
well as its reference points and vistas might also indicate its townscape value (Feilden
2003). The landmark qualities of the historic urban area might also indicate its
exceptional townscape value. The unity of the urban environment attributed to the
application of local materials to the various elements constituting the urban setting of
the heritage resource might indicate its urban value (Feilden 2003).
The landscape value of the heritage resource is another value that can be
classified as a cultural value. The landscape value of the heritage resource might be
manifested by the quality of the various landscape elements associated with the
heritage resource. The cultural values might also involve another significant value,
which is the scientific value. The scientific value of the heritage resource might be
indicated by its ability to provide answers to scientific dilemmas, and by its retention
of natural features that are capable of providing such answers.

108
 Some of the values satisfied by heritage resources might be grouped under
another subsidiary group of values that can be called the use values. The use values
might involve values, such as the functional value. The functional value of the
heritage resource might be indicated by its being in use (Jokilehto 1999b). The
functional value might also be manifested by the retention of the heritage resource of
its original use, or by its potentials that enable it to accommodate alternative
functions. The use values involve another significant value, which is the economic
value. The economic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability
to make a significant contribution towards the economic development of the
communities immediately attached to it by encouraging tourism (English Heritage
1997).
The use values involve other significant values, such as the social value. The
social value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its use for social
gatherings; such as celebrations, markets, picnics or ball games. The ability of the
heritage resource to facilitate social connections and networks might also indicate its
social value (Mason 2002). The educational value is another value that can be
classified under the use values. The educational value of the heritage resource might
be manifested by its ability to provide educational opportunities (Feilden 2003). The
ability of the heritage resource to provide a means for new generations to understand
the past and understand their own culture might also indicate its educational value
(English Heritage 1997). The existence of educational institution inside the historic
urban area, which represents the concerned heritage resource, might also indicate its
educational value. The use values might also involve another value, which is the
political value. The political value of the heritage resource might be indicated by its
DELOLW\WRHVWDEOLVKWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHQDWLRQLQWKHSHRSOH¶VPLQGDQGE\LWVDELOLW\WR
re-establish the political identity of the nation (Feilden 2003). The political value of
the heritage resource might also be indicated by its ability to establish and maintain
civil relations and governmental legitimacy, and by its ability to stimulate a positive
political performance that helps in building the civil society (Mason 2002).

109
The attributes of heritage values

Heritage values are usually expressed and conveyed by a group of attributes

representing the various aspects of the heritage resource. These attributes are
addressed by the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, which is the official document concerned with the management
of World Heritage Sites. There are 14 versions of the Operational Guidelines. These
14 versions represent the continuous development undertaken to the Operational
Guidelines. The first 12 versions of the Operational Guidelines represent the first
stage of this development process. The Operational Guidelines of 2005 represent the
second stage of the development process. Until the adoption of the version of 2005,
the Operational Guidelines addressed only four attributes of heritage values. These
four attributes are design, materials, workmanship and setting (UNESCO 1999). The
version of 2005 of the Operational Guidelines has adopted a more elaborate list of
heritage attributes; which involve form and design; materials and substance; use and
function; traditions, techniques and management systems; location and setting;
language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal
and external factors (UNESCO 2005b). The last version of the Operational
Guidelines, which is the version of 2008, has not adopted any changes concerning the
previous list of attributes (UNESCO 2008).
The first attribute, which is form and design, is concerned with the appearance
of the heritage resource as well as its design (Petzet 1995). Cleere (1995) indicates
that the materials of the heritage resource, which represents the second attribute,
might be concerned with the materials used for the new developments inside historic
towns, as a pattern of heritage resources. Cleere adds that the function of the heritage
resource, which is the third attribute, involves the uses of the concerned property, as
well as the new alternative uses that might be adopted in the case of reusing the
heritage resource. Such a change of use might result in physical changes to the
heritage resource, particularly in the case of reusing properties representing industrial
heritage that might result in removing the equipment of the property. The fourth

110
attribute adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2005 is called "traditions,
techniques and management systems". The previous attribute was adopted in the
previous versions of the Operational Guidelines under another name, which was
³ZRUNPDQVKLS´ &OHHUH  LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH ZRUNPDQVKLS RI WKH KHULWDJH
resource involves the techniques adopted to construct it, as well as the tools adopted
for this task. Cleere also indicates that the setting of the heritage resource, which is
the fifth attribute, involves the urban fabrics immediately surrounding the concerned
heritage resource. The sixth attribute, which is "spirit and feeling", is concerned with
the character, or sense of place, of the cultural property (UNESCO 2005b). The item
in the list of attributes adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2005, which involves
³RWKHULQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOIDFWRUV´LVXQGRXEWHGO\YHU\DPELJXRXV,WLVQRWFOHDU
what is meant by these internal and external factors. The Operational Guidelines have
not tried to provide an explanation of what is meant by these factors.
"Spirit and feeling", which has been adopted as one of the attributes of heritage
values for the first time in the Operational Guidelines of 2005, is a problematic
DWWULEXWH6RPHWLPHVVSLULWDQGIHHOLQJLVUHIHUUHGWRDVWKH³VHQVHRISODFH´RIWKH
heritage resource (UNESCO 2005b). Jivén and Larkham (2003) emphasize the
complexity of the notion of the "sense of place" of the heritage resource, or what
might be referred to as "genius loci". They elaborate on the various urban models,
which have tried to address the feaWXUHVWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRZDUGVWKH³VHQVHRISODFH´
of the heritage resource. One of the key urban models is the model developed by
Norber-Schulz. Norber-Schulz model has addressed the contribution of four thematic
levels towards the genius loci of historic urban areas, as a form of heritage resources.
These four levels are the earth's topography, the cosmological light conditions and the
sky, the buildings, and the symbolic and existential meanings in the cultural
landscape (Jivén and Larkham 2003, p70). People, whether they occupy a particular
XUEDQDUHDRUWKH\PHUHO\XVHLWGHYHORSWKHLURZQ³VSLULWDQGIHHOLQJ´RIWKLVDUHDE\
integrating the characteristics of the various features that form the overall structure of
the urban environment in this area, through their value systems. What emphasizes the
FRQWURYHUV\ RI WKH ³VHQVH RI SODFH´ DV DQ DWWULEXWH RI KHULWDJH YDOXHV LV WKDW WKH

