The Better Sound of the Phonograph

How come? How-to!

Robin Miller
author of American Radio Then & Now:
stories of Local Radio from The Golden Age

https://www.amazon.com/dp/B071VBY71D
 The last entertainment tech
you can make yourself!

A must-read for the diskophile, new or experienced.

The art and science of the phonograph (gramophone).
The evolution of the phono stylus in micro-photography.
More than 150 illustrations, charts, & micro-photographs.
The RIAA phono stage \ preamplifier with DIY instructions.
DIY instructions for a 12in (305mm) transcription tone arm.
(Add a second tonearm for better replay and different record formats?)

The Better Sound of the Phonograph: How-come? How-to!

1st edition

an educational book
by Robin Miller
editor R. A. Bruner

©2017 Robin Miller v5.31.17

 ISBN: 9781521201916

Contents in pictures – p6
A look at what you’re in for – p6

Foreword – on a quest for real sound – p9

“How come records sound better than digital?” – p9

The sound of the phonograph is the sound of its stylus – p11

Micro-photography posters; How a stylus and its partners re-make sound – p13

Our story begins with advanced styli – the line contact – p17
New phonograph needles, flawed or perfect, before any wear – p21
A robust Stereohedron for broadcasters, DJs, & archivists – p27
Between line-contacts and simple sphericals – elliptical – p29

The narrowest elliptical, that evolved into the line-contact – p37

The lowly spherical (sometimes called conical) needle – p38

Before microgroove: 78s and electrical transcriptions (ETs) – p39

SP (wide\coarse-groove) restoration\archiving styli – p41
Many other cartridges & styli were made in vinyl’s heyday – p42

Apart from the stylus, the magnetic cartridge body itself – p44
An early spherical stylus – the Victrola steel needle – p45
The precise micro-groove for monophonic, stereo – p46
Phonograph styli are made for the recorded groove – p46

The stylus playing nicely with others – p49

The sound of replacement \ aftermarket \ generic styli – p51
 Part II – How a stylus and its partners re-make sound – p52
The stylus and partners close-up – tonearm & preamp – p52

The pickup cartridge mated with a tonearm – p52

Causes of skating, and adjusting anti-skating (bias) – p54

The pickup and preamplifier (phono stage) – p55

Cantilever-tonearm resonance – p57
The stylus meets more than a century of dirty filthy disks – p59

So what does all this sound like? – p61

Aspects inherent in vinyl’s resurgence – p61

Online sources of pickups & styli, short-list – p66
“Why bother; I can’t hear it!” – p67

The tuning of phonograph reproduction – p69

How to make a good, inexpensive phono stage, and a bit of historical perspective –
p71

Capacitive & Resistive loading of moving magnet (MM) and moving iron (MI) phonograph
pickup cartridges – p72
Balancing two channels for monaural & stereo disc replay – p76

A bit of historical perspective about grooved disc recording – p82

How to modify an inexpensive phono preamp – p87

C- & R-loading, balance trimming, monaural mode – p87
Wiring to/from the PCB – p90
How to balance your phonograph system using an A-310 phono stage– p90

(Em)powering – p90
Modified preamplifier performance & conclusion – p91
PS: The phonograph v. magnetic tape v. digital – p92
 Installing the modified phono stage – p95
Before connecting & powering the preamp – p96

Avoiding hum by design – p97

Simple steps to install the bare PCB – p97

Installation in an enclosure – p98

Steampunk 12in transcription tonearm – p101

Make a low-cost but high-performing 12in (305mm) phonograph arm – p103
Bill of materials and initial machining (check off as you go) – p105

Fabricating wand sub-assembly – p107

Wiring (up to preamp connectors, which are user’s choice) – p110
Fabricating finger lift, armrest, & clamp sub-assembly – p112
Tonearm installation, alignment, & testing – p112

Fine tuning– adjust arm resonance; preamp interfacing – p116

Conclusion – further considerations, and what to expect? – p118

Addenda – pictorial tips, reports in use, 2nd & 3rd prototypes – p121

dB wiki – p128
the decibel & perception – p130

Vive La Différence – p130

The dB for measuring pressure or power changes, simplified – p130
Cutoff frequencies “f3,” noise, & distortion in perspective – p132

Afterword – up with better sound! – p134

[and a word about the better sound of digital?] – p134
Acknowledgements \ About the author – p138

END
 NB – The most technical explanations are found in the footnotes.
Unless noted, images and text are property of the author and may not be used without written consent. Technical and references
footnotes appear at the end of the book. Trademarks incidental herein are property of their owners.
Contents in pictures
A look at what you’re in for

A stylus too worn to risk your records. \ A perfect line-contact specimen, New Old Stock (NOS). Many more examples
under the microscope inside show which stylus might be best for you.

For lowest distortion, three measurements constitute tonearm installation and alignment. For your existing tonearm,
check alignment by measuring overhang (cutout overleaf).

For lowest tracking distortion, cut-out this stylus overhang checker for 8– to 12+in tonearms.
 It’s attachable to a flat 45rpm adapter. Details for optimizing several phonograph distortion
mechanisms are inside.

Cut-out strobe disk, with directions for checking turntable speed. (50Hz versions are online.)

Make your own high-performance phono stage for $30 – all you do to the preassembled $10
circuit board above is change the parts in violet ovals. Instructions show how to apply precision
powering, and avoid hum.
With about half the tracking distortion of the factory ~9in arm, add a 12in transcription tonearm
to your turntable for $30. Now on with the show…

NB – Some images are reproduced full-size only in the print edition.

Foreword – on a quest for real sound
“How come records sound better than digital?”
“How can I get into vinyl (and 78rpm) records?”

As a sound conservator \ audio engineer, I hear these two

questions more than others: The first from inquiring audiophiles; the
second from the upsurge of vinyl newbies. And while uncompressed
digital reproduction is technically superior, much digital sound as
delivered to the consumer is subjectively inferior to analog vinyl’s
“warm sound.” This is causing vinyl’s resurgence, exceeding falling
digital downloads. In terms that differentiate pure digital from
compressed, vinyl sounds lossless – if played properly.

This book is about playing vinyl properly, probably better than you
are now, or, if new to it, better than you might otherwise. It contains
findings from the author’s endlessly asking questions himself. First
as a young hobbyist, then professionally for over 55 years. Did you
know that records are the primary source of digital content? That
140+ years of recorded history are archived on grooved media?
That losses in vinyl quality are mostly due to poor playback? That
the needle rules how records sound?

I’ve been knocking around audio for a long while, and you might
have jumped to the conclusion that, in an mp3 world, record playing
is passé. I did. Yet I’ve returned to vinyl from working with tape
and digital audio workstations (DAW). And young people like my
son observe that, while image display has improved dramatically over
the past 30 years, much audio equipment, and thus audio quality, has
over 30 years gotten worse. Ear-fatiguing in distortions. They want
the audio pendulum to swing back. The “record machine” is a case
in point. Its time for a comeback is now!

And coming back vinyl is. The Economist issue the very week
prior to publication reports vinyl sales have tripled since 2010. That
vinyl pressing demand dramatically exceeds supply, with startups in
Germany and Canada making new machines. And LASER lathes to
shoulder the load on the only 25 analog cutting lathes in the world
that still work. More younger buyers than older buy an album on
vinyl after streaming it online.

Many books have been written about the music and other historic
content published via grooved media. Online forums and sales
websites cover the equipment, both vintage and what is the latest (and
hyped as greatest). This book has been written because the
phonograph is enjoying a renaissance in public interest. New and
used “vinyl” revenue, online and in record and book stores, is
growing due to larger album art and text stories, in addition to
undeniable sound quality. This is the story of how come (why)
“vinyl?” And a manual for how-to. If you adopt the gems in this
book, you will experience for yourself vinyl’s better sound.

For as wonderful a resource as it can be, the internet, when it

comes to audio, is full of unsubstantiated beliefs rather than proven
facts. E.g. the highly debated topic of skating, a leading cause of
wear of both records and needles. Especially for those just beginning
actively listening to vinyl, the author felt a readable book was needed
with just enough technical analysis for a technological topic. Worth
“a thousand words” are each of the more than 150 images,
illustrations, and charts that reveal how the phonograph works, why
it sounds good (or bad), and what you can do to make it sound
better. How knowledgably to choose a replacement stylus (needle).
With a soldering iron, how-to make a high-performing phono stage
for $30. With a drill press, how with $30 of ordinary hardware to
make a 12 inch transcription tonearm. How to align a tonearm to
reduce distortion. With free software, how to minimize troublesome
resonance.

What follows is a collection of the author’s White Papers for

optimizing the transparency of sound playing records. Enjoying the
ritual operating vintage equipment. Appreciating the 21st Century
science behind the phonograph, although invented in 1877. Written
over three years, there will be a bit of repetition – all the better to give
emphasis. It is assumed that the reader is motivated toward better
sound for active listening. And has attended to basics, often glossed
over under a title such as “5 (6, 7?) easy ways to get groovier sound
from your record player:” placing the turntable on a level, vibration-
free surface not near the loudspeakers; avoiding fingering the record
surfaces; not dropping the arm on the disk; not playing a 78 with a
microgroove needle; etc. In this book, choosing a stylus, properly
loading a cartridge, and using cost-effective interconnects are dealt
with; plugging the cables into the correct holes is not.

Ultimately, this compendium is about how to enjoy your recorded

music and spoken entertainment on disk even more. Because you
optimized a phonograph system that extracts the better the sound that
awaits you in its grooves – the full-range, distortion-free audio that is
baked-in the vast majority of records. Along with a better listening
experience, you can add the satisfaction of making, if you wish and
for very little money, your own “high-end” phono stage and
professional-style tonearm to improve an old but decent turntable,
one you already have or can easily find used. Your savings achieving
high-end performance and avoiding paying for just one wrong needle
will pay for this book many times. Ready to get started?!
The sound of the phonograph
is the sound of its stylus
We begin with a close-up exploration – under a microscope at
2~800 times magnification – of gramophone needles. And learn to
interpret even using a 60x illuminating inspection loupe (~$4 online).
At first glimpse of this previously unseen world, we don’t know what
we are looking at. Whether it is ugly; or somehow of beauty; whether
to prohibit such “visually obvious defects” from coming in contact
with and ruining our records. In addition to avoiding wear, how the
stylus will likely sound.

While coming to appreciate the workmanship on such a tiny scale,

we learn what matters, and what doesn’t. We see that needles come
in many shapes and sizes, which make many different sounds. If it
could be shaped like the stylus that cut the record, the reproduction
could approach perfection. But it cannot be shaped like the “chisel”
that cut the master or it would re-cut the disk, erasing the details on
it. With a cartridge capable of interchangeable styli, a selection of
more than one is desirable. But there are offerings to be avoided.
Both used (worn), but even brand new.

In contrast to a whole spectrum of things to know about the

century-older electro-mechanical disk player, new digital media are
easy. Digital quality, whether in a sound card or disc player, is tied
largely to a key integrated circuit chip, the digital-to-analog converter
– the DAC – and the clock pulsing it. Digital CD, DVD, SACD,
DVD-A, and Bluray disc players simply work at their peak for years
with little or no maintenance, if they do not suffer “infant mortality,”
often just after their 90 day warranty expiration. If one lives past
infancy, its main consumable part, its LASER, weakens slowly (over
years), and at some point the player loses its ability to track and fails
to play anything. In contrast, the turntable system works its best only
if at the outset it is properly installed, after which it serves with little
maintenance, other than record cleaning and perhaps a drop of oil,
for 500 to 1,000 hours until needing its stylus replaced.

What follows are facts in self-explanatory posters “suitable for

framing” that put in context these jewels, some from chips after
precious stone cutting, precision-ground to less than one thousandths
of an inch across. Unlike a DAC, they are tangible, and aesthetic.
But how to buy them amid the confusion of sellers’ claims for phono
needles, now that we know not only how differently they sound, but
how differently they wear (destroy!) valuable records? More than
merely tracking disks, the stylus, tonearm adjustments, and disk
cleanliness are the main damagers of record grooves to know about.
The best reproducing styli are also the gentlest.

It is often said that “the sound of the phonograph is the sound of

its stylus,” and this is largely true, but it is not all that happens. The
sound as intended by musicians, producers, and recording
technicians is already baked into the disk, awaiting proper extraction
by the stylus and the rest of the system. The best thing the system can
do in performing this process is to be neutral – not to wreck what’s in
the groove in any of many inherent but avoidable ways. Not altering
it by adding noise and distortion caused by the stylus, electronics, or
acoustics of the listening space. How come these anomalies exist, and
how-to minimize these tone destroyers?

Prime examples of distortions caused by stylus-related issues are:

losing contact with groove walls (by misadjusted tracking
force and anti-skating, aka bias);
adding artifacts from mistracking error, groove mistracing,
“pinch effect” and “poid-like” waveform distortions (by various
misalignments and a stylus with an incapable tip shape).
These distortions are often similar-sounding, and are imprecisely
called “sibilance” (really because vocal sibilants are most annoyingly
affected). Again, the distortions are most likely NOT recorded in the
groove, but are diagnosable, and are likely fixable by a savvy user
with a useful book.

Regarding the ultimate sound quality, the stylus does not act alone;
its sound is affected by components closest to it, which complete a
turntable system: The stylus’ own pick-up cartridge; the tonearm
carrying the pickup; and the preamplifier (“phono stage”). Myriad
mechanical and electrical interactions among these components, along
with a consistently and quietly spinning platter, all affect the sound of
the phonograph. If not bought as an integrated turntable package
(often at the low-end of quality), these interactions require attention
by an informed user\installer who cobbles together the various
turntable components. Not the sum of its parts, the phonograph
system is the multiplication of its parts – any degraded link can
proportionally degrade the whole chain. The second half of this first
paper looks close-up at these stylus partner components.

The length of this first chapter might indicate the complexity and
import of these issues, which it is hoped the reader will find of
increasing interest as the pages turn. Don’t worry if the information
is too much to commit to memory, this book can serve as a reference
for any time one implements a new turntable system, modifies an
existing one, or reviews as the need for maintenance arises. Let us
press on…
Filmaker Technology White Paper

Phonograph styli close-up

Part I: Micro-photography posters;
Part II: How a stylus and its partners re-make sound

Robert E. (Robin) Miller III BSEE AES SMPTE BAS

Filmaker Technology www.filmaker.com ©2017, v5.20.17
 A
Abstract: “Vinyl” is in a renaissance from obsolescence and supposed extinction. Along with “shellac” 78rpm
disks, the analog audio medium of the phonograph (gramophone) is a durable archive of nearly a century and a
half of recorded music and spoken history. It has been surpassed in technical quality, first by magnetic tape,
then by digital sampling. But records surpass these in sound fidelity typically delivered to the consumer,
especially compared to “compressed” (data-reduced) streaming, and mixing for an illusion of sounding louder
by squashing dynamics using level compression, unnatural low frequency tone color due to “normalizing,” and
listening fatigue due to intentional clipping. Market response in the early 21st century is that used and new-
released disks are gaining revenue comparable to losses for digital downloads. New buyers perceive
“warmth” of sound engraved in a groove. Some make the effort to assemble turntables, align tone-arms,
electrically match cartridges with cables and preamplifiers, and select a low-distortion stylus. Styli are
explored in microphotographs to evaluate them for purchase and for wear and replacement, plus technically
how styli work. For many users, the inconveniences playing grooved records are offset by the aesthetics and
serviceability of equipment – and the ritual of gently inserting a gem stylus within a half mile-long spiral.

