BIOLOGY

Mutation- change in the genetic material that controls heredity.

The changing of the structure of a gene, resulting a variant form hat may be transmitted to subsequent
generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or
rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes. The only way in which new variation
enters the species.
Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
TYPES OF MUTATIONS:
1. Chromosomal Mutations- involves changes in the entire chromosome or in parts or a chromosome. This usually
occurs during mitosis & meiosis.
A. Numerical Mutations- changes in the chromosome number
Cause: Nondisjunction, or failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister
chromatids to separate during mitosis or meiosis.
a. Aneuploidy addition or deletion of one or more chromosomes.
Monosomy- deletion of chromosome from a normal chromosome number 2n (2n-1) ex: Turner
Syndrome
Trisomy- addition of 1 chromosome to the normal chromosome number 2n (2n+1) ex: Down
Syndrome

b. Polyploidy- nondisjunction involving entire sets of chromosomes. Results in a polyploid may have
an extra set or several complete sets. Known to be fatal in animals; In plants- considered as a major evolutionary
mechanism. Ex: banana
Named after the number of complete sets they have: triploid (3n) (seedless watermelon, banana),
tetraploid (4n) (blackberries, peanuts), pentaploid (5n) hexaploidy (sweet potato, wheat), octoploid (strawberry).
B. Structural Mutation- change in chromosomal structure
Causes:
- Error in replication- mistakes made while DNA is copied.
- Mutagens- exposure to various agents of the environment like: radiation, organic chemical and viruses.
- Transposons- DNA sequences that move within and between chromosomes; they can jump into another
gene, causing change in gene expression.
Barbara McClintock- discovered the “transposons” in 1983, in corn and found in bacteria, flies & humans.
JUMPING GENES (in corn colors)
 a. Inversion- involves two breaks in a chromosome, followed by the broken ends reattaching in the
reverse order. Result in the change in the arrangement of gene thus, altered the gene activity. Example Inversion
mutation between man & chimpanzee.

b. Duplication – doubling of chromosome segment. There are several ways duplication can occur. A
broken segment from one chromosome can simply attach to its homologue, or unequal crossing over may occur,
leading to duplication and deletion Example: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, Huntington’s disease.
Named after George Huntington, American physician who contributed the clinical description of the
disease in 1872.

c. Translocation- movement of chromosome segment from one chromosome to another

nonhomologous chromosome. EX: myeloid leukemia, reduced fertility.

d. Deletion- when an end of a chromosome breaks off or when two simultaneous breaks lead to the
loss of internal segment. Ex: Cri du chat syndrome (cat’s cry syndrome)
2. Gene Mutation- changes in single DNA bases, or small intragenic deletions and rearrangement.
A. Point Mutation (Base Substitution)- substitution of o nucleotide with another. Depending on the
nucleotides involved, a base substitution can result in the mutated codon (coding for the same type of amino acid)
or involves the alteration in the amino acid sequence which may result to production of a non-functional protein.
Ex: Sickle-cell anemia
 B. Frameshift Mutations (Base Insertion or deletion) – results in the change of one or more nucleotides in a
gene. More disastrous than a base substitution since it may involve insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides
that is no divisible by 3. As a result, the reading frame of gene is altered, thus its message coding for amino acids.
Ex: cystic fibrosis (deletion)
Thalassemia (deletion)
Crohn’s disease
Genetic engineering- manipulation or changing of the DNA of an organ
Donor organism genes to recipient organism genes (Transgenic genetically modified organism) gene 11, 15.5
Gene therapy- can replace a bad gene with a healthy one. Or turn off a problem gene.