111
values and attitudes held by individuals change over time (Jivén and Larkham 2003).
The previous arguments seem to indicate that the feeling of any urban area is
expected to vary according to the individuals developing this feeling and whether
they occupy or merely use this area. Warren (1998) also emphasizes the change of
LQGLYLGXDOV¶DWWLWXGHVDQGIHHOLQJVWRZDUGVWKHEXLOW environment over time. Warren
discusses some factors that influence the perception of new developments introduced
LQ KLVWRULF FRQWH[WV 2QH RI WKHVH IDFWRUV KDV EHHQ FDOOHG ³DPHOLRUDWLRQ´
Amelioration, as a factor, is concerned with the growing acceptability of the new
development over time. The change of attitude towards new developments introduced
inside historic urban areas might be ascribed to two factors, the first of which is what
can be called the "getting used to it" factor, while the other is the "evolution of
generations". The generations growing up inside a particular urban area develop
innate affection, and a positive sense of place, towards this area, even if the quality of
its constituent features is very poor (Warren 1998). The previous argument seems to
indicate that the perception and "sense of place" of historic areas vary among various
individuals, whether they are occupiers or visitors of these areas, and according to
their cultural backgrounds as well.

The evaluation of the level of significance of heritage values

The conservation of any heritage resource should be based on thorough

understanding and analysis of the heritage values satisfied by the heritage resource
concerned. Therefore, the values satisfied by the concerned heritage resources should
first be identified. The level of significance of these values should also be evaluated.
Mason (2002) points out that the assessment of the values of heritage resources
involves three subsidiary processes, which are the identification of all the values of
the heritage resource, the description and analysis of these values, and the ranking of
these values. He adds that the level of significance of each value should be evaluated.
Aplin (2002) points out that the process of evaluating the significance of heritage
resources involves three main dimensions, the first of which is determining the scale

112
of the heritage resource or what can be called the level of significance. This scale
ranges from the local level to the global level. The second dimension is concerned
with evaluating the importance of the heritage resource at the appropriate scale. The
third dimension is concerned with evaluating the uniqueness and representativeness
of the heritage resource. Carter and Bramley (2002) also emphasize the significance
of determining the level of significance of heritage resources. This level of
significance might be the personal and/or familial level, the local level, the regional
level, the provincial level, the national level, or the international level, where the
heritage resource is considered of significance to people of more than one nation.
The values satisfied by heritage resources nominated for inscription on the
World Heritage List should enjoy a level of significance that extends beyond the
national level to reach the international level. The values enjoying such a level of
significance are usually referred to as outstanding universal values. For the heritage
resources nominated for inscription on the World Heritage List to enjoy an
outstanding universal value, they should meet one or more of a list of ten criteria.
These criteria are listed in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
World Heritage Convention. The second criterion of this list attributes the
outstanding universal value of the nominated heritage resources to the interchange of
the values satisfied by these heritage resources. Such interchange of values takes
place either within a cultural area or over a span of time (UNESCO 2008). Jokilehto
(2006) adopts another significant criterion that justifies the international level of
significance of heritage resources, which is whether the value of the resource is a true
and authentic expression of the culture that the resource represents, or not.
Mason (2002) addresses another significant criterion that indicates the level of
significance of the concerned heritage resource, which is the stakeholders. The
stakeholders represent the different sources of heritage values. They are involved
with the valuing of the heritage resource. Stakeholders might be the local community,
any cultural group, the state, property owners and ordinary citizens (Mason 2002).
The stakeholders of the properties inscribed on the World Heritage List, or nominated
for inscription, might also involve the World Heritage Centre, the international

113
community and other international organizations. Therefore, the stakeholders of a
heritage resource can indicate the level at which the values of the resource are
experienced and appreciated. They can also indicate whether this level of significance
can extend to the international level or not.

The notions and definitions of authenticity and Integrity

-RNLOHKWRSRLQWVRXWWKDWWKHRULJLQRIWKHZRUG³DXWKHQWLF´LVWKH*UHHNZRUG

"authentikòs". He adds that the ZRUG³DXWKHQWLF´PLJKWUHIHUWRWKHZRUGVRULJLQDO
UHDO XQLTXH RU JHQXLQH 2QH RI WKH HDUO\ GHILQLWLRQV RI WKH WHUP ³DXWKHQWLF´
which goes back to the year 1849, reads "[what is called authentic is what can be
described as] sufficient to itself «>DQGZKDW@FRPPHQGVVXVWDLQVSURYHVLWVHOIDQG
hath credit and authority from itself" (Jokilehto 1995, p19). Another definition of the
authenticity of a work of art reads "the authenticity of a work of art is a measure of
truthfulness of the internal unity of the creative process and the physical realization of
the work and the effects of its passage through historic time" (Jokilehto 1999b, p296).
During the deliberations concerning the Nara Document, another definition of
authenticity has been adopted, which reads "[authenticity is a] measure of the degree
to which the values of a heritage property may be understood to be truthfully,
genuinely and credibly, expressed by the attributes carrying the values" (Stovel 2007,
p23). The previous definition has been construed, with few alterations, in Article 9 of
the Nara Document on Authenticity, which reads:

"Conservation of cultural heritage in all its forms and historical periods is

rooted in the values attributed to the heritage. Our ability to understand
these values depends, in part, on the degree to which information sources
about these values may be understood as credible or truthful. Knowledge
and understanding of these sources of information, in relation to original
and subsequent characteristics of the cultural heritage, and their meaning, is

114
 a requisite basis for assessing all aspects of authenticity." (UNESCO 1994,
p4)