By the turn of the 21st century, I and other practitioners in audio had pronounced “vinyl” dead. I’d
“recycled” (junked) turntables, arms and cartridges ca. the 1970s or prior. Fortunately I kept two of
each. For in 2012 a new market of clients emerged, requesting that I restore 78rpm, SoundScriber,
and radio ET disks. 55 years an audio engineer, I added to my resume sound conservator.
I knew a lot about analog tape and digital audio workstations (DAW), but phonograph
reproduction had been passé for decades – so I’d thought. After a year catching up – coming to
realize that I didn’t know much in the first place – I began to restore not only disk recordings (“discs”
are CDs), but out of necessity, the vintage machinery to play them. Evaluating turntables and tonearms
for performance and repair, locating parts long out of production, or creating them anew. Styli
(needles) are the main consumable of the phono world, but the best of these are nearly unobtainium,
or the stuff of snake oil salesmen.
Focused on one of many phonograph cartridges (pick-ups) & stylus makers, herein by example I
will deconstruct grooved media reproduction, beginning with microphotography. The challenge is
that stylus tips are 1/1,000 of an inch (25microns) across, or less. They require “3D” microscopy,
not 2D flattened under glass like biological subjects. Phono styli are difficult to shoot without a
multi-thousand dollar metallurgical ‘scope with expensive Long Working Distance (LWD) objective
lenses. Then add high definition photography, “stack-focusing,” and poster illustration. Why? First
for evaluation. Second, might a semi-technical publication help others, especially any new
hobbyists? I hope these images and text are entertaining as well as edifying about a subject that is not
dead after all.
 Our story begins observing wavelengths on the opposite side of the decimal point from my long-
time work in sound, requiring a microscope, lent by a neighbor optical lab. The first subject is a
Stanton D81 “Stereohedron” after an estimated 400 hours of playing time.

Left above, bought new in 1982, this D81 was the choice of disk cutting engineers for quality control. Right is the successor
model D81Sii made later in the 1980s (slightly off-center), acquired as new old stock (NOS) in 2013. In this, my earliest
use of microscopy, I could not tell what I was looking at. Rather ugly, I thought, until I learned what follows. Next was
building the primitive “gantry-scope,” and taking the 80x shot overleaf.

The scale of my first 40x microphotos above was in hundreds of microns (µm, millionths of a
meter). Then with my own crude “gantry scope” above, below the “nude” diamond of the D81 at 80x
is 300µm at its mounting. Near the point where it is ground to 18µm (7/10,000 of an inch), the stylus
sinks in the groove and makes contact. Above that, unpolished sides or blobs of glue affect nothing.
The end point is radiused so as not to bottom in the groove, where debris might have fallen. Just
above the point, the highly polished sides that touch the groove walls are the critical scanning\tracing
surfaces. These make narrow “lines” of contact of 2~4 microns (2/10,000in) that reproduce sound,
wear the tip, then permanently damage both tip and groove, often asymmetrically.
Close-up inspections fall into the following categories: 1) perfect specimen (I have yet to observe
one); 2) imperfect but adverse effects are negligible; 3) worn enough to increase high frequency
distortion in the inner groove; 4) worn enough to damage records. Any 2D photograph of a 3D object
requires modeling lighting. 30+years as a cinematographer, I knew about casting light with
luminaires up to 20,000 watts. The gantry scope has 3w lights and magnification of 80x for subjects
at 1/1,000,000 meter scale. Then to interpret these images in expository posters. And in text to
plumb the inner workings of styli, and about interfacing them with their pickups, tonearms,
preamplifiers, as well as the groove.
A record-playing system is an assembly of components: the cartridge & stylus, tonearm, turntable,
and preamplifier (“phono stage”). While it is said that the sound of the phonograph is the sound of its
stylus, these components are highly interactive. As they reflect on each other and the ultimate sound,
the second half the paper looks close-up at the key aspects of these other components as well. Not the
sum of its parts, the phonograph system is likely a multiplication of its parts – any degraded link will
degrade proportionately the whole chain. Our purpose then is inferred: A quest for better sound.

A gem in more ways than one, the D81 stylus at 80x by the “gantry” microscope. This “nude” diamond is a
semi-precious jewel fashioned in ways we will explore as we go. It contacts the groove only where super-
polished, most gray at the tip. Its parabolic sides approach flat “line-contacts,” best at reproducing high
frequencies & transients. At auction, new old stock (NOS) goes for $$$.
 Quality turntables with integrated tonearms are available used for less than $100, such as this direct-drive unit, acquired from
Goodwill Ind., then modified by the author for 78rpm. New units have been introduced by Panasonic\Technics ($4,000) and U-
turn Audio in the U.S. (from $179).

Our story begins with advanced styli – the line contact

In the poster on p1 and another overleaf is the same D81 stylus bought new in 1982 and played
~400hr. Magnified 200 times, now under a long working distance microscope objective, the stylus is
more fully revealed – a semi-precious jewel that has been ground and polished in forms we will
explore as we go. It is fit through a 12mil (300 micron) hole drilled in the flattened end of a tubular
aircraft aluminum cantilever, aimed front, and securely bonded. Its parabolic (shield-shaped) sides
ride the 45 degree angled groove walls as narrow, nearly flat-sided line-contacts in order to reserve
recorded high frequencies, and reduce wear and distortion, especially at the inner end of the spiral
groove.
Compared to the common spherical stylus most consumers and DJs use, which are not as sound-
preserving, nor as interesting under a microscope, superior performing elliptical and line-contact tips
reproduce much better sound. Their higher cost tells us that, in the 1980s and prior, all this grinding,
drilling, orienting, and cementing was done by hand. The work – under a microscope – demanded
artisans with steady nerves and keen eyes, who became inured to headaches from the eyestrain of
their 8-hour shift. And all work was checked by meticulous quality control.
But who thought up these eensy contraptions that extract high fidelity sound miraculously by
dragging a hoe in a meandering furrow? Norman Pickering, whose products are the focus of this
paper, was an engineer and a violinist. He knew good sound. Besides individual inventors like
Pickering, there were ideas from large firms and small such as ELAC and Ortofon in Europe; Western
Electric, GE and Shure in the US. Their efforts were or still are successful, and fill many patents,
books and papers.
Inside the grip’s mounting tube, the cantilever is a lever in a donut-shaped fulcrum of rubber – the
elastomer (see graphic). Cantilever and elastomer determine how stiffly the tip responds to wiggles
cut into the groove – the stylus’ compliance. Low compliance for kid’s record players; medium
compliance for disk jockeys; high compliance for delicate handling by audiofans and studios. They
prized D81s, and line contacts of other makers.[i] [NB p24]
Steady-handed disk mastering engineers and archivists, with cultivated hearing perception, were
gentle in handling low-mass tonearms with delicate styli. A disk mastering engineer would only use a
spherical stylus to check how the disk would sound using a low-end needle. The author will draw on
some of the dozens of specimens of styli in his kit to show why he and this paper advocate advanced
elliptical and line-contact styli because of their superior audio performance – and greater visual
interest for a book. Basically half a ball at the end of a cone, simple and still useful sphericals are
explored last.
 X-ray view of a MM or MI stylus shows the cantilever suspended in a donut-shaped elastomer, stabilized by a tie
(drag) wire soldered at the back of the mounting tube. The elastomer and tie wire determine the stylus’
compliance, here matched by a thick, heavy duty cantilever that will withstand back-cueing by a DJ without
bending or breaking. High compliance audiophile styli have narrow, delicate cantilevers capable of excellent
response to high frequencies, but are more easily damaged.

At first the microphotos might seem to reveal rough devices, which a record collector would not
want to touch precious disks. These are not marketing photos. They present forensic evidence of
both attributes and flaws. Do not be distracted by imperfections that make no difference to records or
their sound. Only the sides of the very tip touch the groove. No need for manufacturers to polish the
tip above its contact depth, nor dab away a miniscule drop of bonding glue. The assemblers’ jobs are
to mount and aim it tip correctly.
Our concern, in addition to manufacturing precision and audio performance, is wear, as shown by
comparison in the two posters of two equally used Stanton model D81s. Both posters show the
gentle, high-end, yet reasonably priced “Stereohedron” of the Pickering and successor Stanton
Magnetics company of Plainview NY. They followed the first line contact by Shibata (1972, JVC),
aka parabolic (shield-shaped), SAS, MicroLine, FineLine – all are line-contacts. The two depicted
were new in the 1980s, now with approximately the same playing hours – about half their life
expectancy of 700~1,000h at the point of risking disk damage. About half that life is the start of
slowly increasing high frequency distortion. Shown also on pages 13 & 16, the 1st specimen has half
its life left; the 2nd tip is done!
The 1982 D81 at 80~400x magnification. Three levels of polish are discernible: only the very smoothest nearest the tip contacts
the groove. So the blob of glue up the cone is well out of the way. The tip is aimed correctly, within 2º of dead-ahead. Contact
regions are revealed by two “flash” lines, white mirror reflections of lights on either side. These show minimal flattening wear
after ~400hr. However, observe in the poster on p13 the 45º straight just beginning to form at the bottom left – an early
indication of wear. As tip approaches its maximum expected 1,000hr, these regions will widen, dulling very high frequency
response, and develop sharp edges that damage records. After a few hundred more hours – if its cantilever and elastomer
remain good – Expert Stylus (UK) might re-tip it. A gem in more ways than one, with half its ideal life left remaining.
A 2nd D81 stylus acquired used with hours similar to the 1st D81 above. The 90º protractor shows the tip’s points of line contact. (In
both views of the tip, the groove approaches from the inset photo side.) A carved edge of the tip is toward the spindle, likely whittled by
a previous owner using too little anti-skating. Compared to the author’s original 1982 D81 photographed in 2016, this stylus should not be
used on pristine disks for fear of damaging them.
New phonograph needles, flawed or perfect, before any wear

The two D81 styli in the preceding posters show, after about half their expected life, wear that is
still OK, and wear that is not. Beyond estimating the future of styli that are used, they also inform
about the quality of new or new old stock (NOS). So let’s examine styli that are new or unused, in
“mint condition” right from the manufacturer, even if they sat in storage. Microphotos and posters
describe specimens acquired from suppliers, or from prior owners at auction. Even having suffered
no wear as yet, we discover flaws in manufacturing in models both expensive and cheap, but
especially in lower value tips with looser quality control. Performance issues other than wear
depend on the type of stylus. Simple spherical styli are the easiest for makers to get right; ellipticals
require precision facet grinding and alignment on the cantilever; line-contacts up the ante still further.
Not just in the making of them, but also in aligning them by end users.

The drawings above show top-down the evolution of the three main tip “profiles” in microgroove
sizes. They progress in the shaping process from a single spherical radius, a second radius pair for
the elliptical, and a third pair up & down the groove’s walls for a parabolic\line-contact (illustrating
Stereohedron fabrication [Hughes’ “improved Shibata” 1975 for Stanton]). Where each radius
applies, it specifies the “size” of the stylus. Regardless of shape, it is only the sides that matter, the
only parts of the tip that about midway down touch the groove walls, varied while cutting the master
the cut’s depth and pitch with changing audio volume.
Most economical to make and buy, the spherical tip is simply ground to a cone, rounded at the tip
into a hemisphere with a 3D radius ranging historically from 0.5 to 8mil (12.7~200µm). Then it is
partially polished; the final polish is done in the first 10hr or so of the consumer playing his\her
typical abrasively dirty records. Sphericals are bottom-line consumer or rough-handling DJ needles
that produce the most distortion and limit high frequency response, particularly nearing the end of a
side. 78s and ETs for broadcast were usually wide-groove, reproduced with spherical styli. 21st
Century SP and LP generic replacements cost $15 to $20 from online providers, their provenance
often unknown.
With the hi-fi LP of 1948 came the need for higher performing stylus shapes. The elliptical needle
begins the same way as the spherical, ground to a cone and rounded to a hemisphere. However
before more extensive polishing, flat facets are ground front & back at angles off vertical to form a
“race-track” contact cross-section. The more removed and polished, the flatter the oval, from a
scanning\tracing (side) radius of 0.4mil (10µm) to 0.2mil (5µm), measured from a center on each
45º plane at the contact points. Not required by a spherical, ellipticals are often truncated, and must
be aligned perpendicular to the axis of the cantilever. Even the fatter tracing 0.4mil size reduces
distortion and increases high frequency (HF) response, causing reasonable wear in heavier tonearms
tracking at higher pressure. 0.2mil doubles the high frequency cutoff, about halves distortion, but
requires a lighter arm and pressure to avoid excessive wear. A 0.3mil (7.5µm) is a good compromise
that finds many a home.
Variants of line-contact styli (Stereohedron, Microline, SAS, Shibata, FineLine, Paratrace, and
other tradenames) are the most complicated to produce and expensive to buy. Four facets are ground,
a third radius is established lying in the contact vertical plane, and the polishing is extensive. The
goal of all line contacts is to shorten tracing parallel with the groove for best high frequency response
and lowest distortion, while lengthening the contact up\down the walls to maintain contact area for
low wear of both groove and stylus. So these find homes with professionals and serious audiophiles
using manual turntables.
In the next drawings, the three tip profiles are viewed from front (or back), top, and either side.
These clarify that the tips that share a primary spherical radius, 0.7mil (18µm) for stereo
microgrooves, originate above the contact centers to meet the groove walls at 45º angles. Ellipticals
polish side radii in these 45º planes to form quasi-elliptical “racetracks” that indent the walls. Line-
contacts add a radius pair in the vertical contact plane and originating far from the center of the
stylus. These larger radii form near linear parabolic sides, and larger contact areas elongated up the
walls that reduce pressure and wear.
The fat sides of sphericals restrict tracing high level high frequencies, which reproduce softer by
29% (–3dB) beginning at a frequency termed the “f3 cutoff.” Statistically, natural acoustic sounds fall
off at the rate of –6dB (50%) per octave (doubling of frequency) above 2kHz, where RIAA then has
room to boost levels. For high energy content, the 0.2mil (5µm) sided elliptical, Stereohedron II, and
even narrower ridge-sided SAS or MicroLine tips have extended response to HF and transients,
along with lowest distortion.

