AS Sociology

Families & Households

Studyguide 4

Feminism and the Family

Feminists, like Marxists, are generally highly critical of the family because they
believe that it has harmful effects for women and that it is generally
responsible for patriarchy (the social, political and economic dominance of
men) and the inequalities that patriarchy generates between men and women.

Feminists reject the functionalist idea that the most ideal type of family is the
nuclear family in which the male is the breadwinner and the female is the
home-maker. They believe that this restricts women’s choices.

However, it is important to understand that there are four broad types of

feminism (Liberal, Marxist, Radical and Difference) which emphasise different
aspects of patriarchy and consequently have different views of what social
change is required with regard to families to improve women’s position in
society.

The centrality of feminism to the family

Feminism has been the most innovative and influential perspective in the sociology of
the family over the last 20 years.

Patriarchy

Most feminist sociologists see UK society as dominated by patriarchal institutions and

ideologies (sets of ideas aimed at justifying inequalities). Patriarchy can be defined
as ‘a system of male domination in which males use cultural, social,
political, economic and physical power to control and subordinate
females’. Feminists argue that patriarchal control characterises most spheres of
social life, e.g. mass media representations of women generally present women
as sexual objects to be enjoyed by men whilst most of the top positions in the
worlds of politics and work are dominated by males.

1. Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminists see patriarchy and therefore, gender inequality originating in gender
role socialisation which mainly takes place in the family.

Liberal feminists suggest that boys and girls learn via gender role socialisation
that they occupy positions of power and subordination respectively. Moreover, the
traditional distribution of power within families which underpins gender
role socialisation generally favours males – consequently boys learn that they
are more likely to be the breadwinners, heads of the household and decision-makers
whilst girls learn that they are expected to subordinate their lives to childcare and to
take primary responsibility for housework.

The Liberal feminist sociologist, Ann Oakley, argues that from an early age, people
are trained to conform to social expectations about their gender. She identifies two
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processes central to the construction of what she terms hegemonic masculinity

(which encourages males to see themselves as providers, protectors and as
superior to females) and hegemonic femininity (which encourages females to be
nurturers, emotional caretakers, to be focused on their looks and as
secondary to males).
(a) Manipulation refers to the way in which parents encourage or discourage
behaviour on the basis of appropriateness for the child’s sex.
(b) Canalisation refers to the way in which parents channel children’s
interests into toys and activities that are seen as ‘normal for that sex’.

Manipulation and canalization involve the learning and internalization of gender

codes which generally result in social conformity to hegemonic expectations
about appropriate gender behaviour. These include:

(a) Colour codes – our parents dress us in blue for boys and pink for girls.

(b) Dress codes – we learn what clothing is appropriate and inappropriate for
males and females.

(c) Appearance codes – we learn gender norms in regard to hairstyle,

jewellery, cosmetics etc.

(d) Toy codes – gender-specific toys give us clues about our expected future
gender roles, i.e. dolls for mothering; aggressive and creative toys for boys
etc. The packaging of toys transmits messages about gender-
appropriateness, e.g. chemistry sets. Think too about how toy shops and
catalogues organize toys into gender-specific sections.

(e) Play codes – boys are expected to play boisterously whereas girls may be
expected to play in more docile or decorous ways.

(f) Etiquette codes – males and females are taught manners which may be
gender-specific, e.g. how to sit, how to be ladylike etc. Mothers may, for
example, be preoccupied with the appearance of their female children.
Parents may reward gender-appropriate behaviour and discourage
gender-inappropriate behaviour, e.g. crying in boys.

(g) Family media codes – think about how childhood media, e.g. birthday
cards, fairy stories, children’s readers etc bought by parents reinforce
gender roles. Studies of fairy stories suggest females are portrayed mainly
as passive victims or evil (e.g. step-mothers or witches) whereas males
portrayed as active heroes.

(h) Speech codes – the language that parents use with children is often
gender-specific, i.e. girls are described as ‘pretty’, boys are ‘handsome
little devils’ etc
(i) Domestic codes – children imitate their parental role models, i.e. boys
are encouraged to help father with male-specific household chores such as
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cleaning the car, DIY etc whereas girls may be encouraged to help in the
kitchen etc.

(j) Control codes – boys and girls are subjected to different types of social
control especially when they get to their teenage years. Girls may be
interrogated more closely about their social lives, boyfriends etc
than boys.

However, Liberal Feminist writers offer a generally optimistic view of the current
position and prospects for women in society and the family. They consider
progress has been made over time in the relations between men and women and
consequently they argue that family roles and relationships have become more
egalitarian (equal).