On the other hand, integrity refers to an intact undivided state, and is about material
wholeness and completeness (Jokilehto 1999b). The Operational Guidelines of 2005
has adopted a definition of integrity, which reads "integrity is a measure of the
wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or cultural heritage and its attributes"
(UNESCO 2005b, p22). Mitchell (1995) indicates that the term integrity is used in
the United States of America to stand for what is meant by authenticity elsewhere.
The American definition of integrity reads "[integrity means] the ability of a property
to convey its significance" (Mitchell 1995, p376).
The notion of authenticity seems to enjoy a relative and variable nature. The
perception of authenticity varies among the various relevant professions; such as
archaeology, architecture and urban design. The notion of authenticity has also
transformed over time. The historic development of conservation practice has been
accompanied by changes in the notion of authenticity. The notion of authenticity
might also change from one culture to the other, and might also change according to
the pattern of the concerned heritage resource.
Ouf (2001) emphasizes the conflicting interests between archaeologists and
urban designers. While archaeologists are interested in detailed restoration and
complete authenticity, urban designers are interested in the conservation of the spirit
of the past even if the details of their designs have never existed. The conflicting
interests between archaeologists and urban designers seem to confirm their different
perception of the notion of authenticity. The notion of authenticity might differ from
one culture to the other. Larsen (1995) emphasizes the fact that some cultures might
not possess any terminology that expresses the western notion of "authenticity".
The notion of authenticity has also changed over time. Heynen (2006) has
emphasized the shift in the perception of the notion of authenticity from one historic
stage to the other. Lowenthal (1995) discusses the shifts in the notion of authenticity
over time, in further details. In the 14 th century, the lingual meaning of authenticity

115
has combined the two ideas of "authoritative" and "original". At that time, the
expression "authoritative" was associated with what was entitled to credence. Hence,
the expression "authoritative" combined the notions of respect and obedience. By the
15th century, what was considered authentic was granted a cachet of legal validity.
The meaning of authenticity in this sense was totally different from what was meant
by "true". The meaning of "authentic" in the 18 th century has changed to mean
"veridical", or the antonym of "forged" or "apocryphal". This change in the meaning
of authenticity might be ascribed to the development in book printing. The notion of
authenticity in the 19th century seems to have changed. By that time, authenticity was
perceived as a natural attribute rather than being contrived (Lowenthal 1995).
The development in conservation practice has also reflected inconsistent
perceptions of the notion of authenticity. Earl (1997) identifies two distinctive and
contradicting approaches to conservation that reflect different perceptions of
authenticity. These two approaches are the "scrape" and the "anti-scrape" approaches
to architectural conservation. The "scrape" approach has been associated with
architects, such as James Wyatt. According to James Wyatt's principles, architectural
conservation should focus on enhancing the imperfections of the concerned built
heritage resource by carrying out all the necessary alteration and demolition works.
Viollet-le-Duc is another architect whose conservation philosophy seems to agree
with the "scrape" approach. Viollet-le-'XF¶V SHUFHSWLRQ RI UHVWRUDWLRQ LV EHVW
H[SUHVVHGE\KLVRZQZRUGVUHDGLQJWKDWWRUHVWRUHDEXLOGLQJ«LVWRUH-establish it
in a state of completion which may never have existed at any given moment in the
past" (Earl 1997, p38). On the other hand, the "anti-scrape" approach has been
associated with architects, such as William Morris. William Morris is renowned as
WKH IRXQGHU RI WKH ³6RFLHW\ IRU WKH 3URWHFWLRQ RI $QFLHQW %XLOGLQJV´ 63$%. The
principles of the "anti-scrape" approach to conservation supported the protection of
historic buildings against the restoration, the synonym of scrapping buildings, which
resulted in the dramatic alteration and deformation of the built heritage (Earl 1997).
William Morris's, and the SPAB's, principles seem to conform to the former John
Ruskin's ideas, expressed in his book "THE SEVEN LAMPS OF

116
ARCHITECTURE". The principles of the "anti-scrape" approach to conservation
seem to express a mature perception of authenticity that respects all the significant
historic layers of accretions. Modern conservation practices, which respect the variety
of significant historic layers of accretions, seem to agree with the principles of the
³DQWL-VFUDSH´ DSSURDFK WR FRQservation. The conservation of many monuments
located inside Historic Cairo World Heritage Site seems to truthfully reflect such
principles. Al-Azhar Mosque, and its minarets, is an example of such monuments
(Figure 23).
The notion of authenticity might also differ according to the pattern and
context of the concerned heritage resource. Modern heritage is one of the patterns of
cultural heritage that is associated with a unique notion of authenticity. The
modernists' perception of authenticity does not seem to agree with the
FRQVHUYDWLRQLVWV¶ SHUFHSWLRQ +RQHVW\ UHSUHVHQWV WKH NH\ SULQFLSOH RI WKH PRGHUQ
movement architecture. The key feature of modernism is the architects' interest in
using the up to date building materials and techniques. Therefore, authenticity of
modern heritage means using new building materials and techniques, and means that
the building represents a straightforward response to the ethics of modernism. In the
case of evaluating the restoration works undertaken to modern heritage, restoration is
considered authentic if its architectural quality conforms to that of the old building
(Heynen 2006).
The notion of authenticity might differ in some special cases, such as the post-
conflict reconstructed historic towns. Thomson (2008) suggests three categories of
authenticity that can be adopted in such properties. Each category represents a
different notion of authenticity. "Authenticity of connection" is the first category. In
this case, authenticity means a full conformity of the reconstructed property with its
original condition. The second category is the "authenticity of renewal". This
category applies to totally wiped sites. In this case, authenticity might be understood
to mean the genuineness of the somber message that the reconstruction of the
property conveys, in relation to the traumatic events that led to the destruction of the
property. The third category is the "authenticity of experience". In this case,

117
Figure 23. Al-Azhar Mosque in Historic Cairo World Heritage Site in Egypt.

118 118
authenticity means the success in reflecting the experience of the conflict that led to
the damage of the concerned building.