Dimensions of stylus tips: spherical (conical), elliptical (racetrack), line-contact (parabolic), and “ridge”-contact Super Analog
Stylus, courtesy JICO. Not above, the first microgroove “conical” in the monophonic era was 1.0mil until the 0.7mil for stereo
from 1958. Ellipticals with side radius 0.4, 0.3, and 0.2mil were introduced in the “Hi-Fi era from the 1950s. Line contacts
evolved from the 1960s; later more exotic profiles (S.A.S.). Below: a spreadsheet calculates the contact area (wall deforming),
pressure, relative wear cf. the D81, and the f3 “cutoff” in kHz by the inner groove.
 The spreadsheet calculates contact area, then applies vertical tracking force (VTF) and record
speed. Approximated relative wear in red is with respect to the D81 Stereohedron, assuming vinyl
abrasion. Note the dynamically shared pressure on the two walls, in commonly understood lb/sq-in.
Enormous pressures in red denote the fastest-wearing styli are ellipticals in the “Hi-Fi” range.
Line-contacts wear slower. (Spreadsheet “relative wear” can be easily interpolated for different
VTF values from those round numbers shown.) High frequency “cut-off f3” in blue response is at –
3dB, sloping –6dB/octave. In addition, wide-contact sphericals can cause HF “erasure” of the inner
grooves.
From its original Patent in 1975 and for decades, the Stanton 881 MM cartridge & D81 line-
contact Stereohedron stylus was among the finest available, although reasonably priced. Disk
mastering engineers adopted it for quality control, spot checking a trial LP being lathed. Why
continue the side, wearing the cutter, if something wrong had occurred? Stanton provided each 881,
and sister MI 681 with a Stereohedron, with an individual “calibration” sheet upon which mastering
engineers could rely. So many if not most LPs made in 1980s during vinyl’s peak had correct sound
assured by the accurate reproduction of these cartridges. If played back with the same cartridge,
consumers came closest to the intended sound. But market forces caused audiofan magazines not to
bless these products, leading audiophiles to favor more exotic types for $$$.
Sacrificing some wear for better HF response, Walter Stanton, who had assumed Pickering’s
engineering and management, and renamed the company, introduced the sharpest line contact profile.
As in the spreadsheet, reducing the side scanning radius from 0.3 to 0.2mil (7.5 to the 5µm) raised the
high frequency “cutoff” (–3dB point) in inner grooves of an LP from 7.4k to 9.8kHz.[1] Stanton also
broadened a bit the bearing radius up the groove walls from 2.8 to 3.0mil (75µm). The product was
dubbed “mark II,” or D81Sii.
The following poster, microphotos, and measured frequency response tell the story of two D81Sii
specimens acquired by the author as NOS, the superior one adorned with a blue dot ●. Using a CBS
STR140 pink noise test disk, the frequency response overall of the complete turntable system with
this stylus is flat ±½dB 30 to 15kHz, including the error of a custom RIAA preamp that is flat ±¼dB
over the same range, and including any error in the test disk itself. Unless one error happens partially
to cancel another, these data are unsurpassed in the author’s experience. Flatness of response is a
predictor of good tone-color (timbre). And while quantitative data do not always jibe with
subjective opinion, this specimen is, hands down and prior to any measuring, the best sounding
phonograph reproduction the author has experienced, using the best stylus the author owns.
 Top: Stereohedron II (dust brush removed) with narrow scanning\tracing contact 0.06mil (1.5µm), its bearing contact
six times that up each 45º groove wall. Bot: D6800SL Stererhedron (same tip as the D81), its four flat facets evident,
centered on a heavy-duty cantilever for broadcast & archiving. Critical is setting the Vertical Tracking Angle (VTA,
aka Stylus Rake Angle, SRA, nominally 15º) to parallel the highest frequencies.

L: Blue’s cantilever is slightly twisted by 7º (fixable), so channels are off-phase 7º. R: A second D81Sii
specimen is slightly off-center. Both mounting errors are borderline regarding performance, and are more
common in lower end products.

Stanton Stereohedrons (“line-contact” by other makers) have a “bearing contact” approaching a

line up the groove wall 3¾ to 9x the side “scanning (aka tracing) contact.” Although the D81Sii
indents the heated vinyl 0.06mil (1.5µm) while scanning, same as the sharpest elliptical, it causes
much lower wear to both groove and stylus by spreading the contact pressure over a much greater
area due to the vertically elongated footprint.
NOS acquisition “Blue” has a 7º azimuth error in its cantilever rotation, likely due to the elastomer
relaxing with age. A gingerly applied fingernail has fixed it. In manufacturing, the most skilled
craftsmen were assigned to high-end products such as this D81Sii. While assembling the stylus, they
delicately worried the cantilever within the mounting tube like a piano tuner slightly over-stretches a
string, then backs off to its final position. The stylus elastomer stores stresses from this twisting;
worrying intends to relieve those stresses.
The spectrum analysis overleaf is of both channels of D81Sii Blue playing a CBS test record
STR140 that contains a slow sweep of bandpass-filtered pink noise. Pink noise is equal energy per
octave, or any portion of an octave, represented by the straight yellow line sloping downward at –
3dB per octave. Paralleling this line indicates a flat frequency response. Blue’s response, including
a lab-grade preamp, is seen as ±½dB over the audio range 30~15kHz. The falloff at low frequencies
is intentional by the preamp; the slight bump around 10kHz might be evidence of too high a C-load
from either preamp or cables, so can easily be adjusted even flatter. The 2dB discrepancy in level
channel-to-channel is typical of most cartridges (although the Stanton specification for the D81Sii is
1dB). Gain controls are needed in the phono preamp for correct channel balance, as described later.

A robust Stereohedron for broadcasters, DJs, & archivists

Advanced line contact, or parabolic, tips are analyzed more in depth here because they are the
highest performing. In time, the Stereohedron tip was recognized also by classical and jazz FM
stations, who for ruggedness needed a medium compliance stylus with the sound qualities of the D81.
Stanton’s response was the D6800SL. Essentially the SL is a Stereohedron I mounted on a heavy,
mid-compliance cantilever. In Stanton’s mostly sensible original nomenclature, the D is for diamond;
68xx stylus types are for the company’s 680 (including “calibrated” 681) series of moving iron (MI)
pickups. S is for Stereohedron, E for elliptical, A for spherical. L is heavy duty. No longer made
and rare to find NOS, the D6800SL exhibits high performance tracking skip-free at 2~5g.
 Stereohedron “line-contact” tips were not exclusive to audiophiles. Above are three “broadcast\DJ” #D6800SL, Stanton’s only
medium compliance (12CU) parabolic stylus, with radii of 0.7 x 0.3 x 2.8mil (basic tip size x scanning x bearing up-wall), that track
without fail at 2¾g vertical tracking force (VTF) at highest quality for broadcast and archiving. Pickering\Stanton’s best styli were
assembled by the company’s most skillful workers. However these specimens vary in the protrusion of their cantilevers: Red
(shorter) v. White (longer) v. Blue (correct, blue dot ●), the author’s best, is in the next poster.

Between line-contacts and simple sphericals - ellipticals

The scope of this paper is limited to offerings by Pickering and renamed Stanton, New York, who
in that incarnation made cost-effective cartridges & styli for consumers and professionals, with
crossover among their 109 choices of needles. This limitation reflects the author’s choice to focus
limited resources on a fine yet practical line of phono pickups with interchangeable styli. However,
the principles explored apply to many other makers.
From the phonograph’s invention of reproducible sound in 1877 well into the 20th century, all
replay styli were simple sphericals. But beginning 1948 for high-fidelity microgroove recordings,
spherical styli produce unacceptably high distortion artifacts, cutoff high level high frequencies above
2.8kHz in inner grooves, and in a few plays can “erase” by “re-cutting” sharp turns in any groove they
cannot negotiate. Literally cutting corners! Later we’ll explore spherical needles for low-end LP and
coarse-groove SP. We’ve explored high-performance line-contact reproducers. But next are middle-
range elliptical styli of a dozen or so basic designs, offered in many dozens more variants and model
designations. By the sharpness of their sides (scanning or tracing “radius”), they are 0.4, 0.3, or
0.2mil (10, 7.5, or 5µm). Compliance spans 10~20CU (mN/µm, its springiness when 1 milli-Newton
of force results in a deflection of 1 µm). The broadest 0.4mil (10µm) is a hardy tracker, but with
better HF tracing and distortion compared to a spherical.
The sharpest side radius of 0.2mil (5µm) implies highest HF, lowest distortion, but at the cost of
highest wear, requiring lowest VTF and arm mass. A good compromise, the 0.3mil (7.5µm) size
elliptical is the one-size-fits-all offered by generic replacement makers today.
Less important is whether a magnetic cartridge is moving iron MI represented by Pickering XV15
and identical Stanton 680 (and professional calibrated 681), or moving magnet MM, represented by
Pickering V15 and identical Stanton 500, or 880 (and calibrated 881). Mid-to-high-end Stanton MI
ellipticals are D6800E, DJ-duty EL, and finer elliptical EE & EEE models. Stanton’s most popular
offering, the lower-end MM 500, has styli designated D51xxEy, i.e. the D5100E, EE, and EL in the
posters that follow.
A D5100E 0.4x0.7 acquired as NOS clearly shows, from the front and spindle side, the narrowest flats front & back,
resulting in the fattest elliptical that is still gentle in heavier arms, such as “automatic” turntables, that return to rest following
a record side, or “cue” from rest to play the beginning of a side. Even more robust “EL” versions for DJ use are mounted
on heavier duty cantilevers with somewhat lower compliances and more limited HF response.
A shadowgraph was used by manufacturers for a quick quality check with less eyestrain on the checker. The basics of this Pickering
D400 are evident at 80x, even that it is “elliptical” at the very tip. Below at 800x, the optical microscope limit, reveals that for the
D400 three flats have been ground.
 The D400 0.4 x 0.7mil “elliptical” above was a favorite for audiophile automatic turntables made
by Dual, in an XV-15 cartridge, replicated in the Stanton 680 series. As specified and tabulated in
the spreadsheet earlier in this chapter, this mildest elliptical shape, with contact area 0.11x0.18mil
(3.0x4.5 µ m), at the same VTF nearly equals the pressure and wear of the spherical, but with lower
distortion, improved HF response and erasure by the inner groove.[2] Uniquely, the D400 has three
flats ground, which moves the scanning racetrack-like contact patches slightly aft with respect to the
passing groove. Narrower ellipticals came later, with scanning (sides) radii of 0.3mil (7.5µm) and
0.2mil (5µm) which for comparable wear necessitate tracking at lower forces in lighter arms, and
elevating their vertical tracking angle setup (tonearm pivot height) more critically.[3]
In order to simplify implementation of phonograph systems by users, a “Universal P-mount” was
agreed to by manufactures. In either MI or MM cartridge variants, the agreement called for a
standardized plug-in form factor, pickup weight, and VTF of 1½g. Except for new model
designations, styli were the same as those for regular pickups that have ears for permanent mounting
in a head-shell using screws on ½in (12.7mm) centers. So a D6800E was re-labeled D72E, now in a
clear grip (poster overleaf). Pickering and Stanton each had half a dozen offerings in P-mount, mostly
elliptical, and top models Stereohedrons. Only one at the lowest end is spherical.
Simplified “Universal P-mount” for reduced fiddling by consumers had standardized plug-in cartridges,
tracking at 1½g, and with a range of stylus quality. The D72E is a 0.4 x 0.7mil elliptical polished from two
ground facets, narrower in front but wider in back, which moved groove contacts slightly ahead.
 A popular size today, the D5100EE 0.3x0.7mil (7.5x18µm) elliptical on the opposite page served
2~300hr for dances DJd by my son when a teen. Prior to text designations on grips, Stanton styli
were identified by grip color and a raised box, gold for the EE. It is one of the best performers for
V15\500 bodies, specified for a VTF of 1~2g. Even with my son’s careful use, a second stylus in the
second turntable might have been stressed; unglued, it is gone forever! Following his dad’s penchant
for better sound than a spherical, more appropriate for non-critical dance PA applications (wedding
receptions, dance clubs) might have been a red box D5100E, or EL, with VTF 2~5g, and possibly a
bit more glue.
The narrowest elliptical, that evolved into the line-contact
Prior to the Shibata, Stereohedron, and other advanced line-contacts, the narrowest ellipticals
were specified to track at 1g. The MM Pickering D3001E, below – a lovely nude specimen, acquired
NOS – exhibits the same 9.8kHz cutoff (inner groove) and low distortion of the D81Sii Stereohedron,
and is less sensitive to misadjusted rake angle, but causes much higher wear due to the tiniest contact
area of all styli. Ellipticals’ contact areas are “racetracks,” bearing up groove walls only somewhat
more than their horizontal scanning\tracing radius. The 0.2mil D3001E presses heavily on a tiny
6.3µm2 patch. Under the extreme pressure, vinyl instantly rises in temperature, and the walls at the
contacts become deformed. Although the vinyl doesn’t actually melt, its softening borders on an ice
skate that instantaneously melts a thin film of water to glide over the surface. It was this concern for
wear that led to the line-contact styli, elongated up the groove walls to spread tracking pressure and
thus reduce wear proportional to the inverse of higher contact area. Following Shibata’s work at
JVC, the Stereohedron and subsequent variants were born.
As depicted in the illustration showing the grinding basics of the three stylus shapes, the elliptical
are relatively simple (low in cost) to make, polished after two straight-forward facets. Today most
stylus makers and dealers offer the middle-of-the-road 0.3mil (7.5µm) side radius, moderate
compliance new units and replacements tracking 1.5~5g. These have decent high frequency response
and distortion, but also cause more wear than sphericals.
 D3001E is elliptical with radial dimensions of 0.2 x 0.7mil. Compared to a parabolic line-contact tip tracking with the same 1g
VTF pressure on the vinyl groove, the D3001E accelerates wear of both stylus and records, especially amidst abrasive groove
dirt. This precursor of the Stereohedron similarly sports a precisely mounted nude gem. Compared to the line contact,
SRA\VTA is not as critical, as the contact area of an elliptical is a short “racetrack.”

The lowly spherical (sometimes called conical) needle

Easiest (cheapest) to manufacture are spherical styli, less precisely called “conical.” All tips
begin as conical, tapering to groove width, but are finished in the three main profiles, as illustrated on
p21. Sphericals are a simply ground to a ball contact at the end of that cone! With their circular
contact areas, spherical styli are completely forgiving in SRA\VTA. But they create the most inner
groove distortion, termed imprecisely by some audiophiles as “sibilance” for the raspy sounding HF
artifacts. For more money, and greater knowledge on the part of the user\installer, choice of an
elliptical or parabolic\line-contact results in less incidence of “sibilance.” (Distortion mechanisms
due to the stylus are explored later.)
Below is the current Gibson-Stanton company’s ambiguously designated N500-6. It is a
descendant of a D5100A(L?) in a ferret-faced grip. “Disposably priced,” its cantilever is rugged
enough for DJ scratching. If “-6” means a reduced diameter of 0.6mil (15µm) – Gibson-Stanton don’t
say – then its cutoff frequency by the inner groove is 3.3kHz. Higher level, higher frequency content
by the more inner area of the groove likely will still risk random “pinch effect” distortion aka
“sibilance.” And wear exceeds 0.7mil (18µm) types.
 Stanton’s workhorse moving magnet 500 (original the Pickering V15) was reintroduced as a Mark II, now with a stronger
rare-earth magnet of Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), and a raised electrical resonance from 13kHz to 15kHz, bolstering its final
HF limit to 18kHz. The “ferret-faced” grip of the N500-6 stylus is a measured 0.6mil (15µm) spherical on a heavy-duty
low\med.-compliance cantilever tracking 2~5g. It is sold under Gibson ownership of Stanton.

Before microgroove: 78s and electrical transcriptions (ETs)

Before the micro-groove LP or 45 (introduced in 1948 & ’49), the phonograph gauge was “wide-
groove” (“coarse-groove,” or standard play, SP) with 3~8mil (75~200um) -wide grooves, and
needles to fit. Most of the 140+ years of recorded history requires SP needles. Initially of steel for
playing a single side in acoustic players, styli evolved to use industrial sapphires and diamonds in
two shapes: spherical for consumers; elliptical shapes for conservators. We’ll explore both – adding
a caution not to play SP disks with LP needles. Playing grooves with the wrong size needle,
especially wide groove SP disks with <1mil (25µm) microgroove styli, has gouged many disks
brought to the author for restoration.
With a compromise width of 2.7mil (68µm), between 2.0 for ETs and 3.0 for most 78s, the
Pickering DCF4527 and Stanton D6827 are identical except for the grip. Both made at the original
Plainview NY factory and acquired NOS have lovely spherical nude tips. For restorations, the author
wet-cleans shellac 78s, or the SP tip quickly collects dirt, as shown. Sturdy 3mil needles can be
cleaned by dabbing with MagicEraser, revealing the nude diamond, with its expected life of 2~300
hours. This range is the author’s estimate, and is ⅓ that of LP styli because of: 1) much higher
abrasion of older non-vinyl 78s (“shellacs” are composed of ground slate); 2) no deformation of the
hard groove walls means the contact area is smaller, so wearing pressure is higher; and 3) 78s run
2~3 times the linear groove speed of LPs. Consumers might not have noticed, as the records ran only
3~4½min.

