Unit 1 Basic Concepts and Equipment UNIT OBJECTIVE When you have completed this unit, you will be able to use the Dual Function Generator, the Dual Audio Amplifier, and the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter. ‘You will also be familiar with the basic principles governing periodic signals. DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTALS. The Analog Communications system is made up of two types of modules; instruction modules, which includes AM/FM transmitters and receivers, and instrument modules, such as signal generators and measuring devices. Volume ‘One is about the instrumentation modules, and drawings of the modules’ front panels are included in Appendix | ‘Analog Communications generally refers to the transmission of a message using high frequency or RF (radio frequency) signals. The parameters and fundamental concepts applicable to audio signals are, for the most part, applicable to RF signals as well Therefore, whatever the frequency range, there will be a bandpass, a wave- length and various ways with which to measure the amplitude and power of these signals. Exercises covering the Audio Amplifier will enable you to plot frequency res- ponse curves, and calculate bandpasses. Studying the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter will demonstrate the different ways with which the amplitude and power of signals are measured, Most of the experiments in this unit emphasize looking at the changes in certain signal parameters in time. This is called time domain analysis. NEW TERMS AND WORDS (instantaneous) amplitude — value of the amplitude of a signal at a given time. analog communications — communications in which the transmitted signal is continuously varied in direct correlation with the message. attenuation — reduction in level of a signal. Attenuation may be relative to either power or voltage level audio signal — audible signal composed of frequencies between 20 and 20 000 Hz. 14Basic Concepts and Equipment 12 bandpass — a range of frequencies which a system or an instrument is able to transmit or detect. This range is defined between two frequency limits, each of which corresponds to a certain fraction of the maximum output level duty cycle — the width of a pulse signal divided by its period, frequency response curve — plot showing how the output level of a circuit varies with frequency, while a constant input level is maintained. frequency range — a continuous range of frequencies. gain — the ratio of voltage or power levels between two measuring points high frequency — radio frequencies between 3 and 30 MHz. period T — time taken for one cycle of a periodic signal. RF signal — frequencies at which electromagnetic radiation is possible. rms value of a voltage — voltage on the leads of a pure resistor corresponding to the voltage that would be created by an equivalent direct current producing the same power dissipation in the resistor. time domain analysis — analysis ofthe variation of the amplitude of a signal with respect to time. wavelength — distance travelled by a wave during one period,Exercise 1 - 1 The Dual Function Generator EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Upon completion of this exercise, you will be able to adjust the frequency and amplitude of the various signals generated by the Dual Function Generator. You will use an oscilloscope to visualize these adjustments. DISCUSSION ‘The Dual Function Generator consists of two generators, A and 8, which have exactly the same characteristics except for FREQUENCY MODULATION; only the signal from A can be frequency-modulated. Each generator can produce five different kinds of signals, identified by the FUNCTION symbols on the front panel: sine wave, square wave, triangle wave, sawtooth wave, and pulse. Each function is easily selectable at the push of a button. The duty cycle of the pulse signal may be varied between 10% and 90%. Each generator has four frequency ranges; the maximum frequency for each range appears on the panel between the FREQUENCY RANGE pushbuttons. Within each range, the frequency is varied using a ten-tun knob, FREQUENCY A or B. The digital display corresponds to either generator, selected by pressing pushbutton A or B beneath the OUTPUT FREQUENCY digital readout. ‘The FREQUENCY