The evaluation of authenticity and integrity

The evaluation of the authenticity of the concerned heritage resource seems to be

very challenging. Emphasizing the challenges associated with the evaluation of
authenticity, Laenen (1995) indicates that it might be impossible to devise a
mathematical formula that enables conservationists to measure the authenticity of
cultural heritage. Heynen (2006) emphasizes the vagueness of authenticity as a
quality that is hard to define, in spite of the Nara Document's trial to introduce such a
definition. Lowenthal (2008) also emphasizes the complexity to evaluate the
authenticity of cultural heritage since the evaluation process will be based on current
views about how yesterday was planned to inform today.
Some of the conservation charters are involved with the evaluation of
authenticity and integrity. The most relevant charters and documents are the Venice
Charter (Appendix 2), adopted in 1964; the Nara Document on Authenticity, adopted
in 1994; and the Riga Charter on Authenticity and Historical Reconstruction in
Relation to Cultural Heritage, adopted in 2000. The first paragraph of the Venice
&KDUWHUHQGVZLWKWKHUHQRZQHGVHQWHQFHWKDWUHDGV³,WLVRXUGXW\WRKDQGWKem [the
KLVWRULFPRQXPHQWV@RQLQWKHIXOOULFKQHVVRIWKHLUDXWKHQWLFLW\´,&2026BBBS
Petzet (1995) points out that this sentence implies that the meaning of authenticity
adopted by the Venice Charter exceeds the aspects of authenticity that have been
adopted by the World Heritage Convention. The aspects of authenticity, adopted by
the World Heritage Convention, include material, design, workmanship and setting.
Article 9 of the Venice Charter demands the adherence of any restoration work to the
original materials and the authentic documents, in association with the concerned
monument. Article 11, in the previous charter, demands the respect of all the historic
accretions of the monuments while undertaking any restoration works to them, since
the unity of style should not be the objective of restoration (ICOMOS ___). The latter

119
article seems to reflect the charter's perception of authenticity, which agrees with the
ethics of the "anti-scrape" approach to architectural conservation, and with the
SPAB's Manifesto, in particular.
The Nara Document on Authenticity might be the most relevant international
document to the evaluation of authenticity. The document provides the bases for the
evaluation of authenticity and identifies the various aspects of authenticity. These
aspects involve form and design, materials and substance, use and function, traditions
and techniques, location and setting, spirit and feeling, and other internal and external
factors (UNESCO 1994). The Riga Charter is also concerned with the evaluation of
authenticity of the cultural heritage. The charter addresses the reconstruction of
cultural heritage; focusing mainly on two patterns of cultural heritage, which are the
³PRQXPHQWV´ DQG ZKDW LV FDOOHG ³SODFHV´ ([SUHVVLQJ LWV UHVHUYDWLRQ DJainst
reconstruction, the charter clarifies the few instances when reconstruction might be
accepted. These instances include the loss of cultural heritage during disasters,
provided that a detailed historical documentation or survey of the lost cultural
heritage is available (English Heritage 2001). Nevertheless, the charter does not seem
WREHLQYROYHGZLWKWKHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHLPDJHRUWKH³VHQVHRISODFH´RIKLVWRULF
towns, which is a practice need not the literal reconstruction of lost buildings.
The World Heritage Committee has adopted a methodology concerned with the
evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the properties nominated for the
inscription on the World Heritage List. The Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention is the official document through
which the World Heritage Committee outlines this methodology. The Operational
Guidelines have undergone a continuous development process. This development
process has led to the adoption of several versions of the Operational Guidelines.
Fourteen versions of the Operational Guidelines have been adopted since the
implementation of the Convention. These versions are those of 1977, 1978, 1980,
1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2005 and 2008. The
evaluation methodology has also undergone another development process that
coincided with the development of the Operational Guidelines. The first 12 versions

120
of the Operational Guidelines represent the first stage of this development, while the
Operational Guidelines of 2005 and 2008 represent the second stage. The key feature
of the evaluation methodology that has been influenced by this development process
is concerned mainly with the attributes of authenticity. During the first stage of the
development process, cultural properties had to meet the test of authenticity in
design, materials, workmanship or setting, while fulfilling the conditions of integrity
was a prerequisite for natural properties only to qualify for the World Heritage Site
status. Following the adoption of the Operational Guidelines of 2005, nominated
cultural properties had to meet the conditions of authenticity and satisfy the
conditions of integrity so that they qualify for the World Heritage Site status. The
attributes of authenticity have also been developed to involve form and design;
materials and substance; use and function; traditions, techniques and management
systems; location and setting; language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit
and feeling; and other internal and external factors (UNESCO 1999, UNESCO
2005b, UNESCO 2008).
The Operational Guidelines of 2008 outline a methodology concerned with the
evaluation of the authenticity of the nominated cultural properties. According to this
methodology, nominated cultural properties are considered to meet the conditions of
authenticity if their relevant attributes of authenticity truthfully and credibly express
the satisfied heritage values. The attributes of authenticity that the Operational
Guidelines of 2008 adopt are form and design; materials and substance; use and
function; traditions, techniques and management systems; location and setting;
language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal
and external factors. The new DWWULEXWH ZKLFK LV ³VSLULW DQG IHHOLQJ´ LV FRQFHUQHG
with the character, and the sense of place, of the nominated cultural properties. While
preparing nomination documents, States Parties, to the World Heritage Convention,
should first determine which are the most relevant attributes of authenticity.
Subsequently, they have to develop a statement of authenticity that evaluates the
extent to which each attribute expresses the heritage values satisfied by the

121
nominated property. The previous methodology has been developed based on the
Nara Document's notion of authenticity evaluation (UNESCO 2008).
The Operational Guidelines of 2008 adopt another methodology concerned
with the evaluation of the integrity of the properties nominated for the inscription on
the World Heritage List. According to this methodology, integrity is considered as a
measure of the wholeness and intactness of the evaluated property. Therefore, the
methodology focuses on evaluating the limit to which the evaluated property
maintains all the elements that reflect its outstanding value, and on evaluating the
adequacy of the size of these elements. The methodology also evaluates the quality of
these elements and how far they are damaged by factors; such as uncontrolled new
urban development, or neglect. Each State Party has to develop a statement of
integrity attesting the integrity of the nominated property (UNESCO 2008).
The methodology adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2008, which is
concerned with the evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the properties
nominated for the inscription of the World Heritage List, has been influenced by
earlier national experiences in historic preservation. Stovel (2007) points out that the
test of authenticity has been influenced by the AmericDQ ³TXDOLI\LQJ FRQGLWLRQ RI
LQWHJULW\´ 7KH $PHULFDQ ³TXDOLI\LQJ FRQGLWLRQ RI LQWHJULW\´ KDV EHHQ DGRSWHG LQ
1953 to evaluate nominations to the American Register of Historic Places. The
American definition of integrity seems to reveal the similarity between the
2SHUDWLRQDO *XLGHOLQHV¶ DGRSWHG PHWKRGRORJ\ DQG WKH $PHULFDQ FRQGLWLRQ RI
LQWHJULW\ 7KH $PHULFDQ GHILQLWLRQ RI LQWHJULW\ UHDGV ³>LQWHJULW\@ LV WKH DELOLW\ RI D
SURSHUW\WRFRQYH\LWVVLJQLILFDQFH´6WRYHOS7KHDPHQGPHQWVXQGHUWDNHQ
to the Operational Guidelines concerning the application of the conditions of integrity
for cultural properties, as well as the concept of integrity evaluation, have mirrored
similar practices in Canada. In the early 1990s, Parks Canada adopted a policy that
reTXLUHGWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRI DFRQFHSWFDOOHG³FRPPHPRUDWLYH LQWHJULW\´IRU FXOWXUDO
KHULWDJHLQDZD\VLPLODUWRWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHFRQFHSWRI³HFRORJLFDOLQWHJULW\´LQ
WKHFDVHRIQDWXUDOKHULWDJH7KHFRQFHSWRI³FRPPHPRUDWLYHLQWHJULW\´LVDWRROWKDt
is used to evaluate the health and wholeness of the elements that express the