For wide groove standard play (SP) 78rpm and 2mil electrical transcriptions (ETs), a compromise 2.7mil tip was one size
for both consumers and broadcasters. In the middle, dirt accumulated playing a filthy 78 before a quick dabbing in
MagicEraser at right, is a nude gem quality diamond at the heart of the Pickering DCF4527 for moving iron (MI)
cartridges. Except for the grip, it is identical to the Stanton D6827 coarse groove stylus below.
SP (wide\coarse-groove) restoration\archiving styli
For archiving work, the restorer interchanges styli of varying dimensions until s\he finds by ear the
groove depth with the least damage (noise or distortion). The next poster shows one of a set of
elliptical styli intended for conservators of most 78rpm SP and worn radio ET disks, a 0.5x3.0mil
(12.5 x 75µm) stylus, for a workhorse MM Pickering V15 or Stanton 500 cartridge. For critical disk
replay, future microphotos will document ongoing wear. The D5130EJ’s 3.0mil radius lies in the
middle of the wide groove range, from 2mil (50µm) for unworn radio ETs to 8mil (200µm) for Pathé
vertical shellacs running ~80rpm. Stylus choices include 0.4 x 2.0 mil (10 x 50µm) for radio’s
electrical transcriptions (ETs), 3.5mil for worn 78s, and the ubiquitous compromise 2.7mil for all
standard play (SP).
The D5130EJ poster overleaf illustrates the narrower contact areas compared to those of a
spherical tip. A typical 2.7mil spherical SP needle is gentler. Unless usable with lighter tracking
pressure, to the limit imposed by the compliance of the stylus’ cantilever, elliptical profiles increase
wear of both groove and tip by concentrating higher pressure on the two smaller contact areas. The
narrower front-to-back scanning radius of the D5130EJ traces high frequencies with lower pinch-
effect (“sibilance”) distortion. Finer tracing is needed less for older SP recordings with limited HF
baked in, and for the 78’s linear speed ranging by year and label between 65~100+rpm, 2~3 times
that of a 33⅓rpm. Over decades, the high frequency limit of 78s more than doubled from less than
5kHz to 10kHz and higher.
Many other cartridges & styli were made in vinyl’s heyday
Not including mass-marketed ceramic cartridges, hundreds of magnetic “translating devices” are
deserving of their own posters, papers, and books. Early on (1928), Western Electric (Westrex)
made moving coil pickups for talkies and broadcasting. The stereo moving magnet (MM) might be
attributed to Electro-Acustic (ELAC, German patent 1957), cross-licensed from 1962 to Shure and
others in the U.S. Other developers were Bachman’s “variable reluctance” aka induced magnet (IM,
fluxvalve, or moving iron, MI) while at GE. [At Columbia on Goldmark’s team he invented the LP].
Pfanstiehl (Switzerland & USA) and Astatic (USA, Canada), packaged OEM styli, and manufactured
replacements. Goldring, Ortofon, Audio-Technica, and others are active today. In 2016
Panasonic\Technics introduced a $4,000 turntable!
 Generic “aftermarket” 2.7mil Shure replacement, Pfanstiehl #757-D3, shown below in an RCA-branded “Universal Stereo”
broadcast pickup. At lower right, a beautiful Paratrace line-contact tip in a sapphire cantilever courtesy Expert Stylus, UK, who
can evaluate “donor” styli for retipping.

Decca-London (UK) made a unique cartridge, early with a non-user-changeable 0.65mil (16.5µm)
spherical on a Z-shape cantilever, restrained by a tiny nylon rope, tracking 3g, causing wear. It is
doubly unique in having three coils: one for detecting the sum (L+R) motion of the stylus, two for the
difference (L-R). The audio result is perfect monophonic replay (in effect shorting out the difference
coils); its stereo soundstage depends on the difference coils matching. It’s precise soundstage
balance cannot be corrected simply by individual gain controls in the preamp because that would
upset the contribution of the L+R coil. Improvements were different colors, from Blue to Violet to
Gold, also adding advanced stylus tips. Shown is a Gray, a Blue selected for export to the US.

L, like the 1963 stereo 4-coil M3 and M7 (with improved body that didn’t bottom on mildly warped disks), did Shure make OEM
for RCA? Did Shure obtain the Electro-Acustic (ELAC, Germany) 2-coil 1957 design for patent protection reasons? Middle, a
Decca-London 0.65mil (16µm) spherical, with cantilever restrained by a nylon rope, shown close-up in the next image. R, a Grado
MI.
 Decca-London 0.65 (16.5µm) spherical between lamentated magnetic poles in prior image,
surrounded by soft iron inside a nylon rope loop.

Just as Neumann and Scully lathes and Grampian cutterheads scratch the surface of a blank master
lacquer, we here have only scratched the surface of many hundreds of electrical phonograph pickups
and their styli that evolved from the 1920s to the present. Today Stanton is a shadow of its former
self. New line contact styli are few, and dear. NOS is becoming scarce – and even dearer.
0.3x0.7mil (7.5x18µm) ellipticals are the new universal replacements. But for the next generation of
vinyl lovers, styli made by Shure in the US, Ortofon in Denmark, Audio-Technica and Jico in Japan,
Expert Stylus in UK, and others appear will hold to tradition.

Apart from the stylus, the magnetic cartridge body itself

In the 1950s of the earlier Pickering era, cartridge generators were the same as in the even earlier
era generally: moving iron (MI, aka variable reluctance or flux-valve), then later moving magnet
(MM). MI was developed by EMI, Fairchild, GE, Pickering, and in Germany by ELAC (Electro-
Acoustic). A slug of iron in the cantilever modulated the field of magnets in the cartridge body.
Shure and Pickering in the US produced MM cartridges, with only coil(s), no magnet, in the pickup
body. When tiny powerful rare earth magnets were possible, the moving magnet (MM) could have a
magnetized rod in the end of the microgroove cantilever. Other methods were FM modulation
(Zenith), variable capacitor (Weathers), mounting a fragile coil on the cantilever (moving coil, MC),
or LASERs with no stylus or physical contact at all.
Magnetic cartridge bodies, sans stylus, have no moving parts, so do not wear out. Diamond styli
can last 500~1,000hr, which averages to playing a thousand LPs, both sides! Used bodies can be had
for peanuts. However NOS styli are $$$, especially the advanced profiles of the rare-earth
samarium-cobalt magnet era. Audible preference between MM and MI is difficult to discern, or to
defend. Were weakening magnetism an issue, MM would win because a new magnet comes inside
every cantilever. In Pickering\Stanton, MM models are at the low end of the product line (V15\500
bodies) as well as at the highest end (XSV\XUV\880), with MI models XV15\680 occupying the mid-
to-high range. The mid-to-high ranges have 4 coils for added hum-bucking, as introduced by Shure in
1962.

Two Stanton Stereohedrons track the same groove for comparison. Left a MM 881 with D81Sii; right a MI Pickering
XV15 (≡Stanton 680) with D6800SL. (Arm at left is an audiophile SME3009 tracking 1¼g; at right an Audax 14in
broadcast transcription arm tracking 2¾g.) In a double blind test, subjects found both of excellent sound quality, if not
indistinguishable.

An early spherical stylus – the Victrola steel needle

Acoustic Victrola needles are spherical at their very tip, made of steel, and immersed in the groove
and in contact with its walls. Above a long cone, the shank is clamped in linkage to the mechanical
diaphragm of the “sound box” that drives a horn of metal, or folded in the wood box. SP disks were
monophonic, cut either vertically or laterally. Lateral cutting had the advantage of being “push-pull”
by the two groove walls, which reduces even-order harmonic distortion. Although not subject to
pinch effect, vertical cutting was “single-ended,” the stylus is pushed up by the groove, but free-falls
by gravity, not cancelling even-order distortion. (WE and RCA tried a remedy using a spring return.)
The macro-photos above show the 3mil steel stylus before and after playing a 3minute song at
78rpm. Using primitive cutters with their own unique cross-section shape, standard play (SP)
grooves were inconsistent disk to disk until well into the electrical era, beginning in the 1920s. The
stylus’ flatted wear shows how within a few rotations the highly abrasive “shellac” disks polished the
needle to match the current groove. [Often made of slate dust and the stuff of lac beetles, hence 78s
are called “shellacs,” even though during WWII Bakelite was substituted, and eventually vinyl.]
Smooth and spherical when new, now the edge around the stylus’ flat is sharp enough to be a disk
cutter! If the steel needle were reused for the next record, which likely had a different groove shape,
the needle could inflict damage. Better to use a fresh stylus for each side.

The precise micro-groove for monophonic, stereo

Although vertical cutting continued for some professional and broadcast ETs, lateral modulation
won out for several decades of 78s, and a decade of monophonic LPs. Early phonograph stereo
recorded the left channel laterally and the right vertically, and the comparative quality difference was
highly distracting. In 45\45º stereo, adopted in 1958 (invented by Blumlein at EMI in 1932), lateral
modulation became the carrier of its correlated sounds (centered, monophonic), the sum of L+R. The
inferior vertical modulation carries the L–R difference signal (tending toward spatial ambience). The
higher vertical playback distortion is shared equally by left and right channels. Hearing no difference
takes away any reference for perceiving inferiority. These characteristics are one reason why
monophonic records can sound less distorted, if less spatial, compared to stereo records from the
same session

Phonograph styli are made for the recorded groove

Stereophonic LP tips typically start as a short rod 12mil (300µm) in diameter, then are ground to a
basic cone, tapering to be polished ultimately as a 0.7mil (18 µm) tip. SP or LP spherical needles are
ground to somewhat less than a hemisphere. Non-nude tips are bonded (glued) to a separate post, and
lightly polished, leaving the final polishing to users’ records, where dirt and groove abrasion will
eventually finish the job. Advanced profile styli may be either bonded or a “nude” gem inserted in a
~12mil (300µm) hole in the cantilever. They require precise orientation, aimed front. And are highly
polished, and so are good to go immediately for more demanding hobbyist and professional uses.
Elliptical and line-contact shapes have two or four planes ground at off-vertical angles, as
depicted in the illustration repeated for convenience below. Whether polished at the factory or after
“break-in” by the user – whether advanced or low-end tip – it is the polishing that achieves the stylus’
final shape.
 In the two drawings above, orange asterisks (*) suggest the sizes and shapes of contact areas along
and up the groove walls for the stylus types. As discussed earlier, large circles for spherical;
concentrated ovals for elliptical. For line contacts & parabolics, “racetracks” are elongated several
times the side dimension up each wall. Parallel to groove motion, the tracing\scanning dimension is
made small for resolving high frequencies. Perpendicular to groove motion does not affecting HF
response, so the footprint up the walls can be broadened, spreading the tracking pressure over a
larger area, reducing groove and stylus wear. Intense pressure instantly softens the vinyl, which the
passing stylus momentarily deforms. The vinyl rebounds and cools within seconds of the stylus’
passing.[4] Unworn advanced profile styli in well-aligned arms can play the same disk dozens of
times with no discernible deterioration of the recording. A worn stylus used only once leaves
permanent damage behind!

The stylus causes distortion that is not present in the recorded groove. A spherical stylus drops
down at peaks of modulation, but is pinched upward in the middle, adding 2nd harmonic distortion,
out-of-phase in stereo. Elliptical styli are not “pinched” as much; line-contacts least.
Now taking an even closer look at the stylus, we observe that narrower profiles evolved to emulate
the flat cross-section of the cutter chisel. (An actual chisel for playback would re-cut the record!)
Lateral-only undulating is monophonic (and correlated center-stage sounds of stereo), and are
duplicates along both walls. The cutter swings side to side without steering, so the walls it cuts are
radially parallel, not like the sides of a tiny car swerving in the groove. If the groove were ridden by
a tiny round car – a spherical tip – the groove\lane narrows as it crosses the middle. This narrowing
pinches the spherical tip upward, only to fall back down at the peak excursions of the modulated
groove. To that mastered only laterally, the stylus adds a vertical artifact that, reproduced with a
stereo pickup, is pure distortion. Played monophonically, vertical motion\distortion is ignored.

45º\45º stereo modulates the channels independently on the two groove walls. The right depiction is equivalent,
combining the channels in-phase (summing L+R) for laterally modulated “correlated” signals (monophonic, or
centered in stereo). Stereo spatial information is the difference between channels L–R, modulated vertically.

Enter stereo, where the two walls of the groove have separate signals, for left and right channels.
Then for both channels’ most correlated sounds (common, center-stage, tending monophonic, L+R),
the groove’s wiggles are lateral. But stereo’s spatiality is contained in the uncorrelated differences
between the channels, L–R. The groove now moves up and down as well, intentionally this time.
Both lateral and vertical motion is reproduced by the stereo pickup. Now the vertical pinch artifacts
are reproduced, accompanying high level, high frequency sounds with spitting sounds termed
“sibilance” by audiophiles. (Engineers just call it distortion.) Out-of-phase between the stereo
channels, these raspy bursts of distortion are perceived by listeners as zinging unnaturally around the
listening room beyond the loudspeakers!

The stylus playing nicely with others [science alert]

Now we view close-up the inner workings of interfacing styli and pickups with tonearms,
preamplifiers, and the groove. These have an effect on each other, and affect the ultimate sound, for
reasons we must use scientific analysis to understand more fully.
The vectorscope images reveal the crazy gyrations of a stylus over a small fraction of a second.
The well-balanced stereo groove at left shows lateral motion corresponding to centered sounds M;
vertical motion carries stereo’s ambient and spatial sounds S.

The slightly squashed look shows the result of, mastering in stereo, sounds below 150Hz are summed
to monophonic to prevent the stylus popping out of the groove. This reduces stereo’s binaural
spatiality that has effects down to 90Hz [Bose; 45Hz per the author].
 The right vectorscope image reveals the distortion typical of playing a monophonic record with a
stereo pickup. The relevant modulation is only horizontal; all vertical motion is artifacts! Despite
being played with a D81Sii in a well-aligned SME-3009 arm. Easy to cancel with a mono switch.
But similar noise & distortion are added playing a stereo disk!
The drawing below shows pinch and poid-like[ii] distortion mechanisms exacerbated by a skewed
tip. Both are playback issues that are not baked into the disk as mastered. A poorly assembled
elliptical or line contact stylus that is not aimed straight ahead transforms an original sine-wave
(fuzzy orange to show contact deformations) into a sawtooth-like waveform (yellow in inset at
right). Distortion results, as all sounds are the instantaneous sum of sine waves [Fourier], affecting
transients as well as continuous tones.