MODULATION section allows frequency modulation of the output of generator A, using a signal from generator B or another external signal. ‘This feature will be thoroughly covered in the frequency modulation section. The signals from each generator are output from channel A and channel B respectively, and the OUTPUT LEVEL may be continuously varied using a knob and/or attenuated by 0, 20 or 40 dB by pressing the corresponding ATTENUATOR Pushbuttons, In analog communication, the transmitted message is often an audio message such as music or voice. However, these signals have quite variable characteristics. In order to study phenomena associated with amplitude or frequency modulation, we will substitute simpler signals with controllable parameters. These signals will be supplied by the Dual Function Generator. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED DESCRIPTION MODEL Accessories 948 Power Supply/Dual Audio Amplifier 9401 Dual Function Generator 9402 Oscilloscope — 13The Dual Function Generator PROCEDURE (1. Set up the modules as shown in Figure 1-1. Make sure that all OUTPUT LEVEL and GAIN controls are turned fully counterclockwise to the MIN position, and power up the equipment. ‘DUAL, FUNCTION ‘GENERATOR oweR DUAL avoIO SUPPLY ‘AMPLIFIER Figure 1-1. Suggested Module Arrangement. oscitLoscore 1 2. Press pushbutton A located beneath the digital display on the Dual Function Generator. For each frequency range of channel A, find the minimum and maximum frequencies by turning knob A on the FREQUENCY section completely one way, and then the other. When the display flashes, this means that the frequency is greater than 100.00 kHz, 's0 do not forget to add a 1 to the left of the reading, Record the frequencies in the table below. FREQUENCY RANGE frig fae He 100 — 1k — 10k — 100 k — 1 3. Connect OUTPUT A of the generator to channel 1 (X) of the oscilloscope. ‘The A SYNC/TTL OUTPUT of the generator must be connected to the external synchronization input of the oscilloscope, and the oscilloscope must be set to external triggering. Set the output level to MIN, and select a 20 dB attenuation with the ATTENUATOR pushbutton, Select the AL, (sine wave) FUNCTION and the 1 kHz FREQUENCY RANGE, Sot the output frequency to 1000 Hz, using the A control knob on the FREQUENCY section, 1 4. Adjust the Dual Function Generator’s OUTPUT LEVEL to obtain a peak- to-peak amplitude of 4 divisions on the oscilloscope screen with the scope set at 0.2 Volt/DIV. 1The Dual Function Generator Set the oscilloscope controls to observe two or three periods of the signal on the oscilloscope screen. Press each of the FUNCTION pushbuttons in turn, and sketch the ‘waveform of each signal in Figure 1-2. For the pulse function, pulse width may be adjusted by turning the duty cycle knob located to the right of the pushbutton, ‘Sketch the shortest and longest pulses in Figure 1-2 (e), using dotted lines for the 10% duty cycle. Determine the minimum and maximum duty cycles, (2) sinusoidal signal (©) squarowave signat (6) tangular signat (2) sawtooth signal Figure 1-2. Signal waveforms. 15The Dual Function Generator min max +6 (©) pulses Figure 1-2. Signal waveforms (continued), Duty cycle = pulse duration period 100% % % ‘The FREQUENCY MODULATION section is used to modulate the signal of generator A using an external signal, for example, from generator B. Using the same connections as in step 3, connect OUTPUT B of the generator to the FREQUENCY MODULATION INPUT (100 k®) of the same module. Make the following adjustments on the Dual Function Generator: Channel A FUNCTION FREQUENCY RANGE ATTENUATOR OUTPUT FREQUENCY OUTPUT LEVEL Channel B FUNCTION FREQUENCY RANGE ATTENUATOR: OUTPUT FREQUENCY OUTPUT LEVEL FREQUENCY MODULATION DEVIATION N 10 KHZ : 2008 2kHz Set knob 50% cw N 100 He OdB 100 He at MAX, MAXThe Dual Function Generator In what way does the signal from channel A vary? 1 6. Select the square wave FUNCTION of generator A and describe what happens. (7. What do you notice when you select the square wave FUNCTION of generator B, if the output of A is sinusoidal? (J 8. Tum all OUTPUT LEVEL and GAIN controls to the MIN position, Place all power switches in the OFF position and disconnect all cables. CONCLUSION In this exercise, you became familiar with the Dual Function Generator. Using the oscilloscope, you have observed the shapes of the various signals generated, and how their amplitude varies during each cycle. These observations are called the time domain analysis of a signal Finally, you observed the phenomenon of frequency modulation. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 What functions are generated by the Dual Function Generator,The Dual Function Generator 2. Identity and draw the symbols used for the functions available on the Dual Function Generator. 4, What are the frequency limits for your Dual Function Generator? Hz to __kHz ‘5. What does it mean when the OUTPUT FREQUENCY display flashes? 18Exercise 1 -2 The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter AMPLITUDE +8 EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to demonstrate the use of the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a voltmeter. You will measure signals, {rom the Dual Function Generator to show the relationship between rms and peak- to-peak voltage. DISCUSSION ‘The measurements made in this exercise are taken using the periodic signals shown in Figure 1-3. 1a +A re Bo Time zg Time “A al }_ 1__ (©) square wave nm +” Bo z Time — (6) tlangular wave Figure 1-3. Periodic Signals. 19The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter AMPLITUDE. AMPLITUDE a 30 2 0 0 12 Purse woth Time 2 Zo Time |-—Pentoo +! — (4) sawtooth wave (©) pulse AVERAGE VALUE L Aon Figure 1-3, Periodic Signals (continuee), Any periodic signal will eventually repeat itself after a certain time, which is referred to as the period, T. ‘The maximum value of the amplitude of a periodic signal is A; this is called peak value. Except for the signal in Figure 1-3 (e), the amplitude of all these signals goes through a maximum (+A) and a minimum (—A) value. ‘The amplitude between +A and —Ais called peak-to-peak amplitude and equals, 2A Whenever the measured values are voltages, A is called the peak voltage, or \V peak. Measuring from +A to ~ A gives the peak-to-peak voltage, abbreviated to Vpp. ‘Average Value ‘The average value of a signal is equal to the area included between the curve and the horizontal axis, divided by the length of one period. TIME AMPLITUDE TIME © Figure 1-4, Average Value of a SignalThe True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter Using this definition, the average value of the signal in Figure 1-4 (a) is calculated as follows: (40 x 1) + (20 x 1) - (10 x 2) Ase = 4 ‘The same calculation may be made with the sinusoidal signal of Figure 1-4 (b), but it is obvious by looking at this graph that Area (1) = Area (2). Therefore, the average value is zero, since their signs are opposite. ‘The same is true for all periodic signals whenever the curve defines equal positive and negative areas, RMS Value Since the average value is of no use in characterizing periodic waveforms, (iit is always zero), we need another value to describe these signals. The rms value (Root Mean Square) is used instead, Relationships exist between the peak amplitude values, and the rms values Figure 1-5 shows these relationships. al a vALUE o707 a AVERAGE VALUE = 0 amPUTUDE a AMS VALUE = “= 0.707 A ve fs vauue A a Avene VALU 3 Bo AS VALUE = & g ume 5 “AThe True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter AVERAGE VALUE 8 & A 2 RMS VALUE LSTA = AVERAGE VALUE = 0 s — a z RMS VALUE = = 05778 = Figure 1-5. Relationship betweon rms value and peak value (continued). Normally, measuring instruments such as AC voltmeters are manufactured to read ms voltage when measuring a sinusoidal signal. Therefore, a 10 V ac reading across the terminals of a power supply is an rms voltage corresponding to a voltage of about 14.2 V peak, or 28.4 Vp-p. A true rms voltmeter such as the one you will use must be able to provide a measure of rms voltage regardless of the frequency or shape of a waveform. Such ‘a meter may be used to measure the rms voltage of signals, or noise, etc. Itis also Useful for measuring the relationship between volts (or millivolts), and values in dBm) Unless otherwise indicated, V represents rms voltage in this manual Note: Before making any measurements, turn on the True RMS Voltmeter!Power Meter and let it warm-up for several minutes. ‘Next, zero the meter using the ZERO ADJUST knob, after