Pedigree chart- a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance of phenotypes and the corresponding
genotypes of a particular organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next.
- A genetic representation of family tree that diagrams the inheritance of a trait or disease though
several generations. The pedigree shows the relationships between family members and indicates
which individuals express or silently carry the trait in question.
AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT TRAITS
Achondroplasia- form of dwarfism
Anirida- defects of the eyes
Camptodactyl- rigid, bent fingers
Familial Hypercholeserolemia- high cholesterol, clogged arteries
Huntington’s disease- degeneration of nervous system
Marfan syndorm- abnormal or missing connective tissue
Polydactyly- extra finger
Progeria- drastic premature aging
Neurofabromatosis- tumors of the nervous system
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE TRAIT
Albinism- absence of pigmentation
Cystic fibrosis- abnormally thick mucus, damages tissues and organs
Ellis-van Creveld Syndrome- dwarfism, heart defects, polydactyl
Friedreich’s ataxia- progressive loss of motor and sensory function
Phenylketonuria- mental impairment
Sickle sick anemia- RBC sickle cell and disrupt circulation
Tay-Sachs disease- deterioration or mental and physical abilities; earthly death
X-LINKED RECESSIVE PATTERN
Androgen insensitivity syndrome- XY individuals has the traits of female; sterility
Red-green color blindness- inability to distinguish red and green
Fragile X syndrome- intellectual, emotional distability
Hemophilia- impaired blood clotting
Incontinentia pigmenti- abnormalities of skin, hair, teeth, nails and eyes
Muscular dystrophies- progressive loss of muscle function
SCID-X1- severe immune system deficiency
X-linked anhidrotic dysplasia- mosaic ski, other ill effects
Y-LINKED PATTERN
DNA Replication and Protein Synthesis *NOV 2 watch*
Nucleic acid- macromolecules that form when long chains of molecule called nucleotides join together. Polymers
of nucleotides and macromolecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction.
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid present in the chromosomes of the nucleus
Sugar: deoxuribose
N-bases
Cytosine C
Thymine T
Guanine G
Adenine A
Function: repository of genetic information. It contains the codes for protein synthesis.
RNA- ribonucleic acid located in the nucleus and outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm.
Sugar: ribose
N-bases:
Cytosine C
Uracil U
Guanine G
Adenine A
Function: involved in protein synthesis
Types:
Ribosomal RNA- makes up ribosomes, forms an important part of both subunits of the ribosome.
Transfer RNA- matches amino acids to mrna to help make protein, carries amino acids to the ribosomes and
matches them to the coded mRNA message.
Messenger RNA- used as template to make protein, carries instruction for polypeptide synthesis from the nucleus
for ribosome in the cytoplasm.
Components of Nucleic Acid
1. Nitrogenous base
2. Sugar
3. Phosphate group

2 Types of N-bases of Nucleic Acid

1. Purine
- Guanine & Adenine
2. Pyrimidine
- Cytosine, Thymine & Uracil
Chargaff’s Base Pairing Rule
Purine pairs with pyrimidine
Nucleotides are complementary, their shape allows them to bond together with hydrogen bonds. It is what
holds the strands of DNA together.
Thymine & Adenine
Cytosine & Guanine, the ratio of A+G & T+C = always 1
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Francis Crick, proposed the Central Dogma 1958, the same person with James Watson who is responsible for the
DNA structure
Okazaki Fragment- short seq of DNA nucleotides which are synthesized discontinuously and later linked together
by enzyme DNA ligase to create the lagging strand.

Concepts and Mechanism of Evolution

Aristotle- “Nature is a continuum of organization, from lifeless matter through complex plants and animals”
“Great chain of being” from the lowest form of life plants up through animals, human and spiritual beings.
Each link- species; formed at the same time, in one place as in a perfect state
Chain is complete; everything exists; no room for change
Alfred Russel Wallace- “shared traits among organisms implied that they descended from a common ancestor”
There are similarities among organisms which were geographically isolated. Example: emu, rhea & ostrich
No idea however on how species have been geographically distributed.

EARLY CONCEPTS ABOUT EVOLUTION

1. Comparative Morphology- the study of anatomical patterns: similarities & differences among the body plans of
organisms.
“Great Chain of Being” issues:
Similarities in appearance but different reproductive structures?
Vestigial structures? Example: wings in flightless birds, eyes in blind moles, ail remnants in human.
Leonardo da Vinci- “different fossils were found in different rocks”
Fossils were remains of living things.
Recognition of anatomical similarities between humans and other animals
Principle that rocks can be formed by deposition of sediments by water, while at the same time he rivers erode
rocks and carry their sediments to the sea, in a continuous grand cycle.
Ancient seas once covered areas that are now dry lands.
2. Fossils- remains or traces of living organisms that lived in the ancient past.
“Great Chain of Being” Issues:
Deeper layers of sedimentary rock formation bear fossil of simple organisms, it becomes more complex in higher
layers resembling the modern organisms.
If organisms were created in a perfect state, why are these organisms become extinct.
NEW IDEAS ABOUT EVOLUTION
1. Georges Cuvier- “the differences in fossil forms encountered in successive stratigraphic levels as being the
product of repeated cataclysmic occurrences and repeated new creations”
Theory of Catastrophism:
Most fossils have no living counterparts; extinct
Earth’s surface had changed
Earth is very old
Catastrophic geological events occur causing extinctions.
2. Jean Baptiste Lamarck-“ species gradually improve over generations because of an inherit drive towards
perfection, up the chain of being. He drive directed an unknown “fluida” into body parts needing change”
Theory of Need
Theory of Used and Disuse
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristic
3. Charles Lyell- “ the gradual processes of geologic change operating in the present were the same ones that
operated in the distance past”
Theory of Uniformitarianism
Principles of Geology
The gradual repetitive change had shaped Earth
It must have been taken millions of years to sculpt the Earth’s surface.
4. James Hutton= “The gradual processes of geologic change operating in the present were the same ones that
operated in the distance past”
Theory of Uniformitarianism
The formation of sedimentary deposits was due to geological forces of erosion, sedimentation, uplift, and disruption
tat were working in the past and continuing in the present.
5. Thomas Malthus- “humans reproduce faster than the capacity of the environment to sustain them”
Human run out of food , living spaces, and other resources needed to survive. Resulted to competition for the
limited resources.
6. Charles Darwin- “ organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment and would gradually change into
something that would be more competitive to survive, a process known as evolution:
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Influenced by Lamarck, Lyell & Malthus
Populations pass through a process of natural selection in which only the fittest would survive = survival of the
fittest
On the Origin of Species
Evidences: glytodons & armadillos, Galapagos finches and turtles.
7. Alfred Russel Wallace
Evolution by Natural Selection
Sent Darwin an essay about his idea on natural selection
Both Darwin and Wallace were credited about the idea. It was Charles Darwin who was considered as the major
proponent because of the book “On the Origin of Species.” Which detailed the evidence that supported the theory.

MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION (5)

1. Natural Selection- occurs when populations of organisms are subjected to the environment. Environment is the
selective force.
 The fittest creatures are more likely to survive and pass their genes to their offspring, producing a
population that is better adapted to the environment.
*selection pressure
Survival of the Fittest- better-adapted individuals produce relatively more offspring and pass on their
genes more successfully than less adapted individuals.
2. Gene Flow- transfer of genetic material from population to another.
Gene flow can take place between two population of the same species through migration, and is mediated
by reproduction and vertical gene transfer from parent to offspring.
Movement of gene in and out of the population through immigration and emigration
Population may gain or lose alleles and reduce the difference between populations.
3. Genetic Drift- refers to random flunctuations in the frequencies of alleles from generation to generation due to
chance events.
Genetic drift can cause traits to be dominant or disappear from a population. The effects are most
pronounced in small populations.
AKA, Bottleneck effect- drastic reduction in population, surviving individuals. Occurs due accidental
(natural disaster, etc.) and sudden elimination of a particular gene.
4. Mutations- refers to a random change in an organism’s genetic makeup, which influences the population’s gene
pool.
Mutations give rise to new alleles; therefore, they are a source of genetic variation in a population.
Natural selection tends to remove the less-fit individuals, allowing more-fit individuals to survive and form
a population.
It may be harmful or benign, but they may also be beneficial.
5. Random mating- organism may prefer to mate with others of the same genotype or of different genotypes.
Non-random mating won’t make allele frequencies in the population change by itself, though it can alter
genotype frequencies.
*Gene pool is small due to these organisms producing more offspring with only their genes.
Evolutionary effects
-less alleles in a population gene pool
-less chance for evolutionary change
-more chance of extinction

The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium- it states that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain
constant from generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences. If the population is in state called Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium, the frequencies of alleles, or gene versions, and genotypes, or sets of alleles, in that
population will stay the same over generations. =NO EVOLUTION, no mutation, no gene flow, random mating, no
natural selection, large population size.

The Theory of Natural Selection

Natural selection- process by which organisms with traits suited to an environment, or favorable traits, have a
better chance of surviving and reproducing than those that are not suited. Those organisms with favorable traits
have a greater chance of passing on their genes to next generation.
Darwin’s Explanation
1. Individuals of a species vary in their traits.
2. Organisms tend to produce offspring that are more than the actual number that can survive within the
limited resources, yet their population remains fairly constant under natural conditions.
3. because of overproduction, individual organisms tend to compete for available food and space, or
struggle for existence,
4. since variation exists among individuals of a species, individuals with desirable traits are more likely to
survive than others. (survival of the fittest)
5. Individuals with desirable traits then are more likely to pass their traits to the next generations.

SUMMARY OF MECHANISMS OF NATURAL SELECTION

1. Organisms tend to produce vast number of offspring
2. Offspring vary in their traits.
3. Individuals struggle for existence
3. Survival of the fittest.
4. The fittest pass on its genes to the next generation.
5. Gradual adaptation of the species to the changing environment.
*Natural selection and evolution depend on heritable (genetic) variations which can result into two ways: crossing
over during meiosis and mutations.