Poid is the path of a spherical tip riding a high frequency sine wave, sharpening the outside peaks
of the wave. A related effect above occurs with misaligned ellipticals, where waves engraved in a
groove attack a skewed tip faster on its leading side (from time t1 in red), then on its trailing side
release it more slowly (from time t2). The resulting sawtooth contains even & odd harmonics that
distort the sound. An aligned tip sends identical signals to the speakers for center sounds. Poid-like
sawtooth artifacts are of opposite phase between channels, so centered soloists\voice-overs lose
“focus,” are smeared, off-center. Off-course ≤7º, the elliptical’s sawtooth harmonics are ultrasonic,
therefore inaudible – a benchmark for quality control. But all non-linearities also produce
intermodulation distortion (IMD); the lower sidebands are heard as non-musical “burring” sounds.
Note also that the poorly oriented (skewed) tip drops lower in the groove. If not skewed, the tip’s
width and truncation prevent its bottoming. However if skewed, the tip descends farther down than
normal, reproducing debris that might have been previously ground in there. Then the skewed tip is
squeezed violently upward for worse pinch effect.
There are a number of mechanical issues with cartridges as manufactured, plus other issues
attributable to mounting errors of installers/users. Somewhat fixable is cantilever rotation about its
own axis caused by its elastomer’s aging, or by a miscreant tie wire, that is possible to fix by
applying torque with a steady fingernail.
Not fixable by users is tip skew, a problem if more than 7º. Tip skew is the most common
manufacturing error in my experience. I rarely see it in older Plainview NY Stantons or Pickerings
through the 1980s. But then the company showed ever worsening craftsmanship during a “transition”
that began even before they moved lock stock and barrel to FL. Many more recent styli I have
acquired (and returned) have had more than 7º of tip skew, as I now appraise acquisitions, new as
well as used, through a microscope.
The sound of replacement \ aftermarket \ generic styli
21st century stylus makers easily produce spherical styli, and some acceptable 0.3mil (7.5µm)
ellipticals. Line contacts are rarer. To cut costs of skilled labor soldering a wire smaller than a hair,
some omit the tie-wire that stabilizes the cantilever, now controlled only by its rubber elastomer.
Others are sloppy about tip skew, or bonding that fails.
Below is an aftermarket reproduction of a Stanton D6800eeeS Stereohedron for 680-series
cartridges. Selling for a fraction of online auction prices for vintage “NOS” (new old stock), it is of
unknown manufacture, packaged under the Astatic brand.
However the specimen below sounds differs from the original, so tone color is affected.
“Thinner” in mid-bass, and overly bright in HF, accentuating surface noise. We speculate that the
causes are a different consistency of the elastomer, or tie wire, which at least it has. Measured using
a test disk, or by ear, the response errors can be equalized. (Note: Analog EQ that results in a flat
“round trip” from RIAA encoding the master through decoding by the user’s preamp also results in a
flat phase response.) This specimen tracks well at 1.25g and has faint distortion, not as clean as the
Stanton original. Its 8.3º tip skew is troubling, although within the today’s manufacturing tolerances;
smaller misalignments are inaudible.

Part II - How a stylus and its partners re-make sound

The stylus and partners close-up – tonearm & preamp
 Unlike integrated audio recording systems, such as magnetic tape machines or digital sampling
devices, phonograph systems may be components cobbled together by each user\installer. So our
story is not done until the cartridge is considered in context.
Ideally the choice of cartridge and stylus follows consideration of the type of records to be played,
the functionality of the turntable (manual or automatic changer), the intervening tonearm, the following
electronic preamplifier (“phono stage”), and the over-riding budget. But even for modest systems,
interacting factors can be optimized for best sound quality. Most intimately mated with the
cartridge+stylus are the tonearm and preamp. Usually they are set up as a system once by a
professional installer or studious consumer. If the cartridge is not properly integrated with the arm
and preamp, no pickup will be worth its cost.

The pickup cartridge mated with a tonearm

The stylus is the mechanical component of the phono pickup (cartridge), which in turn is the
electrical component of the tone arm. Arms may track the record’s spiral groove either from a pivot
point, or with a tangential or linear-tracking arm that emulates the record cutting lathe. Commoner
pivoted arms use precise geometry to minimize distortion – a function of groove linear speed (faster
at the outside; half inside) and the angular tracking error of the arm. Keeping maximum error within
less than a degree or two is possible, especially with longer arms, and is attainable by optimizing the
arm’s offset angle and overhang. (Both are zero for straight DJ tonearms that add considerable
distortion.)
Overhang is how far the stylus tip extends past the turntable spindle. It is the difference between
the pivot-to-spindle distance and the “effective length” of the arm, pivot-to-tip. Offset, varying from
14.6º for broadcast 14in (355mm) arms to 23.6º for a common 9in (225mm) arm, is by a bend in the
arm, or by skewing the cartridge. Tonearm alignment geometry is illustrated below. The cutout for
setting overhang can be glued to a 45 adapter. (If the arm cannot reach the spindle, add overhang to
pivot-to-spindle distance for the pivot mounting, L-effective.) Overleaf are tracking distortion
curves in red for 9in and 12in arms.
 Data entered in yellow boxes calculate alignment settings in green boxes. Maximum mistracking distortion for four record
formats is in red boxes, accounting for groove speed. Above for an SME-3009 arm playing a 33⅓rpm LP, the red curve
shows 0.7% maximum THD at three points; 0% at two points across the disk. Below, a 12in transcription tonearm of the
author’s design maxes out at 0.47% THD. Discussed next, skating is mostly vinyl sliding friction multiplied by the tangent of
offset angle; 12in arm skating is ~73% of that for a 9in.

The tonearm also provides the proper vertical tracking force (VTF) appropriate for the stylus, in
earlier days measured in ounces (1oz=28.3g), but today ranging 1~5g. Expert Stylus in the UK
advises a maximum of 3g VTF. A lower VTF for sharper ellipticals and parabolics. Higher
cantilever compliance dictates a lower VTF down to 1g or less, as well as a tonearm of lower
“mass.” Compliance and mass also create troublesome resonance, to be discussed later, that can
cause poor bass, feedback, and the stylus jumping the groove.
Causes of skating, and adjusting anti-skating (bias)

Varying mostly with offset angle, friction between the tip and vinyl groove causes the arm to press
inward toward the spindle, causing reduced trackability and uneven wear of the stylus and groove,
called skating. So anti-skating (aka “bias”) is called for to minimize distortion on the right channel
by the skating force pulling the stylus away from the right groove wall. If set too high, distortion
switches to greater on the left channel. Very roundly13% of VTF, skating force depends on the vinyl
coefficient of friction (~0.30).[iii] Part of the resulting force of friction (Ff below) equal to the tangent
of the offset angle (0.445 for a 9in arm) is in the direction of the spindle. Friction and therefore
skating also vary with indentation into the groove walls with stylus shape – highest for ellipticals,
lowest for line-contacts. And much less so by high levels of HF energy in the recording. So the need
for anti-skating is highly variable, even throughout the side of the disk. All else being equal, skating
friction does not vary much with the linear speed of the groove from beginning to end of the side.
Although skating force is unpredictable, anti-skating is usually applied as a constant by a spring or a
thread, pulley and weight, as illustrated below.

L, skating is due mostly to the force of friction and the offset angle. R, weight applies
constant anti-skating torque to a SME-3009 arm.

Given the arm\cartridge’s fixed offset angle, skating varies mostly with friction. So for shellac’s
much harder surface, 78rpm friction and therefore skating are only about 1/5 that of vinyl 78s & 45s.
Styrene 45s’ friction and skating is about half that of vinyl. As friction is the predominant variable of
skating, dealing with skating’s minor factors is fortunately unnecessary. However, inclusive of them
all, I simply adjust anti-skating using two observations, one visual, one audible. Visually, if while
playing the disc the cantilever is pulled off-center toward the outside, the culprit is skating tugging the
arm toward the spindle; if the stylus is off-center toward the spindle, then anti-skating is set too high.
Audibly we are aware of distortion if it differs between channels; the channel with lower
distortion serves as a reference for cleaner audio. Listen to high level of centered (or mono) content.
If peaks have more incidents of distortion in the R channel than the L, then skating force is tugging the
stylus intermittently away from contact with the R (outside) groove wall. If distorted peaks are higher
on the L, anti-skating is set too high, the stylus pulling away from the L (inner) groove wall. Anti-
skating is correct when no difference is heard.
The pickup and preamplifier (phono stage)
All MM & MI phonograph pickups require pre-amplification to raise their nominal sensitivity at
1kHz of about 3.5mv/cm of modulation velocity to ~300mv IHF “line level.” Moving coil (MC)
pickups require ~10x (20dB) more gain, or a transformer. MC were the first phono “translating
devices” [WE]. But as MC do not usually have interchangeable styli and therefore were not offered
by Pickering\Stanton, they have not been explored here.
The LP stylus can reproduce the full audio range, propped up at extreme high frequencies by its
own mechanical resonance. But HF will suffer if the electrical resonance of the MM or MI pickup’s
coil inductance is not complemented by coupling to an external capacitance equal to Ccable + Cpreamp .
Proper loading realizes its specified frequency response.
Beyond manufacturers’ control, it is users’ responsibility to load electrically the pickup outputs
with resistive and capacitive components (four), shown below. In the 1940s & 50s varying from
27~100kΩ, R-load is all but standardized at 47kΩ and built into nearly all preamps. But C-load is
all over the place, and a mismatch results in the cartridge being criticized unjustly in many a review
as “too brittle” or “too dull\muffled” in high frequencies, or in the bass relatively “thin” or “bottom-
heavy” – see chart at right.
For the pickup in the chart, Cload = 275pF= Ccable + Cpreamp . So if the cables are 125pF, then C inside
or at each preamp input needs to be 150pF. Failure of the user to attend to C-load results in poor tone
color (timbre), the holy grail of high-fidelity audio.

Above: Cartridge makers assume the end user\installer will attend to proper pickup electrical loading, symbolized by Ccable,
Cpreamp , & Rpreamp . All but standardized inside most preamps, Rpreamp is 47kΩ. Below: To be supplied by the
user\installer, Ccable+Cpreamp = Cload = 275pF to produce flat response for Stanton 680 (Pickering XV15) pickups. Other
makes vary.

Also left to users is to correct the cartridge’s channel-to-channel imbalance. Otherwise the optimal
stereo soundstage and cleanest monophonic sum cannot be achieved. A stand-alone “phono stage” is
usually superior to the typically EQ-inaccurate one built into receivers\controllers (few now have
one). It should have C-load selection, precise EQ, gain\balance, and mono switch. This book’s next
WhitePaper, "Tuning phonograph reproduction by proper capacitive loading and channel balancing,"
lists the dozen parts with simple instructions to modify a preassembled preamp board, $10 online,
with excellent performance for $30 total. It has switch selectable C-load & R-load, accurate
response ±¼dB 40~20kHz, phase error <10º 50~30kHz, and channel balancing.

Above, circuit simulation shows that the modified RIAA preamp precisely compensates for the master recording characteristic, in
blue, to produce the flat preamp output in red. In addition below, the preamp reverses the master recording phase error (blue) for
a flat phase outcome in red.
 Above, energy distribution (6dB/div.) in the raw recording of a piano is nil >6kHz. Below, an acoustic 17-piece
big band extends to 20+kHz. In grooves encountered by the stylus, inverse RIAA boosts velocities to circles in
the figure overleaf.

To avoid problems with limited quality user setups, pop music on records is typically mastered
with no significant energy above 8kHz in samples measured by the author. Otherwise the low-
compliance cantilevers and pinch-prone spherical tips used by many consumers would be unable to
trace high frequencies, generating “sibilance” and groove damage. Acoustic classical music and jazz
samples measured were mastered full-range, perhaps expecting that these will be played on the better
systems of audiophiles and broadcasters, who more often use finer styli.
Content in the groove is mastered to the playback standard of the Recording Industry Assn of
America (RIAA). Previously, characteristics in the hundreds befuddled the market. In blue curves on
the previous page are the inverse RIAA frequency and phase responses recorded into the groove.
Then on replay, in red, the DIY project preamp design in the book’s next chapter restores flat
frequency response 30~15kHz, and flat phase 200~10kHz.
Cantilever-tonearm resonance
Another stylus relationship minimizes audible rumble, muddy bass, and mis-tracking, even in the
extreme causing the stylus to jump out of the groove. These are amplified to a greater extent than
desired by a subsonic resonance, caused by the stylus compliance (stiffness) interacting with the
“effective mass” of the tonearm. [5] Picture a weight (arm) bouncing suspended on a spring (stylus).
Unavoidable, resonance should be tuned between rumble and record warp <10Hz and recorded
content >20Hz. So 10~20Hz is the ideal target range laterally. Some say 8~12Hz.
 Resonance is tuned in the energy gap 10~20Hz to avoid amplifying disk warp & turntable rumble
below 10Hz, and avoid boosting content >20Hz. Courtesy Shure; circles show high modulations
tracked by their pickups.

To support the arm + cartridge + tracking force, the stylus’ vertical compliance is made less by the
lower freedom allowed by the tie wire connected between the back of the cantilever and the back of
the mounting tube. Freer laterally, the cantilever can swing more widely. Because the vertical
compliance is less, the vertical resonance may be twice the lateral frequency. Integrated turntable-
tonearm-cartridge makers have addressed this issue.
Measuring resonance can be done with the stylus sitting still in a silent groove of a disk, and using
the free digital app Audacity, or an expensive Digital Sampling Oscilloscope (DSO). Either makes a
short digital recording to capture the cantilever-tonearm system’s response to a sharp rap with a
knuckle or soft screwdriver handle on the turntable base. The rap is called an impulse; the recorded
“ringing” is called the impulse response (IR). As predicted in the diagram on p48, a rap on the side
of the base produces a lateral in-phase IR. A vertical rap produces an IR out-of-phase between
stereo channels. Either appears as nearly a sine wave of ringing response that ideally diminishes
within a few cycles (next pg).

Above, a rap on the side of the turntable triggers a lateral resonance, in-phase at 15.87Hz, avoids muddy
bass and rumble. Below, rapping on top, out-of-phase vertical resonance 30.3Hz avoids disk warp, the
stylus jumping the groove. NOS D680 stylus with a custom 12in (305mm) arm.
 Even when new, resonance will vary among styli of the same specified compliance, and then rise
as the cantilever’s elastomer stiffens with age. Storage conditions might affect this rubber donut a
little, or a lot. So even for new old stock (NOS) stylus that have never been played, measuring
resonance might be an indicator of a stylus’ effective age. The IR, whether via Audacity or DSO,
measures how a stylus might have stiffened. New, the D680 perhaps met its 18CU compliance spec,
and so coupled with a low mass tonearm resonated ~10Hz. Over time, expect to add headshell
weights to lower resonance within target range.

The stylus meets more than a century of dirty filthy disks

This paper is the fourth the author has written on the subject of phonograph reproduction (see
www.filmaker.com/papers.htm). These include instructions for a do-it-yourself RIAA phono stage
and 12in transcription tonearm, good performers for little money. The motivation is because “vinyl”
is enjoying resurgence, even among the young, now exceeding the decline in music downloads.
New turntable manufacturing is blossoming in the US and Asia, at prices ranging from $179
complete with integrated tonearm and cartridge\stylus to $4,000 with tonearm but not cartridge\stylus,
requiring the buyer to make informed choices. For users, playing phonograph disks can be fiddly at
any level, and audiophiles need greater working knowledge, and then to practice greater care than for
more convenient digital media. And not only attending to turntables, tonearms, cartridges, and styli,
but attending to disks.
Unfortunately there is nothing to be done about a severely warped if not melted vinyl album left in
a hot car or attic. Disks should be stored standing upright, not piled lying flat. Also irreparable is a
scratch, caused by careless handling of the tonearm. If not back-cueing, a scratch likely caused
decapitation of my son’s D5100EE, leaving only its post and bonding residue!
 L: Evidence of a diamond heist? Failure of bonding, or a deep scratch. R: A 60x inspection
scope on eBay for <$5 is capable of appraising tip absence, dirt\cleaning, and tip skew, the most
common flaw in new styli. It is possible to discern the tip profile, but wear at its sides requires
200x.