122
significance of the cultural property concerned (Stovel 2007). The previous
HYDOXDWLRQWRROZKLFKLVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKH³FRPPHPRUDWLYHLQWHJULW\´RIFXOWXUDO
properties, seems to resemble the methodology adopted to evaluate the integrity of
the properties nominated for the inscription on the World Heritage List.

123
Appendix One

Conservation Charters and Conventions, the Athens Charter,

1931

The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments

Adopted at the First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic

Monuments, Athens 1931

At the Congress in Athens the following seven main resolutions were made and called "Carta del
Restauro":

1. International organizations for Restoration on operational and advisory levels are to be

established.

2. Proposed Restoration projects are to be subjected to knowledgeable criticism to prevent mistakes

which will cause loss of character and historical values to the structures.

3. Problems of preservation of historic sites are to be solved by legislation at national level for all
countries.

4. Excavated sites which are not subject to immediate restoration should be reburied for protection.

5. Modern techniques and materials may be used in restoration work.

6. Historical sites are to be given strict custodial protection.

7. Attention should be given to the protection of areas surrounding historic sites.

124
 General Conclusions of the Athens Conference

I. DOCTRINES, GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The Conference heard the statement of the general principles and doctrines relating to the protection
of monuments.

Whatever may be the variety of concrete cases, each of which are open to a different solution, the
Conference noted that there predominates in the different countries represented a general tendency
to abandon restorations in toto and to avoid the attendant dangers by initiating a system of regular
and permanent maintenance calculated to ensure the preservation of the buildings.

When, as the result of decay or destruction, restoration appears to be indispensable, it recommends

that the historic and artistic work of the past should be respected, without excluding the style of any
given period.

The Conference recommends that the occupation of buildings, which ensures the continuity of their
life, should be maintained but that they should be used for a purpose which respects their historic or
artistic character.

II. ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGISLATIVE MEASURES REGARDING HISTORICAL

MONUMENTS

The Conference heard the statement of legislative measures devised to protect monuments of
artistic, historic or scientific interest and belonging to the different countries.

It unanimously approved the general tendency which, in this connection, recognises a certain right
of the community in regard to private ownership.

It noted that the differences existing between these legislative measures were due to the difficulty of
reconciling public law with the rights of individuals.

Consequently, while approving the general tendency of these measures, the Conference is of
opinion that they should be in keeping with local circumstances and with the trend of public

125
opinion, so that the least possible opposition may be encountered, due allowance being made for the
sacrifices which the owners of property may be called upon to make in the general interest.

It recommends that the public authorities in each country be empowered to take conservatory
measures in cases of emergency.

It earnestly hopes that the International Museums Office will publish a repertory and a comparative
table of the legislative measures in force in the different countries and that this information will be
kept up to date.

III. AESTHETIC ENHANCEMENT OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS

The Conference recommends that, in the construction of buildings, the character and external aspect
of the cities in which they are to be erected should be respected, especially in the neighbourhood of
ancient monuments, where the surroundings should be given special consideration. Even certain
groupings and certain particularly picturesque perspective treatment should be preserved.

A study should also be made of the ornamental vegetation most suited to certain monuments or
groups of monuments from the point of view of preserving their ancient character. It specially
recommends the suppression of all forms of publicity, of the erection of unsightly telegraph poles
and the exclusion of all noisy factories and even of tall shafts in the neighbourhood of artistic and
historic monuments.

IV. RESTORATION OF MONUMENTS

The experts heard various communications concerning the use of modern materials for the
consolidation of ancient monuments. They approved the judicious use of all the resources at the
disposal of modern technique and more especially of reinforced concrete.

They specified that this work of consolidation should whenever possible be concealed in order that
the aspect and character of the restored monument may be preserved.

They recommended their adoption more particularly in cases where their use makes it possible to
avoid the dangers of dismantling and reinstating the portions to be preserved.

126
V. THE DETERIORATION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS

The Conference noted that, in the conditions of present day life, monuments throughout the world
were being threatened to an ever-increasing degree by atmospheric agents.

Apart from the customary precautions and the methods successfully applied in the preservation of
monumental statuary in current practice, it was impossible, in view of the complexity of cases and
with the knowledge at present available, to formulate any general rules.

The Conference recommends:

1- That, in each country, the architects and curators of monuments should collaborate with
specialists in the physical, chemical, and natural sciences with a view to determining the methods to
be adopted in specific cases;

2- That the International Museums Office should keep itself informed of the work being done in
each country in this field and that mention should be made thereof in the publications of the Office.

With regard to the preservation of monumental sculpture, the Conference is of opinion that the
removal of works of art from the surroundings for which they were designed is, in principle, to be
discouraged. It recommends, by way of precaution, the preservation of original models whenever
these still exist or if this proves impossible, the taking of casts.