VARATION AND EVOLUTION

“Variation is the basis of evolution.”
-variation within a population means some individuals will be better equipped to adapt to particular environment.
-these individuals are said to be “selected for the environment; able to compete more efficiently, thrive and
reproduce.
-those that are not adapted- extinct; “selected against” the environment
-Three categories of variations
1. Continuous variation- traits that have a range of small differences. Example: height in human population
-No distinct categories, tends to be quantitative, controlled by a lot of genes, strongly influenced by the
environment.
2. Discontinuous variation- there is a clear distinction between phenotypes with no intermediates. Example: ABO
blood type= 4 phenotypes (A, B, AB, O)
-Distinct categories, tends to be qualitative, controlled by a few genes, unaffected by the environment.
3. Acquired characteristics- characteristics that are environmentally produced over the organism’s lifetime. Not
heritable; cannot be passed on to the next generation. Example: blindness, limb lose, and suntan skin, scar, colored
hair, pierced ears.

TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

1. Stabilizing selection- occurs on population where competition is not too strong. It acts against phenotypic
extremes by removing these and stabilizing the species towards intermediate phenotypes. Example: lengths of legs
of popular bears. *Selects against the 2 extremes and favors the intermediate or average.
2. Directional selection- results in a population adapting to gradual changes in the environment. It only acts against
one extreme phenotype, favor the other extreme. Example: length of giraffes’ neck, peppered moth. *favored 1
extreme.
3. Disruptive selection/Diversifying- environmental conditions favor the development of two extreme phenotypes. It
acts against intermediate phenotypes. Due to selective pressures, competition. Isolating mechanism prevent
reproduction- geographic barriers, reproductive incompatibility, behavioral differences and different breeding
times. Ex: Galapagos finches *favors the both extremes but selected against average.

Directional 1. Only beetles with the darkest bodies thrive in the new environment.
Disruptive 2. The beetles with the smallest wings thrive in rotten tree trunks and the beetles with the largest wings
thrive along the coastlines.
Stabilizing 3. The smallest beetles can’t compete and largest beetles are easy prey
Disruptive 4. In chipmunks, short tails keep predators from catching them on the ground. Long tails are good for
balance in trees.
Directional 5 Longer legs in horses ae better to outrun predators.
*Speciation- evolution or formation of new species. An evolutionary process in which new species arise. Speciation
involves the splitting of a single evolutionary lineage into two or more genetically independent lineages. Genetic
differences increased due to mutations, natural selection and genetic drift. As differences increases, over time they
become different species.
*Causes: geographic isolation & reproductive isolation
1. Allopatric speciation- type of speciation as a result of geographic isolation. It occurs with populations that are
completely, separated (allopatry) by a physical barrier, such as a mountain range, river or desert.
-The separated populations adapt to their own unique environments, becoming so genetically different from one
another that members of one population cannot breed with me mbers of the other. The process is considered the
dominant form of speciation in organisms that engage in sexual reproduction EXAMPLE: Darwin’s Galapagos finches