Somerville (2000) points out that women now have much more choice
about whether to marry, whether they take paid work when married and
whether they stay married. She also notes that there is now greater
equality within marriage and greater sharing of the responsibility for paid
and unpaid work and childcare.

This evolutionary (as opposed to revolutionary) change has come about for a
variety of economic, social and legal reasons including:

Economic and social changes

 Helen Wilkinson notes that the economy has undergone tremendous

change in the last thirty years. The UK economy has evolved from being
dominated by heavy industry and manufacturing in factories (i.e. types of
work dominated by men) to being a service economy in which financial,
retail and public sector jobs dominate. The rise of the service sector has been
accompanied by the feminisation of the British workforce as most of
the new service jobs available have been taken up by women. This
has led to women acquiring more economic power.

 According to Wilkinson, these economic changes have led to a cultural

change in women’s attitudes which she calls a ‘genderquake’. Wilkinson
notes that compared to previous generations of women, women today see
education and careers as having more importance that settling down
to marriage and children. Sue Sharpe’s studies of teenage girls in the
1970s and 1990s offer support for this view. The 1970s teenagers aspired to
get married and have children whilst the 1990s teenagers saw educational
qualifications and careers as far more important.

 There is some evidence (although this is disputed by some feminists) that

men are taking a more active and consequently more egalitarian
role within families. There is evidence that fathers are now more
involved with their children.

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Political and legal changes

 Discrimination in employment was first outlawed by the government via

the 1970 Equal Pay Act and the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act. The
Equality Act 2010 reinforced the view that discrimination against
women in all walks of life is illegal. This Act is policed by the Equality
& Human Rights Commission.
 Women now have much improved maternity rights and pensions
compared with the past.

 Women now have reproductive rights – the contraceptive pill and

legalised abortion means that women today can choose not to have
children, and if they do decide to have them, they can now choose
when to have them and how many they are going to have. Women in
the past lacked the power and technology to make these decisions.

 There is some evidence that women have benefitted more from changes in
the divorce laws than men. Most divorces prior to the 1970s were initiated
by men but the last 20 years has seen a reversal of this trend as women use
divorce to escape unhappy or unsatisfactory marriages. Two-thirds of
divorces today are initiated by women.

 Women now enjoy property rights and inheritance on an equal basis to

men.

 Rape in marriage was made a crime in the early 1990s.

 Domestic violence has recently become more clearly defined as a crime and
consequently taken more seriously by the authorities.

However, these changes do not mean that Liberal feminists are fully happy about the
degree of change. There is still a long way to go especially in fields such as mass
media but they believe that gentle persuasion and consciousness-raising will
convince men that social change aimed at dismantling patriarchy will work
for the benefit of all society.

Criticisms of Liberal Feminism

Although liberal feminist theories are useful in explaining the improved position of
women in the workplace, education and the family, there have been a number of
criticisms advanced against it:

 It is a rather cosy view, reflecting the experiences of white, middle-class

professional groups of women. The experiences of women in poorer
sections of society may not have been so positive.
 Evidence suggests it is still women who bear the major burden of childcare
and housework even when engaged in full-time careers.

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 Studies highlighting domestic violence and rape within marriage suggest

these are still significant problems today.

2. Marxist Feminism

Marxist feminists reject the optimism of liberal feminists and argue that women’s
inequalities are the result of being forced to serve the needs of capitalism both
inside and outside the family. This theory is also dealt with on studyguide 3.

Marxist feminists argue that the key feature of family life is the exploitation of
women both by the capitalist system and by men.

 Benston and Ansley argue that married women who stay at home are
exploited by the capitalist class because they produce and bring up
the future labour force but receive no wages from the capitalist
class for this domestic service.

 Benston argues that patriarchal ideology is a product of capitalism and

that it functions to convince women that their main place is in the
home. This ideology produces a reserve army of female labour who are
hired when the economy is strong as low-paid, part-time and temporary
labour. Marxists argue that women who believe that their main role is
primarily to nurture children and maintain a home are unlikely to demand
higher pay or more secure working conditions. When economic circumstances
change and they are laid off, this can be justified by employers with the
ideology that they are returning to their ‘proper’ job or biological role of being
a mother-housewife.

 The patriarchal family set-up benefits the working man because he

does not have to worry about women competing with him for jobs. His wages
give him economic and social power within the family. He is likely to
occupy the head of household position and be responsible for the major
decision-making that goes on within the family. As Ansley notes, this may
mean that men have the power to get away with various forms of
domestic abuse.