VI. THE TECHNIQUE of CONSERVATION

The Conference is gratified to note that the principles and technical considerations set forth in the
different detailed communications are inspired by the same idea, namely:

In the case of ruins, scrupulous conservation is necessary, and steps should be taken to reinstate any
original fragments that may be recovered (anastylosis), whenever this is possible; the new materials
used for this purpose should in all cases be recognisable. When the preservation of ruins brought to
light in the course of excavations is found to be impossible, the Conference recommends that they
be buried, accurate records being of course taken before filling-in operations are undertaken.

127
It should be unnecessary to mention that the technical work undertaken in connection with the
excavation and preservation of ancient monuments calls for close collaboration between the
archaeologist and the architect.

With regard to other monuments, the experts unanimously agreed that, before any consolidation or
partial restoration is undertaken, a thorough analysis should be made of the defects and the nature of
the decay of these monuments. They recognised that each case needed to be treated individually.

VII. THE CONSERVATION OF MONUMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL

COLLABORATION

a) Technical and moral co-operation.

The Conference, convinced that the question of the conservation of the artistic and archaeological
property of mankind is one that interests the community of the States, which are wardens of
civilisation,

Hopes that the States, acting in the spirit of the Covenant of the League of Nations, will collaborate
with each other on an ever-increasing scale and in a more concrete manner with a view to furthering
the preservation of artistic and historic monuments;

Considers it highly desirable that qualified institutions and associations should, without in any
manner whatsoever prejudicing international public law, be given an opportunity of manifesting
their interest in the protection of works of art in which civilisation has been expressed to the highest
degree and which would seem to be threatened with destruction;

Expresses the wish that requests to attain this end, submitted to the Intellectual Co-operation
Organisation of the League of Nations, be recommended to the earnest attention of the States.

It will be for the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, after an enquiry conducted
by the International Museums Office and after having collected all relevant information, more
particularly from the National Committee on Intellectual Co-operation concerned, to express an
opinion on the expediency of the steps to be taken and on the procedure to be followed in each
individual case.

128
The members of the Conference, after having visited in the course of their deliberations and during
the study cruise which they were able to make on this occasion, a number of excavation sites and
ancient Greek monuments, unanimously paid a tribute to the Greek Government, which, for many
years past, has been itself responsible for extensive works and, at the same time, has accepted the
collaboration of archaeologists and experts from every country.

The members of the Conference there saw an example of activity which can but contribute to the
realisation of the aims of intellectual co-operation, the need for which manifested itself during their
work.

b) The role of education in the respect of monuments.

The Conference, firmly convinced that the best guarantee in the matter of the preservation of
monuments and works of art derives from the respect and attachment of the peoples themselves;

Considering that these feelings can very largely be promoted by appropriate action on the part of
public authorities;

Recommends that educators should urge children and young people to abstain from disfiguring
monuments of every description and that they should teach them to take a greater and more general
interest in the protection of these concrete testimonies of all ages of civilisation.

c) Value of international documentation.

The Conference expresses the wish that:

1- Each country, or the institutions created or recognised competent for this purpose, publish an
inventory of ancient monuments, with photographs and explanatory notes;

2- Each country constitute official records which shall contain all documents relating to its historic
monuments;

3- Each country deposit copies of its publications on artistic and historic monuments with the
International Museums Office;

129
4- The Office devote a portion of its publications to articles on the general processes and methods
employed in the preservation of historic monuments;

5- The Office study the best means of utilising the information so centralised.

References

The British Standards (1998): Guide to the principles of the conservation of historic buildings, BS
7913: 1998 [CD ± ROM]. Available from: Dundee central library, commerce and
technology department.

130
Appendix Two

Conservation Charters and Conventions, the Venice Charter,

1964

INTERNATIONAL CHARTER FOR THE CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF

MONUMENTS AND SITES (The Venice Charter- 1964)

IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice,

1964.

Adopted by ICOMOS in 1965

Imbued with a message from the past, the historic monuments of generations of people remain to
the present day as living witnesses of their age-old traditions. People are becoming more and more
conscious of the unity of human values and regard ancient monuments as a common heritage. The
common responsibility to safeguard them for future generations is recognized. It is our duty to hand
them on in the full richness of their authenticity.

It is essential that the principles guiding the preservation and restoration of ancient buildings should
be agreed and be laid down on an international basis, with each country being responsible for
applying the plan within the framework of its own culture and traditions.

By defining these basic principles for the first time, the Athens Charter of 1931 contributed towards
the development of an extensive international movement which has assumed concrete form in
national documents, in the work of ICOM and UNESCO and in the establishment by the latter of
the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property.
Increasing awareness and critical study have been brought to bear on problems which have
continually become more complex and varied; now the time has come to examine the Charter afresh
in order to make a thorough study of the principles involved and to enlarge its scope in a new
document.

131
Accordingly, the IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments,
which met in Venice from May 25th to 31st 1964, approved the following text:

DEFINITIONS

Article 1.

The concept of a historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the
urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilization, a significant
development or a historic event. This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest
works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time.

Article 2.

The conservation and restoration of monuments must have recourse to all the sciences and
techniques which can contribute to the study and safeguarding of the architectural heritage.

Article 3.

The intention in conserving and restoring monuments is to safeguard them no less as works of art
than as historical evidence.

CONSERVATION

It is essential to the conservation of monuments that they be maintained on a permanent basis.

Article 5.

The conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially
useful purpose. Such use is therefore desirable but it must not change the lay-out or decoration of
the building. It is within these limits only that modifications demanded by a change of function
should be envisaged and may be permitted.

132
Article 6.

The conservation of a monument implies preserving a setting which is not out of scale. Wherever
the traditional setting exists, it must be kept. No new construction, demolition or modification
which would alter the relations of mass and colour must be allowed.

Article 7.

A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from the setting in which
it occurs. The moving of all or part of a monument cannot be allowed except where the
safeguarding of that monument demands it or where it is justified by national or international
interest of paramount importance.

Article 8.

Items of sculpture, painting or decoration which form an integral part of a monument may only be
removed from it if this is the sole means of ensuring their preservation.

RESTORATION

Article 9.

The process of restoration is a highly specialized operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the
aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original material and
authentic documents. It must stop at the point where conjecture begins, and in this case moreover
any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must
bear a contemporary stamp. The restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an
archaeological and historical study of the monument.