2. Sympatric Speciation- speciation as a result of reproductive isolation. Also result from a combination of sexual
selection and ecological factors. It occurs within a single population without geographic isolation. EX: Hawthorn
flies.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Existence is movement. Action is defined by the rhythm of forces in natural balance.
The human body is living in time and space, and it exhibits some effort. Thus, all movements occur in time, through
space, with effort. Since dance entails a lot of movements, it uses the very same elements, space, time, and energy.
These elements are beneficial to anyone interested in recognizing, analyzing, or creating movement.
Space- area the performers occupy and where they move. It can be divided into four different aspects, also known
as spatial elements.
a. direction- dance movements can travel in any direction. The performers can go forward, sideward,
diagonal, circular, and so on. They also dace any direction while executing a single movement or several phrases.
b. size- movements can be varied by doing larger or smaller actions.
C. levels- movements can be done in a high, medium, or low level.
D. focus- performers may change their focus by looking at different directions.
Timing- movement may be executed in varying tempo (speed). Performers move with the tempo of an underlying
sound, known as beat or pulse. The timing can be varied by moving faster or slower than the normal beat. When a
sequence of a movement or group of phrases is done in varying tempos, they generate rhythmic patterns. The
addition of silences or pauses also adds to the rhythmic patterns.
Dance energies- the movements here propelled by the energy of force. A force can be either initiate or stop an
action. Dance uses different energies and varied use of these minimizes the monotony of the movements in a
performance.
a. sustained- movements are done smoothly continuously, and with flow and control. It does not have a clear
beginning and ending.
b. percussive- movements are explosive or sharp in contrast with sustained movements. They are accented with
thrust of energy. They have a clear beginning and ending.
c. vibratory- movements consist of trembling or shaking. A faster version of percussive movements that produces
a jittery effect.
d. swinging- movements trace a curved line or an arc in space. The movements are relaxed and giving in to gravity
on the downward part of the motion, followed by an upward application of energy.
e. suspended- movements are perched in space hanging on air. Holding a raised leg in any direction is an example
of a suspended movement.
f. collapsing- movements are released in tension and gradually or abruptly giving in to gravity, letting the body
descend to the floor. A slow collapse can be described as melting or oozing action in a downward direction.
Bodily shapes- it refers to how the entire body is molded in space or the configuration of bod parts. He body can be
rounded, angular or a combination of two. Other bod shapes can be from wide to narrow and from high to low. They
can be symmetrical and asymmetrical.
a. symmetrical- balanced shape, movements are practically identical or similar on both sides.
b. asymmetrical- unbalanced shape, movement of two slides of the body do not match or completely different from
each other.
Group shapes- a group of dancers perform movements in different group shapes. They are arranged in ways that
are wide, narrow, rounded, angular, symmetrical, or asymmetrical and are viewed together as a total picture or
arrangement within a picture frame.
Recreational Dance- social activity In which people of all ages can participate. Recreational dances come from all
over the world and include folk, cultural and historical dances, and social dances from the pas and present. These
types of dances use variety of steps, figures and formations. The styles, performance and music are related to the
cultural roots, historical eras, and geographic areas from which the dance originates,
Dance fitness- a fun way to increase cardiovascular endurance, strength, and flexibility. Various dance genres
support fitness, dance-related fitness training systems such as Zumba fitness and cardio dance.
When a certain dance performance has poor choreography, it is difficult for it to be understood and appreciated.
When a dance fails to communicated its intended meaning or if it does not have a meaning or significance at all, it
is hard for the audience to grasp the content of the performance.
A good dance displays a significant meaning or conveys a message, sometimes, it also portrays life experiences.
May be presented abstractly and symbolically but still convey emotion and meaning. A good dance lifts and
transports the audience from their seats during performances.
It has beginning, middle, and end/conclusion. The beginning dance may come in a form of shape, a pose or
entrance. The middle consists of a development or the exploration of the main idea, the ending should be clear and
may be in a form of shape, a pose or an exit.
All works must have a form brought to their elements by means of orderly arrangement, meaning and purpose.
Must be a sense of direction, must have shape or form for its choreography to be effective.
Form- instrument by which ideas and elements are arranged or combined into a logical sequence which results in
unity and consistency, and by means of which the content or idea can be expressed and communicated. It is the
organizing factor of any work or dance composition. The form should progress through time from the beginning to
the end of the choreography. Each section is composed of several units that are smoothly connected to each other.
These small units are called phrases.
When you combine one movement with several others, they form a unit. When units are pieced together, they make
up a section in the choreography and the sections together for the whole dance. Therefore, ”a phrase is the
smallest unit of form in the whole dance”. It can be related to a sentence in writing compositions, choreographers
and dancers use movement phrasing when working on dances.
Although Minton (1997) suggest that movement phrases should vary in length phrases. Commonly, a single phrase
consists of eight counts. It is easier for building routines and choreographic combinations with an 8-count phrase.
A good dance contains a theme or motif to be able to convey its meaning or intention to the audience. A dance
without meaning makes it harder for the audience to understand; thus, making it superficial and easy Philippine to
forget.
A single movement or a short phrase of movement that embodies the style and intention of the dance is called a
MOTIF. A good dance uses a motif in which the movements are repeated, varied and developed by manipulating the
movement components or elements.
One good example of a dance with motif is the Itik-Itik dance. It is easy to identify the motif of this dance as it
simply portrays the movement of the itik..
CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD DANCE
Dance can only be considered good if it has the right ingredients. Whether it has meaning or may be presented
abstractly, it must contain certain qualities that make the choreography effective. Theses characteristics include
unity, continuity, transition, repetition, and climax.
1. Unity- interconnected phrase of the dance are coherent and flow smoothly together. The movements fit together
and each plays an important role that contributes to the entirety of a dance.
It is crucial for a dance to have unity to effectively make the audience understand the choreography as a whole. It
also attracts and holds the audience’s attention.
2. Continuity- the phrases of the dance that are organized progressively making each movement phrase move
naturally into the next. There is a continuous development of the movement phrase and the audience is swept
along to the end. Some dances developed organically in much the same way a play or a novel grows from a
process of natural unfolding of an idea, or sometimes it is built upon a structure ordinarily associated with poetry.
3. Variety and Contrast- making one several variations that highlight the facet of the motif. This provides variety
within the development of a dance. It introduces new material, which is noticeably different from anything. Variety
and contrasts in movement phrases add excitement and flavor in the dance. Changing the direction, use of energy,
timing of a movement phrases, and avoiding repeating them. Ex: slow to fast, short to long.
4. Transition- link between movements, phrases and sections of the dance. It makes the logical progression of the
dance flow smoothly. It is vital because it keeps the unity and continuity of the dance.