Played dirty, disks accelerate their own demise. A stylus damaged previously by dirty disks
damages subsequent disks. The stylus grinds dirt more permanently into the groove, and the cycle
repeats. So disks ought to be cleaned before playing. Clean those invisibly to mildly dirty LPs
before each playing with the velour-covered “DiskWasher.” For 78s a brush and mildly soapy water,
being careful not to douse the label. Filthier disks need immersion in ultrasonic baths to loosen and
wash away crud.

Author’s ultrasonic cleaning station: a 10 liter (2.6gal) bath for a dozen 12in disks, and a jewelry-size for styli,
sparing elastomers water and high power ultrasonics.

So what does all this sound like?

Of all the links in the audio chain, the most challenged are transducers, which convert one form of
energy into another. Microphones, loudspeakers, and phono pickups convert between electrical
signals and mechanical vibrations. (Purely electronic analog and digital components have an easier
time performing transparently.) It is why individual microphones, speakers, and cartridges\styli can
sound very different, each having added unique artifacts (distortions) to the sound. But the better the
transducers’ performance, the less coloration and distortion they impart, the more transparent they
sound – so the more they sound alike!
 The sound of a phonograph system is largely the sound of its stylus. The stylus plays a major role
in the frequency and phase response (tone color, timbre) of the phono system. Incorrect tone color is
also caused by non-linearities that add artificially bright, harmonically-related distortion (THD), and
worse, unnatural non-harmonically-related intermodulation products (IMD). The stylus’ shape,
cantilever compliance, and resonance interaction with the mass of the tonearm, the cartridge
electricals, the loading capacitance of cable interconnects, and the filtering of the preamp. To
reproduce sound transparently, all these must be tuned together to invert precisely the recording
characteristic. In order to reproduced the sound intended by the disk’s artists and producers.

Aspects inherent in vinyl’s resurgence, and conclusion

This chapter has explored, close-up, the phonograph (gramophone) stylus, both by itself and in
concert with externals that reflect upon its performance. At the microscopic level, a few specimens
of jewel-like styli at the heart of audiophile and professional-grade phonograph cartridges by one
exemplary manufacturer. During its heyday 1950~90, they made instruments to reproduce standard
play (SP) 78s and ETs, and microgroove 33⅓ LPs and 45s introduced in 1948 & ’49. New demand
means Ortofon, Shure, Audio-Technica, Jico and others remain active in the 21st century, along with
new turntable introductions. Record labels are producing and new processing plants are pressing
new issues on analog disk. However even if no new content were being made, this subject is
important for the increasing market to enjoy the history, recorded and in the text & graphics, of used
albums.
Micro-photos show imperfections, critical or negligible, which illustrate the mastery attained by
Norman Pickering and Walter Stanton of Long Island NY in the 1960s, ‘70s, & ‘80s. Just one maker
of many whose developments both complemented and competed. Chief design issues are the cross-
sectional profiles of the stylus in contact with groove walls to prevent mis-tracing that causes pinch-
effect distortion, especially in inner grooves. The stylus’ moving mass, elastomer consistency, and tie
wire tensioning together contribute to compliance that allows and controls tracing high frequencies
and transients. Issues in manufacturing are mounting defects such as tip orientation (aiming) that
causes sawtooth distortion, deemed acceptable if not more than ~7º. Compared to its stylus, the
cartridge body itself was easier to make; long-lasting, it is not a consumable. In Pickering\Stanton
company history, quality control declined, their highly skilled employees gone.
At the system level, other distortion mechanisms are imposed on the stylus and its cartridge from
the outside. Obvious is the correct vertical tracking force (VTF) provided by the tonearm’s
counterweight; esoteric is tuning cantilever compliance with arm mass (horizontal and vertical
moments-of-inertia) for a benign resonance that otherwise can accentuate infrasonic turntable rumble,
record warp, acoustic-mechanical feedback, tubby bass content, and even cause the stylus to jump out
of the groove.
Tonearm alignment minimizes distortion by locating its pivot a prescribed distance for the stylus tip
to overhang the spindle, setting the arm’s height, and setting the cantilever at a certain offset angle in
order for tangency at two null points within the recorded area. So called “protractors” are
downloadable online, or the 45 adapter-checker above can be printed for this purpose.
Stylus and cartridge together form a generator that transduces mechanical sound recordings
molded in the phono disk’s grooves into weak electrical signals, requiring amplification as well as
accurate equalization in a preamplifier (“phono stage”). Wiring to the “preamp” must not produce
hum loops, or be susceptible to induced noises, or impose (along with the preamp) too much or too
little capacitive loading of the cartridge. Hum cancelling balanced wiring using a twisted pair per
channel is the method of audio professionals. Using unbalanced coaxial “interconnects,” consumers
also must remove the cartridge’s case ground strap, then ground the tonearm to the preamp by a 5th
conductor.
The capacitance of cabling to the preamp), adding to a capacitor inside the preamp, must equal
within 10~20% the total C-load specified by the pickup manufacturer in order to realize the flattest
frequency and phase responses of the cartridge. (Details in next chapter.) Otherwise sound will be
“thin,” “muffled,” transients “smeared,” etc. Mildly varying C-load can retune the stylus’ mechanical
HF resonance, as would “fix” the D81Sii “Blue” above. If C-load is unattended, return on investment
in records & gear will fall short.
The preamp provides needed voltage gain of ~40dB at 1kHz, with low noise & distortion despite a
gain of ~60dB at 20Hz. For the intended tone-color (timbre) of recorded sounds, the preamp also
must accurately compensate (“equalization,” EQ) for the inverse characteristic used in cutting the
master. RIAA for 45s and LPs specifies three filters: a low frequency turnover below 500Hz, a high
frequency rolloff above 2.1kHz, and a sometimes ignored very low frequency rumble shelf below
50Hz. Optional are low-pass “scratch” filtering, and a further high-pass filter for rumble below
20Hz proposed in Europe in 1976 but since withdrawn. So-called “Neumann” boosting at 50kHz is
bogus.
Professional preamps for restorers have selectable or variable settings for any combination of
turnover\rolloff\rumble shelf choices made by record labels, often in secret, from the start of the
electrical era in the mid 1920s (78s) to LP standardization in 1953. 30yr of chaos, plus prior decades
of experimentation during the acoustic era, resulted in consumers EQing their replay by ear, using the
tone control(s) invented for this purpose. Archivists use forensic methods to decode producers’
methods.[6]
The turntable must provide accurate rotation without audible variations (wow & flutter), and low
mechanical platter vibration (rumble) that will be picked up by the stylus. For the vertical component
of stereo, and early vertically-recorded monophonic disks, up-down vibration of platter, idler, and
motor bearings is as important as side-to-side. Belt drives filter both vibration and flutter; direct
drives must avoid “cogging” by multiple poles of their motors around the platter itself. In some
cases, varying the speed is needed, especially for so-called 78s (65~90+rpm) prior to
standardization at 78.26rpm (77.92rpm in 50Hz countries).
Affecting everything about sound reproduction quality are imperfect speakers in conjunction with
listening room acoustics – a subject to fill a sizable library. Norman Pickering wrote that it is
possible (rare) that a poorly implemented phonograph system might contain errors that just happen
randomly to offset acoustic ones. However, counting on this is a pure gamble, and likely to foster
delusional judgments. Better to attend properly to each link in the audio chain, otherwise any weak
one will break it.
Recording quality varies widely; not all releases are made well. Often it is poor acoustics of the
recording space: for acoustic music, the main microphone not in the best seat in the house; for pop
music, acoustic comb-filtering from multiple microphones, too loud, over-processing the mix,
unskilled mastering – a few of the hurdles each disk had to jump before being touched by a stylus.
 Do phonograph records “sound better?” Somehow “warmer than digital?” Audio professionals
recognize newer technologies are technically superior: less noisy; greater dynamic range; no mono-
ing <150Hz important to spatiality; fewer distortion mechanisms; longer life. If only digital methods
were not abused by labels engaged in loudness wars, normalizing to the ceiling soft as well as loud
content. The egregious policy in mastering digital media to raise loudness until 4% of samples are
clipped! That’s why vinyl “sounds better.” It’s often simply more natural.
Audio engineers, striving for quality scientifically to eliminate distortions of all kinds, accept that,
using test & measurement equipment, a device that measures good might still sound bad. But it is
also true that a device measuring bad will almost never sound good. On the other hand some (not all)
audiophiles prize coloration, comparing one cartridge after another by trial & error on a quest for a
change in sound that they like better than the last, or than the other guy’s. Is what they perceive just
delusional random error cancelations, as Norman Pickering cautioned? Or have they forgotten the
reference sound of an instrument heard live, and have become conditioned to a false sound of it?
With all its moving parts, “It’s a wonder that records sound as good as they do!” marvels Richard
Steinfeld, author of “The Handbook for Stanton and Pickering Phonograph Cartridges and Styli.”
That sentiment was first said by Harvard researchers Pierce & Hunt in 1938. And it echoes
consumers’ response even in the acoustic era before the mid 1920s. The “wow factor” upon first
hearing Edison’s cylinders in 1877, and then Berliner’s much less costly flat disks. Again in the ‘20s
after the World War hiatus with the revolution of electronics using Fleming’s and de Forest’s vacuum
tubes (both 1904). After WWII on first hearing micro-groove LPs & 45s in the late 1940s. The
author’s “wow” at 12 hearing stereo on a two spiral (both mono) disk played with a forked arm
carrying two cartridges, and in 1958 the improved 45\45 single stereo groove (credit Blumlein at
EMI in 1932). Among ~600 on hearing full-sphere HSD-3D (10.2 speakers) in the author’s lab.
After the switch to solid state transistors and low-distortion integrated circuit chips, and the leap to
digital recording by ultrasonic sampling, high fidelity audio entered its “long tail” technically, in
consumer sentiment, and thus economically. Audio improvements became perceived as incremental,
if even discernable. Distortion from data compression and the loudness wars became increasingly
accepted – a dumbed-down “acquired taste.” Yet today, vinyl is newly appreciated by a growing
young market. And decades old phonograph records are a main source of content for digital
downloads and streaming.
Except for context, the purpose of this sub-chapter could not be to present an exhaustive treatise,
but to introduce certain aspects of audio perception and implementation that pertain most directly to
the recognized boom in the new and used vinyl market. These aspects hinge upon well established
technology of the phono stylus and collateral equipment. After dwindling to a handful of pressing
plants in the US using half-century-old machinery, new ones are being built that can squeeze a 5oz
“biscuit” of vinyl into an LP every 30s! Kiosks at Barnes & Noble stores that began as only 6ft long
now occupy an entire aisle. Mom & Pop used vinyl stores on Main Street make a livelihood serving
collectors and trend-worshipping teens. The stores and vinylphiles alike enjoy the larger album art,
expanded stories in text, and the romance of placing a stylus in a groove to hear music. -0-
2014: Buying vinyl for grandsons at a Barnes & Noble kiosk in Marin CA. Lia & Ada buy LPs at Barnes & Noble for their
grandsons 16 & 13 who’ve become fans of vinyl. Beatles, Clapton and other classic rock albums are ~$30 including mp3 CD.
Jazz standards for themselves. A century+ of music, artists, and broadcast history is preserved in grooved media.

2017: 128ft of shelving displays new & used vinyl at a store in Mesa AZ.
2016: Grandsons 10 & 8 mug scratching the system made with GrandPa.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to peer reviewer-editor R. A. Bruner. Thanks also to peer reviewers G. H.
Aykroyd, H. S. Moscovitz, and Richard Steinfeld, author of “The Handbook for Stanton and Pickering
Phonograph Cartridges and Styli.” Many thanks to microscopy mentor Mike Much. Nancy Desiderio
for her love and tolerance. Trademarks incidental herein are property of their owners. Unless noted,
images and text are Intellectual Property of the author and may not be used without written consent.

The author

Robin Miller is a pianist-composer-bandleader, The Peabody-winning filmmaker, and sound

conservator & engineer with more than 55 years in audio recording and mixing films and
television specials. With Filmaker Technology he is a Patent-holder (full-sphere 3D reproduction)
who designs, integrates, & publishes about Ambiophonics and other innovations.

Appendix A – Online sources of pickups & styli, short-list

USA new & replacements suppliers –
Gary at www.thevoiceofmusic.com

Kevin at http://kabusa.com

Mike at http://www.esotericsound.com/

Canada - www.canadianastatic.com

Britain - http://www.pickeringuk.com/styli.html

Disk-ussion (a friendly global forum) – www.lencoheaven.net [Suggest you Google keywords of interest, adding “lenco.”]

Scientific and WhitePapers on use of stereo subwoofers, and Ambiophonics (including a plug-in “virtual headphone” decoder) –
www.filmaker.com/papers.htm

Appendix B – “Why bother; I can’t hear it!”

From many a “normal” person, not an audiophile or engineer, I get this excuse more than any other for not caring about audio quality.
Besides getting a hearing test, you could conduct a simple experiment about your audio acuity. You need only an FM stereo car radio,
tuned to a low- strength station playing acoustic classical or jazz. Notice while driving that, to optimize reception, the radio switches from
stereo to mono and back? The sound noticeably changes character: 1) Noise & distortion decrease, but at the same time 2) the
spatiality that is stereo collapses. Hearing this, you can appreciate sound that is clean of artifacts, but probably also enjoy feeling
“transported” by the natural two-eared stereo. Aspects of phonograph reproduction that relate are: stylus shape, pinch effect, orientation
(skew) sawtooth, tonearm alignment, detuned resonance, cartridge C-load, channel balance, accurate RIAA, clean disks, good
recordings….