Article 10.

Where traditional techniques prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be achieved
by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which has
been shown by scientific data and proved by experience.

133
Article 11.

The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument must be respected, since unity
of style is not the aim of a restoration. When a building includes the superimposed work of different
periods, the revealing of the underlying state can only be justified in exceptional circumstances and
when what is removed is of little interest and the material which is brought to light is of great
historical, archaeological or aesthetic value, and its state of preservation good enough to justify the
action. Evaluation of the importance of the elements involved and the decision as to what may be
destroyed cannot rest solely on the individual in charge of the work.

Article 12.

Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but at the same time
must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic
evidence.

Article 13.

Additions cannot be allowed except in so far as they do not detract from the interesting parts of the
building, its traditional setting, the balance of its composition and its relation with its surroundings.

HISTORIC SITES

Article 14.

The sites of monuments must be the object of special care in order to safeguard their integrity and
ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly manner. The work of conservation and
restoration carried out in such places should be inspired by the principles set forth in the foregoing
articles.

134
EXCAVATIONS

Article 15.

Excavations should be carried out in accordance with scientific standards and the recommendation
defining international principles to be applied in the case of archaeological excavation adopted by
UNESCO in 1956

Ruins must be maintained and measures necessary for the permanent conservation and protection of
architectural features and of objects discovered must be taken. Furthermore, every means must be
taken to facilitate the understanding of the monument and to reveal it without ever distorting its
meaning.

All reconstruction work should however be ruled out "a priori". Only anastylosis, that is to say, the
reassembling of existing but dismembered parts can be permitted. The material used for integration
should always be recognizable and its use should be the least that will ensure the conservation of a
monument and the reinstatement of its form.

PUBLICATION

Article 16.

In all works of preservation, restoration or excavation, there should always be precise

documentation in the form of analytical and critical reports, illustrated with drawings and
photographs. Every stage of the work of clearing, consolidation, rearrangement and integration, as
well as technical and formal features identified during the course of the work, should be included.
This record should be placed in the archives of a public institution and made available to research
workers. It is recommended that the report should be published.

The following persons took part in the work of the Committee for drafting the International Charter
for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments:

- Piero Gazzola (Italy), Chairman

- Raymond Lemaire (Belgium), Reporter
- José Bassegoda-Nonell (Spain)

135
- Luis Benavente (Portugal)
- Djurdje Boskovic (Yugoslavia)
- Hiroshi Daifuku (UNESCO)
- P.L. de Vrieze (Netherlands)
- Harald Langberg (Denmark)
- Mario Matteucci (Italy)
- Jean Merlet (France)
- Carlos Flores Marini (Mexico)
- Roberto Pane (Italy)
- S.C.J. Pavel (Czechoslovakia)
- Paul Philippot (ICCROM)
- Victor Pimentel (Peru)
- Harold Plenderleith (ICCROM)
- Deoclecio Redig de Campos (Vatican)
- Jean Sonnier (France)
- Francois Sorlin (France)
- Eustathios Stikas (Greece)
- Gertrud Tripp (Austria)
- Jan Zachwatovicz (Poland)
- Mustafa S. Zbiss (Tunisia)

References

ICOMOS (___): INTERNATIONAL CHARTERS FOR CONSERVATION AND

RESTORATION. Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites.

136
Appendix Three

Conservation Charters and Conventions, the Washington

Charter, 1987

CHARTER FOR THE CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC TOWNS AND URBAN AREAS

(Washington Charter - 1987)

Adopted by ICOMOS General Assembly in Washington D.C., October 1987

PREAMBLE AND DEFINITIONS

All urban communities, whether they have developed gradually over time or have been created
deliberately, are an expression of the diversity of societies throughout history.

This charter concerns historic urban areas, large and small, including cities, towns and historic
centres or quarters, together with their natural and man-made environments. Beyond their role as
historical documents, these areas embody the values of traditional urban cultures. Today many such
areas are being threatened, physically degraded, damaged or even destroyed, by the impact of the
urban development that follows industrialisation in societies everywhere.

Faced with this dramatic situation, which often leads to irreversible cultural, social and even
economic losses, the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) deems it necessary
to draw up an international charter for historic towns and urban areas that will complement the
"International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites," usually
referred to as "The Venice Charter." This new text defines the principles, objectives, and methods
necessary for the conservation of historic towns and urban areas. It also seeks to promote the
harmony of both private and community life in these areas and to encourage the preservation of
those cultural properties, however modest in scale, that constitute the memory of mankind.

As set out in the UNESCO "Recommendation Concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary
Role of Historic Areas" (Warsaw - Nairobi, 1976), and also in various other international

137
instruments, "the conservation of historic towns and urban areas" is understood to mean those steps
necessary for the protection, conservation and restoration of such towns and areas as well as their
development and harmonious adaptation to contemporary life.

PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES

1. In order to be most effective, the conservation of historic towns and other historic urban areas
should be an integral part of coherent policies of economic and social development and of urban
and regional planning at every level.

2. Qualities to be preserved include the historic character of the town or urban area and all those
material and spiritual elements that express this character, especially:

a) Urban patterns as defined by lots and streets;

b) Relationships between buildings and green and open spaces;

c) The formal appearance, interior and exterior, of buildings as defined by scale, size, style,
construction, materials, colour and decoration;

d) The relationship between the town or urban area and its surrounding setting, both natural and
man-made; and

e) The various functions that the town or urban area has acquired over time
Any threat to these qualities would compromise the authenticity of the historic town or urban area.

3. The participation and the involvement of the residents are essential for the success of the
conservation programme and should be encouraged. The conservation of historic towns and urban
areas concerns their residents first of all.

4. Conservation in a historic town or urban area demands prudence, a systematic approach and
discipline. Rigidity should be avoided since individual cases may present specific problems.

138
METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

5. Planning for the conservation of historic towns and urban areas should be preceded by
multidisciplinary studies.

Conservation plans must address all relevant factors including archaeology, history, architecture,
techniques, sociology and economics.

The principal objectives of the conservation plan should be clearly stated as should the legal,
administrative and financial measures necessary to attain them.

The conservation plan should aim at ensuring a harmonious relationship between the historic urban
areas and the town as a whole.