CHEMISTRY
In the 5th century B.C., the Greek philosopher Democritus believed that all matter consists of very small, indivisible
particles, named atomos (meaning: uncuttable or indivisible. Gradually gave rise to the modern definitions of
elements and compounds. It was in 1808 that an English scientist and schoolteacher, John Dalton.
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms. All atoms of a given element are identical,
having the same size, mass, and chemical properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all
other elements.
2. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atom of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.
Law published in 1799 by Joseph Proust, a French chemist. Proust’s Law of Definite Proportions states that different
samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.
Law of Multiple Proportions, it states that two elements can combine to form more than one compound, then the
ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will always be
ratios of small whole numbers.
Law of Conservation of Mass published by Antoine Lavoisier 1787, no measurable change in mass occurs during a
chemical reaction. The mass of the products of a reaction always equals the mass of the reaction substance.
3. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement pf atoms; it does result in their
creation or destruction.
Anode- positively charged plate.
Electron- negatively charged particle
Protons- positively charged particles
English physicist, J.J Thomson used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of electromagnetic theory.

By the early 1900s, to features of atom ad become clear: they contain electrons, and they are electrically neutral. To
maintain electric neutrality, an atom must contain an equal number of positive and negative charges. Thomson
proposed that an atom could be thought of as a uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded
like raisins in a cake. “Plum-pudding model”

In 1910 the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, who had studied with Thomson at Cambridge University. He
proposed, are all concentrated in the nucleus, which Is a dense central core within the atom.
Atomic number- number of protons is equal to the number of each atom of an element. In a neutral atom the
number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
Mass number- total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
Mass number= no of protons + no of neutron
= atomic no + no of neutron
No. of neutron= mass no – atomic no
Relative atomic mass- used to describe the weighted average of atomic masses of isotopes that compose an
elements.
Isotope mass x abundance = mass contribution from isotope *amu*
Isotopes- atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Periodic table- a chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are grouped together.
Period- horizontal rows
Groups or families- vertical columns
Ion- charged species formed from a neutral atom or molecule when electrons are gained or lost as the result of a
chemical change.
The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the anion is
numerically equal to the charge on the cation.
Binary compounds- formed from elements. The first element is the metal cation, followed by the nonmetallic anion.
Ternary compounds- compounds consisting elements.
Nomenclature- system of naming.

Empowerment Technology
How to avoid copyright infringement:
• Understand
• Be responsible
• Be creative
• Know the law
Mail merge is used to combine al standardized document with a set of data. It can be used to create personalized
form letters. Mailing labels, envelopes, and more.
The merged document can be previewed, printed, or saved for later.
Mail merge saves time by applying personalized data to a master document.
The mailings tab on ribbon provides guidance and tools for conducting a mail merge.
There are three components of a Mail Merge:
 • The main document/Form document controls the merge. It contains the fixed information that will
be in every letter and the merge codes where the variable text will be. Placeholder, also referred to
as data fields or merge fields. Denoted by text with double headed arrows.
• The data source is a document or database that contains the information that will be different for
each letter. It can be a table in Word, an Excel Spreadsheet, or a table of access. It contains names,
addresses, telephone numbers, or other information. This is where the individual information or
data that needs to be plugged in to the form document is placed and maintained.
• The merged document is the result of a merge. These are individual letters that result from the
merge. Merging combines a main document with a data source to produce a merged document.
The merge fields are replaced with the actual data from the data source file.
Benefits of using Mail Merge
1. huge time saver. If you need to do a large mailing with hundreds or even thousands or customers or clients.
2. Allows you to create just one main document and use one data source that contains all your clients’ names and
addresses
Microsoft Excel- provides an automated way of displaying any statistical data. Used to automatically compute for
several factors that are not easy to notice especially when faced by a large data. Includes several arithmetic and
basic functions that help you compute faster.
Formula- an expression that operates on values in a range of cells or a cell. Ex: finding sum of the ranges of values
selected
Function- predefined formulas. Example: =SUM
COUNTIF
Syntax:
=COUNTIF(range,criteria)
RANGE- cells involved
CRITERIA- value or label is to be counted.
AVERAGEIF and SUMIF, have parts of its syntax: RANGE, CRITERIAL, AVERAGE RANGE
AVERGAE RANGE-optional part of the syntax
SUM
Syntax
=SUM(range)
AVERAGE
Syntax
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Syntax
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Philosophy
Nature of Knowledge
3 major stages in the apprehension concept
1. Perception- does not make us different from animals
a. external perception-when we perceive things with the 5 sense.
b. internal perception- when you use your imagination and memory
Percept- result of external perception.
2. Abstraction- distinguishes us from animals
Simple apprehension- act of perceiving the object intellectually (Charles Coppens, S.J.)
Concepts- result of abstraction.
3. Judgement- this is where are we going to make a knowledge claim. We put 2 concepts to make a
statement or a proposition. Is it true or false? We can confirm or deny.
Statement/Proposition- result of judgement.