PS…

PS – One of the author’s archiving turntables, with custom 12in (305mm) tonearms for fine\micro- and coarse\wide-groove
LP & SP. The disk is a 16in electrical transcription (ET) for Radio, wide-groove but 33⅓rpm, originally Western Electric’s
“Vitaphone” format for early talkies. Compared to only 4½min maximum for a 78, a ~20min max ET was either lateral or
vertical monophonic, and started either at the outside or inside. Its capacity set the 15min duration of most programs in The
Golden Age before magnetic tape. Early on for a 30min program, two turntables were used, the 1st beginning outside for
the program’s louder introduction, segueing to the inside of the 2nd disk, and ending outside for the program’s louder climax.
Later as disk quality improved, disks were segued conventionally, until ETs were mastered in microgroove with a
comfortable maximum of 30min per 16in side. Broadcast ETs, that were supposed to have been destroyed after two airing,
but were saved and are collectable today, are an invaluable repository of our musical heritage. Just one of the grooved
formats containing more than a century of recorded and broadcast history.
Drawer of “bug boxes” with 3x magnifying tops organize the author’s styli by
MM\MI, tip size & shape.
“Tuning” the cartridge
with the preamp (phono stage)…
We’ve explored the heart of the phonograph – its stylus – working
along with the turntable and arm that transport it and its cartridge
(pickup). Next in line is the preamplifier (“phono stage”) that
amplifies the thousandths of a volt output of the pickup in order to
drive the power amplifier and loudspeakers (or headphones). With
modern integrated circuits and poly- capacitors, a state-of-the art
phono stage has never been more attainable, or affordable. [If
vacuum tubes are your preference, I can’t help you.]
Looking back on it, the “Stylus…” white paper is not just about the
offerings of Pickering and successor company Stanton. Many other
fine makers share the same electro-magnetic technologies and made
similar advanced stylus shapes. There could be a book each about
their history and accomplishments. And much more said about the
ones included. But to keep things manageable for the reader, and not
to venture beyond what the author knows, the examples selected for
inspection were chosen because they apply generally to the others,
work very well even by today’s standards, and were in their day quite
cost-effective (somewhat dearer as NOS today). Aspects of wear and
cartridge loading apply to all (except moving coil pickups).
Distortion mechanisms and solutions are the same. Skating and
alignment apply to all. And since the mid 1950s, the recording
characteristic is standard, which brings us to the preamp.
In this next chapter: “The tuning of phonograph reproduction,” we
explore the interactions and adjustments for getting the most from
phono reproduction after the pickup & stylus – and thus the most
from your records – that otherwise would sound suboptimal. But the
fact is that you might not experience this without doing the
adjustments and comparing before and after. In the author’s tests,
what is necessary is an accurate “modulation transfer function”
(MTF) of the entire phono playback system to compliment the
characteristic engraved on the disk as mastered. A precise (good
sounding) overall MTF is an integration of all the many mechanical
and electrical interactions in the phonograph chain: the stylus &
cantilever cantilever and tonearm, stylus and pickup, pickup and
electrical loading, loaded pickup at the input of the preamp (phono
stage), accurate preamp RIAA standard equalization (EQ), balanced
channel-to-channel gains, proper monophonic switching. Sub-
optimal performance by any one of them can wreck the sound. But
isn’t it amazing how good the phonograph sounds when everything is
working right?
As mentioned above and in this next article, most suboptimal
performance is not recorded into the record groove as mastered –
they are errors in playback. So most can be fixed. You can make that
happen. With the help of decades of the most relevant research and
know-how by others that have been digested for you in this book.
Mostly mechanical considerations were discussed in the stylus
paper above. A prime takeaway is considering among today’s most
available replacement styli – sphericals and ellipticals – the better
high frequency and lower distortion tracing of an elliptical v. its
higher wear. However that the best of both worlds of sound quality
and wear require hardest-to-come-by line-contact styli.
Now shifting to electronic considerations, certain changes will
likely mean that the records you might have enjoyed before you will
now enjoy even more. The solutions in the next chapter are
measurably high-end. You won’t be bragging about how much you
spent, but how little. About the clearly audible results. And that you
did it yourself![7]
In their heyday built to last and to be possible to maintain, used
turntables, pickups, and even needles with low to mid mileage can be
combined with a state-of-the-art preamplifier to realize a really fine
phonograph system. Often overlooked is electrically matching
(“loading”) the cartridge at the input to the preamp. Although
critical, it is simple: in some cases only adding a pair of small
capacitors. In other cases (easier still) snipping out a pair! But
because the audio chain is only as strong as its weakest link, your fine
stylus and pickup will not perform their best if the preamp and its
electrical interface with the cartridge are not equal in their
implementation.
After exploring how come phono stages and accurate EQ are
needed, there follows a bill-of-materials and how-to instructions for a
high-performing DIY preamp that requires minimal skills with a
soldering pencil and hand tools. (Later the book presents a
somewhat more difficult tonearm construction project to compliment
an owned or found mechanically functional turntable.) Then equally
important, how-to properly interface the preamp with the cartridge
and adjust overall channel balancing. The results, which will return
your investment in effort for years, would be hard to equal at any
price. Don’t warm up the soldering iron just yet, but read on!
Filmaker Technology White Paper

The tuning of phonograph reproduction

by proper cartridge loading & channel balancing
along with modifying an inexpensive PCB and a bit of historical perspective
Robert E. (Robin) Miller III BSEE AES SMPTE BAS
Filmaker Technology www.filmaker.com ©9/30/2014iv

Setting up a turntable, tone-arm, pickup, & preamplifier must be attended to by users in order to realize good
performance from their phonograph systems for enjoying and restoring 78, 45, and 33⅓ rpm disc recordings.
Two crucial issues are often ignored that diminish sound quality: 1) proper capacitive loading of moving
magnet/moving iron (MM/MI) cartridges for best resulting frequency, phase, and transient response; and 2)
proper balance for best stereo “soundstage,” and for monaural reproduction to cancel not-recorded vertical
distortions. Both are addressed, and implemented in an inexpensive ($30 less case & power supply)
“audiophile phono stage.”

“Vinyl” has made a comeback from technological, economic, and sociological obsolescence.
Along with shellac 78rpm discs, this analog medium is a treasure of more than a century of musical
performances, forgotten or deceased artists, and broadcasting history. Phonography is difficult
compared to the ease of use of the CD and streaming media, and little new hardware is being
manufactured. “Vintage” used equipment was built to last and be maintained, but replacement styli
are a quagmire of quality.
Before exploring the disc and its modulated groove, and the pickup cartridge and its stylus and
preamplifier, an appreciation of the most difficult technology to design and most expensive to build:
the cartridge’s stylus – a tiny cantilever with a diamond tip. Micro-fabricated of aeronautical
aluminum with a needle magnet of rare earth Samarium Cobalt, the “sound” of disc reproduction is
arguably the sound of its stylus. Pulled backwards over a record’s landscape like a cowboy caught in
a stirrup and dragged by his horse, following ruts rushing up from behind, bumping over rocks, but
only grazing hoof-print imperfections in vinyl too small to feel. Intense pressure causes extreme
temperature that deforms temporarily the vinyl at the point of contact, akin to an ice skate melting a
thin film of water so the blade can glide. Advanced tip "profiles" reduce this pressure, and its
eventual wearing of groove and stylus, by elongating the point of contact up each wall, even as they
narrow it in order to trace better the high frequencies cut by the flat-across, chisel-shaped cutter of the
disc recorder. Yet the stylus assembly needs replacement only every 500~1,000hr!
 The market for used vinyl is thriving. Direct-drive turntables are still made, “DJ” heirs to Technics SP-
broadcast models. L, an audiophile tone-arm for high-compliance tracking at 1¼g; R, a 14in broadcast
arm tracking at 2¾g.

Subjects of graphs two pages hence, Stanton 881 (L) & 681 with Stereohedron styli trace the same
groove a fraction of a second apart for direct comparison. These "calibrated" (Steinfeld prefers
"certified"[8]) models were chosen by broadcasters and disc mastering engineers for quality control
while cutting.

1. Capacitive & Resistive loading of moving magnet (MM) and moving iron (MI) phonograph
pickup cartridges
One determinant of phonograph quality likely has tainted the reputations and reviews of
cartridges for decades – improper electrical loading. This impedance completes a manufacturer’s
design of its cartridge. Although critical, they are external, user/ installer-supplied components
beyond the manufacturer’s control.

All MM/MI cartridges rely on user/installer-supplied components to meet their manufacturers’ design characteristics. Off -
spec loading results in replay often described as “too dull” or “too bright.” Coincidentally it might randomly compensate errors
elsewhere in the system [Pickering].
 Oblivious to a loading mismatch, audiophiles might blame a cartridge for being either “dull” (C-
load too low) or “bright” (C-load too high), a non-flat response wrecking timbre (tone quality), the
holy grail of sound reproduction. Cartridge manufacturers intended proper loading be the
responsibility of the user/installer.
The chart tells the story of two of the more than 100 products of musician Norman Pickering and
engineer Walter Stanton for home enthusiasts, disc mastering engineers for quality control, and the
rigors of broadcasting.[9] Playing a well-regarded test record (CBS Laboratories STR- series), their
data shows results “tuning” their upper-end cartridges by varying the external load capacitance. The
680/681 (certified version) requires 275pF (pico-Farad) ±10%; the lower impedance MM 880/881
also 275pF, but ±20%. Unless compensating other system errors, operating outside these tolerances
will have a detrimental effect on the performance of your cartridge and therefore on your sound.

All MM/MI cartridges employ a C-load for a high frequency (HF) resonance to extend the HF
response. As shown, higher values of C-load create a peak in the mid-high range, then falling steeply
at HF. Smaller C moves the peak toward ultrasonic VHF frequencies at some cost to mid~HF.
Absent the designed C-load, the cartridge is not complete, and cannot perform. To say that proper
capacitive loading is important almost goes without saying, yet we are discussing it precisely because
it is so often ignored.
Overall perfect flatness of frequency response curves is the elusive goal, but failing that, an
important perceptual truth is that bumps in frequency response are more deleterious to the ear than
equal dips. So leveling bumps at the expense of broad, shallow dips results in the precise 275pF
specification for these cartridges.
The total capacitive load, C-load, “seen” by the cartridge is additive, consisting of the
distributed capacitance along the arm wiring, cabling to the preamp, and the lump of capacitance
inside the preamp at the input jack in parallel with a 47kΩ resistance. A typical preamp has a 150pF
capacitor. Cabling typically is 125pF.
It is easier to increase (add) capacitance than to decrease it. You could, with a pF-level
capacitance meter or “impedance bridge”, measure your cables, lable them, and even measure the
preamp’s input C if it isn’t in the manual or you don’t open it to see the component. Then add Cspec =
Cwiring + Cpreamp to compare with the manufacture’s specification. How does your arithmetic compare
to typical values for Stanton models: 275 = 125 + 150?
But what if the cables are not as good? Or are lower C/ft? Or the cart spec is 620pF? Or a
different C (or none!) is inside the preamp? Or what if for playing different types of discs, you switch
between differing cartridges. Or different arms/turntables? Solutions depend upon your need for
switchability and your DIY skills. On the web are Y-connectors with plug-in capacitances. If you
measure and tag your phono interconnects, select the closest to total each cart’s spec. Substitute a
new capacitor inside your preamp. OR if you have $10, a bit of room inside, and can drill a ¼in
hole, mount a switch and solder six caps, as illustrated below.

DIY C-load selector costing $10 in parts, shown in schematic and retrofitted inside a preamp for “tuning” the cartridge. Six
yellow capacitors (at left as “=”) connect from the green switch to common to select three values 100~250pF. Ferrite beads
filter radio freq. interference (RFI).

For the likely difference in C-load tuning requirements of two dissimilar pickups, a second
turntable or arm, add a second switch in conjunction with the C-selector. This requires four ¼in
holes: two for switches and two for the second pair of phono connectors.
Shure M97 & M35x specify 200~300pF. Audio Technica 95E recommends 100~200pF.
Nagaoka MP-11’s reported range is 100~620pF! Specifying a range instead of a precise design value
is a cop-out to curry favor with busy buyers. The C-selector values can easily be substituted for the
range needed. With a level meter and a respected, unworn test frequency record, the loaded cart’s
frequency response could be measured. But a trained ear on one online forum posted these
impressions of an AT 95E that required an unusually low Cwiring of 75pF:
Cwiring + Cpreamp = Ctotal Subjective quality of sound
75 47 122 "Impressive, but only initially"
75 22 97 "Cleaner, defined soundstage"
75 100 175 "Harsh [bordering on shrill]"
The choices of 22, 47, & 100pF refer to an unmodified preamp in the Appendix that after
modifications provides 21 C-load choices.
These subjective “results” conjure the Stanton 881 chart. For the AT loaded with 122pF (cf. the
Stanton 881 curve at 500pF) “brightness” is only initially impressive, but “air” at very high
frequencies is noticeably attenuated. Approaching the highest specified 200pF (cf. Stanton 1,000pF
curve) the AT accentuates the peak and lowers its frequency and sounds harsh. But the lowest
Cspec=100pF flattens the resonant peak (cf. Stanton curve at 275pF) and may be the real AT 95E
design value, although it is difficult to achieve. Low impedance moving coil (MC) cartridges are not
affected by C-load[10] – none is needed. However for more ubiquitous MM/MI cartridges, C-load
tuning is important!
Varying Cwiring offers another run at the goal, but a lot of poppycock surrounds audio merchandise,
especially cables. Audio wiring isn't mysterious, nor need it be expensive. Maybe free, tangled in
your box of spares! Even inexpensive audio interconnects work within limits. Knowledge is the
power to ward off being ripped off. The capacitance of a cable is proportional to its length: Twice as
long, twice the C. Cheapest, very thin audio cables measuring 80 pico-Farads (pF) per foot of length
are OK if limited to 1½ ft, with the preamp inside or adjacent to the turntable base, but even at this
short length their poor shielding may be inadequate against radio frequency interference (RFI) at low
5 millivolt phonograph levels. These cables are for low impedance, line level connections,
nominally ~300mv (–10dBv).
Mid-priced coaxial cable might have 30pF/ft, the best 20 pF/ft. To increase Cwiring, pick a less
expensive 40 pF/ft cable, or make it longer. To reduce Cwiring, pick a more expensive 30 or 20 pF/ft
coax, or make it shorter. It's not about splurging for exotic, highly hyped, ultra-low pF/ft cable, but to
optimize economically the total C-load: 3ft of 40pF/ft cable, 4ft of 30pF/ft cable, or 6ft of 20pF/ft
cable – each adds 120pF toward the grand total Cspec.

2. Balancing two channels for monaural & stereo disc replay

The Golden Mean (aka Fibonacci ratio) – the sweet spot of perception. Its like in reproduction
of sound in stereo is balance. Unlike the Golden Mean's 61.8/38.2 split, audio balance is strictly
50/50. A small imbalance can destroy what audiophiles term the “soundstage” (audio engineers
speak of localization & spatiality). Playing monaural vinyl or shellac on a stereo system, imbalance
means falling short of mono's inherent cleanliness from distortion.
In stereo using the conventional equilateral speaker-listener triangle, it only takes a difference in
level between channels of 15dB [Theile 2001] to pan an auditory event fully to one side or the other,
seeming to emanate from the loudspeaker on that side alone. In the middle, it takes little difference to
move the image quickly off-center, skewing the soundstage non-linearly. This is perceived to leave
what is termed the "hole in the middle" of the entire image, shoving farther out voices and instruments
recorded only slightly left or right. If a stereo recording is reproduced only slightly off balance, say
by only a couple dB of the 15, the entire image will shift quickly toward that speaker, leaving an even
larger void through the center and toward the other side.
Assuming a well-made recording (a big assumption), every component in the reproduction
system can introduce imbalance – caused mainly by component variations and degrading further over
time – in the present discussion electronic gain or transducer sensitivity errors, some of which cancel,
others adding to a worst case. The "balance" control was invented to compensate for the sum,
adjusted by ear if not by a sound pressure level (SPL) meter. Even with the rest of the system
precisely balanced, playing stereo vinyl with a pickup cartridge that just meets its specified 2dB max
imbalance will throw off its imaging if not corrected in the phono preamplifier before the signals go
on to the rest of the system.
Cartridge manufacturers did not intend this output sensitivity variation to go uncorrected in the
preamp, just as tape machine makers provided separate channel gain controls for variations in the
playback tape-head. Meanwhile amplifier/receiver makers fall back on their systems’ overall
balance control to save the cost of a few parts, or complaints from users of too many fiddly bits.
Playing vintage monaural vinyl is affected differently, but critically. The mono record groove is
usually modulated laterally, horizontally only, positive-going away from the turntable spindle, then
towards it negative-going. Cylinders and some discs were recorded vertically, “hill-and-dale,” but
suffer higher distortion. The vertical “drive” – the groove forcing the stylus up but using the
cantilever’s springiness for its descent – is mechanically partly “single-ended,” and so susceptible is
to added even-order harmonics. Laterally the stylus is driven both left and right by the groove walls,
and so is “push-pull,” which is not subject to adding even-order distortion. Because most natural
sounds consist of either all harmonics OR odd harmonics only, adding even harmonics
disproportionately fouls natural reproduction of the timbre of those sounds.[11]
Early stereo in a single groove used lateral motion for the Left channel and vertical for the Right,
which contained more distortion and surface noise, and therefore sounded comparatively inferior to
the Left. (Early stereo radio simulcast one channel on AM, the other on FM.) Stereo caught on after
L & R channels shared distortion equally, perceived as balanced! With no difference for reference,
remaining distortion in disc reproduction was acceptable. For vinyl, each 45º wall of the V-shaped
groove is assigned a channel, each with modulation equal parts lateral & vertical, as in the following
left illustration.