The conservation plan should determine which buildings must be preserved, which should be
preserved under certain circumstances and which, under quite exceptional circumstances, might be
expendable.

Before any intervention, existing conditions in the area should be thoroughly documented.

The conservation plan should be supported by the residents of the historic area.

6. Until a conservation plan has been adopted, any necessary conservation activity should be carried
out in accordance with the principles and the aims of this Charter and the Venice Charter.

7. Continuing maintenance is crucial to the effective conservation of a historic town or urban area.

8. New functions and activities should be compatible with the character of the historic town or
urban area.

Adaptation of these areas to contemporary life requires the careful installation or improvement of
public service facilities.

9. The improvement of housing should be one of the basic objectives of conservation.

139
10. When it is necessary to construct new buildings or adapt existing ones, the existing spatial
layout should be respected, especially in terms of scale and lot size.

The introduction of contemporary elements in harmony with the surroundings should not be
discouraged since such features can contribute to the enrichment of an area.

11. Knowledge of the history of a historic town or urban area should be expanded through
archaeological investigation and appropriate preservation of archaeological findings.

12. Traffic inside a historic town or urban area must be controlled and parking areas must be
planned so that they do not damage the historic fabric or its environment.

13. When urban or regional planning provides for the construction of major motorways, they must
not penetrate a historic town or urban area, but they should improve access to them.

14. Historic towns should be protected against natural disasters and nuisances such as pollution and
vibrations in order to safeguard the heritage and for the security and well-being of the residents.

Whatever the nature of a disaster affecting a historic town or urban area, preventative and repair
measures must be adapted to the specific character of the properties concerned.

15. In order to encourage their participation and involvement, a general information programme
should be set up for all residents, beginning with children of school age.

16. Specialised training should be provided for all those professions concerned with conservation.

References

ICOMOS (___): INTERNATIONAL CHARTERS FOR CONSERVATION AND

RESTORATION. Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites.

140
 Glossary

Authenticity In relation to the World Heritage Convention, properties nominated for

inscription on the World Heritage List under criteria (i) to (vi) must meet the
conditions of authenticity.
properties may be understood to meet the conditions of authenticity if their
cultural values (as recognized in the nomination criteria proposed) are truthfully
and credibly expressed through a variety of attributes including form and design;
materials and substance; use and function; traditions, techniques and
management systems; location and setting; language, and other forms of
intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal and external factors.

(UNESCO 2008, pp 21-22)

Conservation An area designated by a local authority as an area of special architectural or
area historic interest, the character of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance.

(THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2012)

Gentrification Gentrification is a dynamic that emerges in poor urban areas when residential
shifts, urban planning, and other phenomena affect the composition of a
neighborhood. Urban gentrification often involves population migration as poor
residents of a neighborhood are displaced. In a community undergoing
gentrification, the average income increases and average family size decreases.
This generally results in the displacement of the poorer, pre-gentrification
residents, who are unable to pay increased rents, and property taxes, or afford real
estate. Often old industrial buildings are converted to residences and shops. New
businesses, which can afford increased commercial rent, cater to a more affluent
base of consumers²further increasing the appeal to higher income migrants and
decreasing the accessibility to the poor. Often, resident owners unable to pay the
taxes are forced to sell their residences and move to a cheaper community.

(Gentrification - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2012)

141
Hassan Fathy An Egyptian architect who was born in Alexandria in 1900. Hassan Fahty has
studied architecture in Cairo University and graduated in 1926. He has designed a
large number of projects in Egypt and outside Egypt. The most renowned
SURMHFWVWKDWKHGHVLJQHGDUHWKHFRPPXQLW\¶VSURMHFWVSDUWLFXODUO\New Gourna
Village and New Baris Village. Hassan Fathy has passed away in 1989.

(Steele 1997).
Integrity In relation to the World Heritage Convention, all properties nominated for
inscription on the World Heritage List shall satisfy the conditions of integrity.
Integrity is a measure of the wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or
cultural heritage and its attributes.

(UNESCO 2008, pp 22-23)

Listed A building included on a list of buildings of architectural or historic interest,
building compiled by the secretary of state. Listing covers any structure or erection or any
part of a building, or any building or structure falling within the curtilage of a
listed building and dating prior to 1948. Listed buildings are divided into three
categories, A, B and C(s), (1 11* 11 in England).

(THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2012)

0DT¶DG /RJJLDRSHQµURRP¶

(Steele 1997, p206)

Mashrabiya Screen or grille of turned wood.

(Steele 1997, p206)

4D¶D 0DLQ KDOO RI D KRXVH FRPSULVLQJ D GXUTD¶D DQG WZR LZDQs, usually reserved
solely for male guests.

(Steele 1997, p206).

142
States Parties States Parties are those Member States of UNESCO who have ratified, accepted
or acceded to the World Heritage Convention. There were 152 States Parties to
the Convention as of November 1997 (UNESCO 28 October 1997).

(UNESCO 1997)
World The Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural
Heritage heritage was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its seventeenth
Convention session in Paris on 16 November 1972 (UNESCO 1972). The Convention, with
152 signatory States Parties as of November 1997, is the most successful
international cultural and natural heritage conservation instrument in the world.
The Convention responds to the increasing threats to cultural heritage and natural
heritage caused by poverty in many countries, neglect, and in some countries, by
unconsidered economic growth and development and seeks to encourage States
Parties to identify, protect, preserve and present cultural heritage and natural
heritage for future generations in a spirit of international cooperation.

(UNESCO 1997)

World Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List.

Heritage Site
The World Heritage Convention refers to properties as being component parts of
the cultural and/or natural heritage. The term property is used interchangeably
with site in the Operational Guidelines (UNESCO February 1997).

(UNESCO 1997)

143
 References

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$UFKLWHFWV¶-RXUQDOJanuary 1967, pp 125-212.
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Aplin, Graeme (2002): Heritage, Identification, Conservation, and Management. Oxford: Oxford
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$SSOH\DUG'RQDOG³,QWURGXFWLRQ´LQ$SSOH\DUG'RQDOGHGThe Conservation of
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Aquilina, Kevin (1999): Development planning legislation, the Maltese experience. Mside: Mireva
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