Evaluation of Marxist feminism

(a) On the positive side, Marxist feminists have shown how gender roles
within the family are created and perpetuated by the
requirements of capitalist society rather than being ‘natural’ as
Functionalists would have us believe.

(b) They have also shown the way in which the family benefits capitalist
society and the ruling class rather than society as a whole as
functionalists believe.

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However!

1. They see the nature of the family as being pre-determined by the needs of
the capitalist economic system. So like functionalists, they see the family as
performing pre-determined functions for society. Interpretivist sociologists
would, therefore, say that they also ignore the day-to-day experiences and
interpretations of those who actually live in families.

2. Their model of the family is still largely based upon the rather dated model of
the nuclear family of working husband and economically dependent full-
time housewife. Many families no longer fit into this category because modern
families are extremely diverse in their organisation and structure.

3. They ignore recent changes to the economy especially the feminisation of

the workplace and cultural changes such as Wilkinson’s genderquake
which mean that women today are less likely to choose to be a stay-at-
home mother. Women may have more economic and social power today
and consequently may be able to resist exploitation in the home (although
evidence still suggests that full-time women workers still spend more time
on childcare and housework than their male partners).

4. Radical feminists would say that the Marxist feminist view does not explain the
similarities in family structure in capitalist and non-capitalist society. Women’s
oppression must therefore be the result of male domination and not capitalism
because it happens in all societies, whether they are capitalist or
communist. For example, Radical feminists would say that women may have
flown into space in the old Soviet Union but they still had to do the ironing when
they got home!

5. New Right and Functionalist sociologists would criticise Marxist feminists for
attacking and undermining the nuclear family. They would argue that the
nuclear family is the cornerstone of society, and without support for it, many
social problems such as youth crime and educational underachievement can arise.

3. Radical Feminism
Radical feminists argue that it is not capitalism that exploits women but men.
They suggest that patriarchy - the system of male domination in society -
existed well before capitalism appeared in the 18th century. Men have always
controlled women and this will not change by establishing socialism. Radical
feminists argue that patriarchy therefore benefits all men.

Radical feminists argue that the nuclear family mainly functions to benefit
men. They argue that the nuclear family is the main arena in which patriarchal
ideology is transmitted to children via gender-role socialization. This childhood
experience results in males and females subscribing to a set of ideas that largely
confirm male power and superiority.
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This ideology encourages the notion that the sexual division of labour is
‘natural’ and unchangeable. It also results in the exploitation of women because
patriarchal ideology mainly views women as sexual objects when single, and
mothers/housewives when married.

Radical feminists such as Millett (1970) and Firestone (1971) take this analysis one
step further when they argue that men and women form ‘sex classes’, which have
very different interests and levels of power.

Men are the dominant class and use their power to exploit women in any way
possible, not just economically. This can be illustrated in a number of ways:

 Germaine Greer (2000) argues that even in marriage today women

remain subservient to their husbands. She believes that single women
are generally happier than married women and this reflected in the high
number of divorces instigated by women. Greer claims that wives are much
more likely to suffer physical and sexual abuse than husbands, and
daughters are often victims of sexual abuse by male relatives within
the family.

 Delphy and Leonard argue that women contribute a great deal to their
husbands’ work and leisure by providing for their emotional and sexual well-
being. They ’flatter, excuse, boost, sympathise and pay attention to
men’ in order to give them a sense of well-being. In contrast, men
rarely perform this function for women. Moreover, Delphy and Leonard
note that men may claim to love their wives but this does not prevent
men from exploiting them.

 Purdy argues that women are disadvantaged and exploited in family

relationships. However, she believes that these disadvantages largely result
from childcare responsibilities. She suggests that women are generally
encouraged by patriarchal ideology to want to form couples and
have children. Women who choose not to have children are defined
as eccentric and selfish. Purdy believes the only way to bring home to men
the sacrifices that child rearing involves for women is to stop having
children. In other words, Purdy suggests a babystrike. She argues this is
the only action that will result in men taking women’s demands for equality
within families seriously.