Image- a representation of the external form of a person or thing using your imagination or memory.
Terms- when the word is express concepts.
Sentence- have no truth value. No point of asking whether it is true or false.
Statements- can be classified as true or false.
David Hume- author of Skeptical Doubts Concerning the Operations of the Understanding
Tautology- saying the same thing twice over different words.

Types of Statement:
1. Analytic Statement-
-TRUTH OR FALSITY CAN BE FOUND WITHIN THE STATEMENT ITSELF

-EXAMPLES: A BACHELOR IS AN UNMARRIED MALE.

A KITTEN IS A YOUNG CAT.
*THE DENIAL OF AN ANALYTIC STATEMENT WOULD LEAD TO ABSURDITY AND CONTRADICTION
-ALSO KNOWN AS TRUTHS OF KNOWLEDGE, TRUTHS OF REASON

2. Empirical Statement-
-THEIR TRUTH OR FALSITY DEPEND ON THE STATE OF AFFAIRS BEING CLAIMED

-THE DENIAL OF AN EMPIRICAL STATEMENT WOULD LEAD TO ABSURDITY AND CONTRADICTION

EXAMPLES: THE KITTEN IS ON THE MAT.
IT IS RAINING RIGHT NOW.
-YOU HAVE TO GO OUTSIDE OF THE STATEMENT AND TO LOOK AND SEE WHETHER THE STATE OF AFFAIRS BEING
CLAIMED ACTUALLY CORRESPONDS WITH THE EMPIRICAL WORLD.

3. Evaluative Statement-
- A STATEMENT CONTAINING EVALUATIVE TERMS
- DISCIPLINES THAT DEAL WITH EVALUATIVE OR NORMATIVE STATEMENTS ARE USUALLY FOUND IN THE FIELD
OF ETHICS, AESTHETICS AND RELIGION
EXAMPLES: THAT GIRL IS BEAUTIFUL.
HE IS A GOOD PERSON.
EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS COULD BE EXPRESSED AS STANDARDS MEANT TO GUIDE OUR ACTIONS.
EXAMPLES: LOVE YOUR NEIGHBORS AS YOU LOVE YOURSELF. YOU SHOULD NOT CHEAT IN EXAMS.

Types of Knowledge
A. FORMAL KNOWLEDGE- CORRESPONDS TO KNOWLEDGE IN THE FORMAL SCIENCES
-CHARACTERIZED BY THE CONSISTENCY OF SYSTEM TO BE USED
EXAMPLE: A MATHEMATICAL COMPUTATION CAN BE DONE PRECISELY WITHOUT HAVING TO RELY ON ACTUAL
EMPIRICAL DATA; WE CAN ADD 2 APPLES PLUS 3 APPLES WITHOUT HAVING THE ACTUAL OBJECTS AT HAND
LOGIC EXAMPLE
A=B; B=C THEN A=C
MATH EXAMPLE
8 X 8 = 64

B. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE- TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES IN THE EMPIRICAL
SCIENCES
-TAKES EMPHASIS AND MAKES USE OF DATA OR THE CONTENT FROM EXPERIENCE
-KNOWLEDGE GAINED USING THE PRIMARY SENSES
EXAMPLE: THE COMPUTER IS BLACK
MY CAT LIKES FISH
Priori- can be known without experience or sense data.
Posteriori- can only be known with sense experience.