pressing the ZERO ADJUST pushbutton. The internal zero of the meter may change with temperature, since internal ‘components may dit from their nominal values when heated or cooled. It the CHANGE SCALE indicator lights during a measurement, choose a higher or lower scale, since the input voltage has exceeded the upper or lower limit ofthe scale you are using.The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter EQUIPMENT REQUIRED DESCRIPTION MODEL Accessories 8948 Power Supply/Oual Audio Amplifier 9401 Dual Function Generator 9402 ‘True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter 9404 Oscilloscope = PROCEDURE a1 Oe Set up the modules as shown in Figure 1-6. Make sure that all OUTPUT LEVEL and GAIN controls are turned fully counterclockwise to the MIN Position, and power up the equipment DUAL FUNCTION TRUE AMS Cd VOLTMETERVPOWER METER osciLuoscoPe PoweR DUAL auDIO SUPPLY ‘AMPLIFIER Figure 1-6, Suggested Module Arrangement. Using a BNC T-connector, connect OUTPUT A of the Dual Function Generator to both the INPUT of the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter and one of the oscilloscope channels, Connect the SYNC/TTL OUTPUT of tho generator to the external tigger input of the oscilloscope. Set the oscilloscope in the External Trigger mode. Zero the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter by pressing the ZERO ‘ADJUST pushbutton and using the ZERO ADJUST knob. Set the Dual Function Generator for a 100 Hz sinusoidal signal, and using the oscilloscope, adjust the OUTPUT LEVEL to 1 V peak. Measure the rms voltage using the 1 V scale of the True RMS Voltmeter/ Power Meter. Record your results in Table 1-1 Repeat the preceding measurements using a square wave, a triangle wave, and a sawtooth wave. Fill in Table 1-1The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter FREQUENCIES Toone Te Te Too we AVERAGE sionat v y v y v y v ta2eaee Vek V peak Vpeak V peak 4 Sine Wave ‘Square Wave Triangle Wave ‘Sawtooth Wave Table 1-1. RMS Voltage ~ Frequency. U6. What have you discovered about the VIV peak ratio for each waveform? LI 7. Compare the average of the ratio, calculated in Table 1-1 for each signal, with the values shown in Figure 1-5. Explain your observations. (J 8. Select the pulse function at 100 Hz by pressing the JL FUNCTION Pushbutton. Set the peak voltage to 1 V. Adjust the pulse to its minimum width by turning the duty cycle knob (next to the pushbutton) fully counterclockwise. Slowly increase the pulse width by turning the knob clockwise. How does this affect the oscilloscope trace and the rms voltage read on the Voltmeter?The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter 1 9. Set the pulse length to minimum and vary its width again, using 1 kHz, 10 kHz and 100 kHz. What do you observe? What do you conclude? C110. Turn all OUTPUT LEVEL and GAIN controls to the MIN position, Place all Power switches in the OFF position and disconnect all cables. CONCLUSION In this exercise, you have used the voltmeter section of the True RMS Voltmeter! Power Meter to measure the rms voltage of a signal. By calculating the V rms/ V peak ratio, you have seen that this ratio was a constant for each signal, independent of frequency. Finally, you have made the same measurements with a pulse function, which demonstrated that there is a relationship between the pulse width and the rms value of its amplitude. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. The rms voltage is defined as the voltage on the leads of a pure resistor corresponding to the voltage that would be created by an equivalent direct current producing the same power dissipation in the resistor. Knowing this, and that P = VR, calculate the maximum voltage (peak voltage) if P = 400 W and R = 251, with a sinusoidal current, Use the following relationships: veVPxKA v VP xR Vpeak = —_ = “7 0.707 0.707The True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter as a Voltmeter 2. What is rms voltage? 3. Calculate the ratio V rms/V p-p for the four generated signals, (excluding the Pulse) using the values from Figure 1-5. v Sinusoidal signal = Vpp v ‘Square wave signal: = Vpp v Triangular signal: = Vep v ‘Sawtooth signal = Vpp 5. What does it mean when the CHANGE SCALE LED lights on the True RMS Voltmeter/Power Meter?