Many Radical feminists are pessimistic about the possibility that gender relations can
be reformed in current family set-ups. They believe that the patriarchal and
monogamous nuclear family must be abolished or at least radically altered
and alternative ways of living must be encouraged. Firestone, for example, argues
that women should use new reproductive technologies, e.g. in vitro
fertilisation to exclude men from families because she believes women’s
dependence on men derives from their childbearing and child-rearing
functions.
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Evaluating Radical Feminism

 Like Marxist feminists, Radical feminist theories of the family have

dated fairly badly, because they fail to account for recent economic
and social changes, such as the feminization of the economy, the
educational success of young females, women’s use of divorce, and
many women’s rejection of domestic labour as their exclusive
responsibility.

 Radical feminist sociologists portray women as passively accepting

their lot. However radical feminists probably exaggerate the
exploitation of women in the family. Somerville believes that most
women still value relationships with men.

Moreover, women today adopt a range of active social identities -

many of these do not involve playing a secondary role to men. In other
words, many contemporary young women are resisting traditional
male definitions of what their role should be.

 Like functionalism, Marxism and Marxist-feminism, Radical feminism is

guilty of overemphasizing the nuclear family and neglecting the rich
diversity of family types in modern society.

 Radical feminists ignore those accounts of family life in which females

experience motherhood as fulfilling and rewarding or they dismiss
this experience as less rewarding than having a career.

 Radical feminists are very critical of the nuclear family, e.g. they often
advocate abolishing it, but they fail to offer any practical or realistic
alternatives to it.

 There is an implicit assumption in Radical feminist studies that all male–female

relationships involve male exploitation of women. However, the bulk of
male–female relationships are probably based on mutual love and
respect rather than exploitation, domination and subordination.

 They ignore examples where men are the victims of abuse in families.

 Radical feminism depicts a 'war' between men and women. Yet males, unlike
capitalists, cannot be abolished and so some form of reconciliation must be
necessary.

4. Difference feminism

Difference feminism is critical of the three previous feminist

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perspectives because they assume that all women are members of a

single group who share interests and are all equally exploited.
However, difference feminism emphasises that women are not one
single, united group but rather have a variety of interests.

Black difference feminists stress the importance of racial/ethnic differences

between women. For example, some ethnic minority women may have less
power and status in families compared with women from other minorities
or the ethnic majority. Other difference feminists have emphasised differences
in class, age or nationality. For example, middle-class women may be less
exploited by men than poorer women. Difference feminists point out that not
all women are equally exploited.

Difference feminism recognises that there is increasing family diversity today

and women may not be equally exploited in all family types. For example,
many women are lone parents and as such cannot be exploited by a cohabiting
man. There are also differences in gender relationships in families from
different ethnic and religious backgrounds.

Nicholson believes that women are better off outside traditional nuclear families
and all types of family and household should be socially accepted because they suit
women in different circumstances. Calhoun points out that women cannot be
exploited by men in lesbian families. She believes that there is increasing choice
in family life, and gay and lesbian families are examples of ‘chosen families’.

Difference feminism is not as easy to criticise as other forms of feminism because it

recognises differences in family life. However, other types of feminists criticise it for
losing sight of continuing inequalities between men and women within the
family.

The overall contribution of feminism in general to an

understanding of the family

Despite the criticisms of feminism, it has contributed to the sociology of the family in
a number of ways:

 It has shown that the family may benefit some members,

particularly adult males, more than others.

 It has highlighted the existence of violence, abuse and exploitation

within the family.

 Feminists have conducted research into areas of family life which have
either been neglected or not been studied before. These include
conjugal roles, motherhood, pregnancy, childbirth and childcare.

 Feminism has analysed the contribution of women’s work, especially

housework, to the economy.
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Feminism has therefore helped to correct the masculine bias in family sociology
and has illuminated family life from the perspective of women.

Names to Know!

Oakley, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Benston, Ansley, Millett, Firestone, Delphy and Leonard,
Purdy

Concepts to know!

Patriarchy, gender role socialisation, manipulation, canalisation, hegemonic

femininity, hegemonic masculinity, gender codes, service economy, genderquake,
feminisation of the economy, feminisation of the workforce, egalitarian
relationships, patriarchal ideology, familism, reserve army of female labour, sex
classes and babystrike.
Important names you must learn!!

Ann Oakley
Helen Wilkinson
Sue Sharpe
Margaret Benston
Fran Ansley
Barrett and McIntosh
Kate Millett
Christine Delphy & Diane Leonard
Laura Purdy
Andrea Dworkin

Key concepts you need to know:

Patriarchy, Division of domestic labour, Gender role socialisation,

Reserve army of labour, Egalitarian, Feminization of the economy,
Genderquake, Manipulation, Canalisation, Hegemonic masculinity,
Hegemonic femininity, Familism and Sex classes

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