Theories of Truth
1. Coherence Theory of Truth- Truth is what coheres with the rest of our knowledge
- well-formed formulas in the field of math, logic, trigo etc.
-deals with consistency of the truth of statements being claimed within the system that is being used.
Coherence- deals with the consistency of truth of statement being claimed with the system that is being used or
employed. Quality of being logical and consistent.
2. Correspondence Theory of Truth- truth is what corresponds to facts
- promoted by Bertrand Russel, referential theory of meaning, who believed that the meaning of a word is
its referent of the object denoted by it.
-has something to do with the correspondence of knowledge claims being made with the state of affairs in
the world. THE DOG IS IN THE DOG HOUSE.
-have sense perception or experience as its source of knowledge. Perceptions become the basis for
verifying something as true or false about the world.
-The criterion of verification was emphasized by Alfred Jules Ayer, logical positivist, in his book “Language,
Truth and Logic 1936”, where he defined the limits of empirical statements as those that are empirically be
considered as meaningless utterance.
- Ethical concepts are pseudo concepts could not be subjected to the process of verification.
- A statement is rue if it corresponds to the facts. EX: A black cat is on the mat.
Belief truth reality
3. Pragmatic Theory of Truth- truth is what works, or serves our purposes.
- American philosopher and doctor of medicine, William James in his book “Pragmatism 1907”. “Grant an
idea to be true, what concrete difference will be being true make in anyone’s actual life etc.”
-Truth happens to an idea, A belief is true if it works and is useful.
-Something is true it can be shown to work in practice. Ex: Santa Clause
- “We have lived today by what truth we can get today, and be ready tomorrow to call it falsehood.”

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
1. Faculty of Reason
-able to determine the truth of analytic statements
-confined to the ability of a human being to perform his rational functions including the act of thinking and
analysis.
2. Faculty of Experience/Sense Perceptions
-has to do with the use of 5 senses for the purpose of verifying our empirical claims,
-uses the correspondence theory of truth in verifying the truth.
-Led to the emergence of theses sensory extending devices.
3. Faculty of Intuition
-tacit knowledge
-George Edward Moose- proponent of intuitionism in ethics.
-immediate knowledge of the idea of goodness in his book “Principia Ethica 1903”
-no established method of validating or verifying knowledge claims with intuition
-not recognized and used widely by scientists and philosophers.
-intuition- ability to understand something instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
-tacit- understood or implied without being stated.

Acuna, in his book Philosophical Analysis “Never accept the truth of any statement or belief unless there is
adequate evidence for it.”
Epistemic- relating to knowledge or to the degree of its validation
Dogmatism-tendency to lay down principles as undeniably true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions
of others.
Polycarp Ikuenobe in his article “Questioning as an Epistemic Process of Critical Thinking”, we have to consider and
realize our fallibility through the act of questioning. “Methodically casting aspersions on beliefs and evidence etc.”
According to Bertrand Russell, “most of our beliefs are based on induction and we accept them because they have
probability of being true.”
Healthy skepticism/ Methodical skepticism.
MORALITY AND FREEDOM
Ethics- a branch of Philosophy that deals with the systematic questioning and critical examination of the
underlying principles of morality.
Etymology, “ethos”- character of a culture including the attitude of approval or disapproval in a particular culture.
• The subject matter being studied in ethics is morality.
 Morality comes from the root word “mores”, customary behavior of a particular group of people. Constitutes the
core of attitudes and beliefs of a particular group of people.
Normative ethics- answers the question “What is good”. Norms for goodness and badness. EX: Christian ethics
Meta-ethics- tries to go beyond the concepts and parameters set by normative ethics. Examines the meaning of
ethical concepts. EX: What is your justification for claiming that pleasure is good?
William Sumner, a well-known anthropologist, in his article “Folkways”, “Right” stems from man’s basic instinct to
survive.
Started when man formed tribes, discovered the better way of catching fish, tradition emerge.
Folkways- notion of right and true.
Mores emerged from folkways.
*in order to preserve society together the individual has to defend and maintain the notion of right.
Sanctions- helps maintain order, a threatened penalty for disobeying a law or rule.
Customs, emerge out of these repeated practices, a traditional and widely accepted way of behaving or doing
something that is specific to a particular society.
Spanish period- women are dressed up fully covered from head to toe (ankle seen=naked)
2 factors in the emergence of morality
1. Point of view of society
2. Point of view of the individual
Habits- a settled or regular tendency or practice, especially on that which is hard to give up.
Realm of Freedom
Jean-Paul Sartre, an existentialist philosopher, assumed the idea of radical freedom, by claiming that man is
condemned to be free.
He always has a choice in every aspect of his life. Man is nothing else but which he makes of himself. Man is free
and totally responsible for all the things that he does.
“Man is free but freedom is not absolute”
You could not do anything you please without taking into consideration the norms of your society. You cannot just
kill people when you feel like doing it because it is against the law.
One is a free moral agent (you are free but you have to act in accordance with his moral discernment of what is
good and bad.
2 necessary conditions for morality to occur.
1. Freedom- assumed when one is making choices.
2. Obligation- one’s duty to himself to exercise freedom. Can you blame other people for your mistake? NO