Adapted courtesy Ortofon, the vectors of 45º/45º stereo and stylus horizontal/vertical motion are mathematically
related. Lateral motion results from adding the signals L+R. Vertically, any difference L–R, purposeful in stereo, is
distortion in mono.[12]
While a stereo cartridge, having vertical compliance, is the safest way to play mono records, it
reproduces unwanted vertical junk that isn't recorded content, but artifacts to be eliminated: The
spitting of sibilants and other HF above “LP cutoff” [13] due to 2nd harmonic distortion from "pinch-
effect" when a spherical stylus cannot fit high frequency cornering, especially in inner grooves. Or
losing contact due to too little tracking force for a cantilever’s compliance, or too little or too much
anti-skating force. These tracing distortions trump those of angular tracking errors of the tone arm and
cartridge [Yamamoto], as does bumping over clods of dirt that can produce 30dB+ pops, possibly
latching up the preamp, needing a power cycle. Note that these artifacts remain in stereo.
 Illustrated above is how 2nd harmonics are mechanically generated on playback (they are not in
the recorded groove). The flat chisel-shaped recording tool cuts walls (in red) that are parallel
radially (i.e. not tangentially). However, while a 0.7mil (18µm) spherical replay tip with circular
cross-section fits and drops down where it can, at waveform peaks, it is pinched upward, squeezed
highest at the modulation’s midpoints, where the stylus moves fastest. The 0.2mil sided elliptical or
line contact tip fits better everywhere, rising far less, and producing proportionally lower “pinch
effect” distortion.
Rising & falling happens twice for each recorded cycle of high level sounds produces 2nd
harmonic distortion artifacts an octave above the recorded tones. Adding even-order harmonics
disproportionately within the natural spectrum of instruments containing all harmonics, even & odd,
alters their timbre, making them sound “discolored.” Worse, adding 2nd harmonic to many
instruments that normally exhibit only odd-order harmonics in their spectrum changes their timbre to
sound quite unnatural. Unless of course the intent is to create a new albeit non-existent instrument.

To illustrate the range of stylus dynamics, 10 vectorscope images are rotated 90º to correspond to stylus motion, viewed from the front.
L, signal only on the Left channel and groove wall. R, signal only on the Right wall.
L, lateral-only (mono) motion. R, vertical (mono out-of-phase). The groove moving rightward results from positive-
going signals in-phase for both channels. But up/downward motion is 180º out-of-phase – intentional in stereo, but
distortion in mono.

L-Highly correlated stereo (mostly mono). R-highly uncorrelated stereo (“phasey” and at high levels more likely to
jump the groove). Also illustrative of how a centered voice L can be instantaneously distorted by “pinch effect” to
look like R with added sibilance spit.

L, well balanced, nicely spatial stereo recording of a grand piano. R, same piano softer, accompanying a solo violin
standing at right. This ferocious groove and stylus activity is purely mechanical – unlike the nonchalantly
inconvenienced electrons and digital bits. Steinfeld ponders why vinyl sounds better than it has any right to!

L, after preamp balance trimming using a reliable test record, this kick drum, likely intended to be panned center,
 shows an imbalance of 1.2dB, discernibly left of center. R, a mono record played with a stereo cartridge contains
unintended vertical distortion that should be nulled using preamp balance trim to approach the Lateral-only (mono)
screenshot. 2nd harmonic pinch effect is out-of-phase in stereo, “disembodying” transients & HF spit.[14]

Furthermore from the vector figure on p3, the cartridge’s output signals for a rising motion are
positive-going on the Left channel but negative-going on the Right, and v.v. Hence the 2nd harmonic
distortion produced is 180º out of phase! Adding pinch effect distortion suddenly to loud peaks
causes the phony partials (only) of the voice or instrument to appear instantaneous beyond the
speakers, flashing randomly around the listening room. These errant spitting sounds of vocal
sibilants, buzzing brass, and dirt pops & percussive transient ricochets are ghostly, disembodied from
the image of the voices and instruments in the soundstage!
The simplest way to cancel these unwanted signals’ vertical components is to parallel (short-
circuit) the L and R outputs of the cartridge. However, the sensitivities between channels of the
cartridge might be different by as much as 2dB in most manufacturers’ specifications. In this case, the
reduction of vertical non-content is only -11.7dB.[15] As a change in level of 10dB, softer or louder,
is perceived as halving or doubling of volume, the reduced distortion is still half the volume it was.
Now add that the cartridge might be slightly rotated in the headshell or arm, or the disc cut with a
slight error in balance, as mono records after 1958 increasingly were cut on stereo lathes. A total
imbalance of 2½dB and merely paralleled without balance correction reduces vertical artifacts only
9.5dB or 67%. In this example for pinch distortion reaching 10%+, simply paralleling the cart
outputs for monaural reduces it to 3.3% or more 2nd harmonic distortion – not exactly high fidelity.
(NB again, in the example, that distortion in stereo remains up to 10%+!)
So it's best to monauralize the L & R signals after a stage of pre-amplification, where the gain of
either L or R is variable to trim any balance errors. Then combined to mono after signals are
balanced, vertical artifacts are nulled. Even in the real world held to at most ±½dB difference before
combining, the reduction of distortion and vertical noise would be 93.6%, attenuated 24dB, resulting
in the worst case of 0.67% 2nd harmonic that fits the definition of hi-fi – no more spitting sibilants, in
mono anyway. This 500% improvement over simply paralleling cartridge outputs is achieved by a
gain adjustment in one channel or the other by a potentiometer, or switching up to ±2dB in 1dB
increments.
Do NOT simply “Y” the preamp outputs, causing instability from each channel effectively short-
circuiting the other! Instead, the Appendix shows a $30 yet "audiophile-grade” phonograph
preamplifier and DIY modifications including balance trim, mono switch, and capacitance &
resistance loads for MM/MI cartridges.
 An RCA broadcast turntable with the 12in tone-arm at back aligned for 16in transcriptions, shown. The arm at right is aligned for
low tracking error playing 7~12in discs, whether microgroove or standard (wide-, coarse-groove). A drawer of cartridges and
interchangeable styli (p6) play all 33⅓, 45, or 78.26rpm, vinyl or shellac disc recordings, lateral or vertical cut, stereo or monaural.

Despite advances in sound reproduction, fueled by digital audio technology (see post script), the
analog “vinyl” world has revived, and evolved to where the electronics – some downright cheap –
are no longer the weak link. More than ever, it is the electro-mechanical transducers, such as
phonograph reproducers, that require the most attention and financial resources. The electronic
modifications in the Appendix by your humble audio engineer and skinflint will be comparable to
nearly any – even though you made it! No matter what others would have you believe, the results
from your cartridge and disc collection as a result of this paper will be hard to beat. For a change,
audiophiles can be satisfied and maybe even brag about how little they spent! And how a few hours
of DIY paid off in years of enjoyment.

3. A bit of historical perspective about grooved disc recording

“Instantaneous acetates,” (lacquer) “electrical transcriptions” (ET), were the only method
broadcasters had to record programs and commercials until magnetic tape, from 1947. Cut using a
lathe, below, at 33⅓rpm but with 2.5mil (64µm) chisel, maximum recording time was 15min per side
on a 16in disc. For a 30min or longer program, two turntables were needed to segue between discs
(even ones starting inside for no abrupt change in quality).

The 16in ET format for broadcasting was “borrowed” from Vitaphone motion picture sound,
with a turntable attached to a projector synchronized by gearing. In the Golden Age of Radio
1930~62, stations were required to announce whether a program was "transcribed" (recorded) so as
not to mislead the public, or fearing they’d storm the station expecting to meet celebrities! (Today,
what isn't recorded?) Stores selling Victrolas (see p8) offered recording services for church choirs
and student recitals to make albums of several 12in 78rpm discs with 4½ minutes a side.

From L: 15min radio program on 16in ET; 10in 80rpm holds 3½ min per side; 45rpm invented 1949 for singles; from 1948
the “vinyl” 25+min/side 12in album. The ET is inside start. The Pathé 80rpm hill-and-dale (vertical) “U”-shaped groove
prefers a true spherical tip.

Hundreds of different recording characteristics evolved by trial & error from 1926 while new
electrical recordings were still being played on acoustic wind-ups (p8). To thwart competitors,
record labels were secretive about their formulae until consumer enthusiasts & broadcasters won
standardization in 1954 by RIAA (Recording Industries Assn of America ) using simple RC filters,
adopting RCA’s New Orthophonic characteristic [Moyer 1953].
 Mono and from 1958 stereo masters are cut with “inverse” RIAA curve at top. Consumers play using its mirror image, below,
frequency & phase response coming out “flat.” Disc pre-emphasis renders replay vulnerable to issues with mechanical and electrical
phase and transients if HF are not equally deemphasized, including correct C-load as in §1. Not recognized, for replay-only, are the
IEC 20Hz filter for infrasonics [Howard], and the “Neumann curve” some believe in error is required at 50kHz.

While championing standardization and higher quality for both its consumer and broadcast
businesses, RCA debuted with much fanfare, then silently dropped “Dynagroove” to counteract pinch
distortion of run-of-the-mill spherical needles. Speculating they pre-distorted the audio by mixing-in
inverted 2nd harmonics, it ruined the sound for sophisticated audiofans using elliptic styli.
Nearly all stereo discs are mastered “monauralizing” low frequencies below ~150Hz. While
this practice reduces groove hopping and vertical turntable rumble, it also truncates binaural
perception of interaural time difference (ITD) cues down to 90Hz [Bose; 45Hz the author] that effect
spatiality in real hearing.
The so-called “Neumann Curve” is ill-advised. Proponents believe in implementing a
6dB/octave rise at 50kHz to counteract attenuation used to protect the cutter head. However, the
cutting amplifier used a 2-pole, -12dB/octave filter not only to flatten but to turn downward any
ultrasonic drive, and early on at 35kHz instead of 50kHz! An octave lower at 25kHz, the effect of a
2-pole filter is a fraction of a dB. So even if any VHF audio made it through disc-making and
cartridge replay, it along with any bogus “correction” would be inaudible – except for increased pops
from radio frequency interference even when a disc is not playing!
Although less than 3% of the CD and download market, new “vinyl” sales rose 6-fold 2007 to
2014, recently growing as much as downloads have fallen [The Economist]. Used vinyl shops are
responding to demand by average collectors, who like the larger album format for visuals and liner
notes. And while seniors wax nostalgic for “warm” [and uncompressed!] vinyl sound, in Barnes &
Noble’s vinyl kiosks they are buying for teenaged grandsons. It is likely that demand for record
playing equipment will follow.
 Big vinyl collectors have records in the thousands, as did radio stations, ranging in genre &
format from Pathé hill-and-dale (vertical) 78s requiring true spherical styli; shellac 78.26rpm SP
(standard-play) acoustically recorded before 1926 and electrically thereafter; late 1950s vinyl 78s;
SP & microgroove ETs 8~16in; 7~12in 45rpm singles from 1949; and from 1948, 33⅓rpm mono LPs,
both 10in and 12in. From 1958, stereo mostly at 33⅓rpm with some audiophile releases at 45rpm.
In the digital age, studies find the longest-lived medium for data is the shellac disc, made of lac
beetles and slate dust, that lasts 200+yr – just don’t drop it, pick it up too quickly, or look at it wrong!

The author’s custom designed and built "archiving" preamp with variable & preset LF turnover, HF rolloff, VLF rumble
shelf for any groove from Edison cylinders to all Berliner discs, lateral or vertical mono (78s, NAB, Columbia LP (mono),
RIAA +0/-¼dB, C-load selection, precise mono combining with stereo pickups, and variable LF vertical cancellation in
stereo.

Subject for another paper, recovering the fidelity baked into disc recordings requires alignment of pivoted tone arms to minimize
other distortion caused by tracking errors. L, assorted templates for arm pivot-to-(platter) spindle, pivot-to-stylus tip, and "offset"
angle of the cartridge to orient the cantilever tangent to the groove, as was the disc cutter. R, tangential-tracking player.
Schematic of a $30 preamp with author’s modifications for C-load, balance trim, and improved frequency, phase & transient
response are in the Appendix below. Beyond the scope of this paper are the laudable merits of various preamp topologies [Lipschitz,
Jung, Holman, etc.] or preservation & restoration techniques [Copeland+].
Appendix: How to modify an inexpensive phono preamp: C- & R-loading,
balance trimming, monaural mode…
Here are easy modifications for “audiophiling” an inexpensive Electronics-Salon A-310 phono
stage. This JFET preamplifier has accurate RIAA compensation on a populated and tested printed
circuit board (PCB) available for $10 including shipping (Hong Kong) at
http://stores.ebay.com/Electronics-Salon . The purpose for these modifications is to improve
reproduction for both monaural and stereo 33⅓ or 45 vinyl disc recordings, or 78rpm issues with
re-EQ, using a stereo moving magnet or moving iron pickup cartridge.
Improvements are: a) add balance correction for system channel sensitivity & gain errors of up to
±2½dB to reduce vertical artifacts for mono, and improve soundstage for stereo; b) add VLF stability,
reduce noise & distortion; c) add to the selection of capacitive load values for cartridge tuning; d) &
e) improve frequency response to within <±½dB 30~20kHz. Modify the A-310 PCB as follows…
a) Referring to the images below, substitute the following 1% film resistors for the four (4)
indicated in the illustration: 1L=825 Ω, 2L=910Ω, 1R=825Ω, 2R=732Ω**. See b) before
soldering leads of these resistors in holes encircled and marked “CG.”)
b) Within each of two ellipses marked “CGx” insert one lead of a 22µF non-polarized, low
ESR electrolytic, plus ≥220nF poly capacitors**. (Polys improve ‘lytics’ audio quality.)
Bend one lead of each capacitor outward and lay atop the circuit board facing right. Hook
together two free leads plus two free right leads of the pair of resistors substituted in a).
Physically stabilize the “pyramid” of four components, then solder the join of four in a
“flying junction” (see close-up below).
c) Remove two resistors closest to the IC termed C15 & C16 and substitute two 220pF
ceramic discs (NPO or COG type, 5 or 10% tolerance). For C-loading combinations in the
table greater than 389pF (470~859pF in gray boxes), optionally remove the 150kΩ
resistors at C13 & C14 and substitute 470pF, or save this step for a future modification.
The 470pF option also implies that the only R-load combinations available (values in
parallel with 2.2MΩ) will be those in gray boxes in the table.
d) On the underside of the PCB, tack-solder a jumper wire each to short 2200Ω resistors
(red red red gold) R22 & R24.
e) Again on the underside of the PCB, tack-solder a jumper wire each to short 4.7µF
electrolytic capacitors C5 & C6.
 Top: modifications & externals. Mid: cart load table; bare PCB & component designations. Bot L:
“flying junction” detail; Bot R: “RailSplitter” detail.

**Resistors (6): Mouser#271-732-RC, 271-825-RC (2), 271-910-RC, 271-1.65K-RC (2). Fe beads (2): 623-2643021801. Switch:
506-MTA106D.
Capacitors (6): 647-UES1E220MEM (2); 505-MKP20.22/100/5 (2); 594-K221J15C0GH5TH5 (2). Active part: RailSplitter 595-
TLE2426CLPR.
Hdwr: phono jacks (4); hookup & jumper (4) wire. Tools: pliers, soldering iron, solder-wick braid, pin vice & #70 bit, opt’l R-C,
ACVM meters.

Above components in UK e.g. http://uk.rs-online.com/web/p/voltage-references/0284220/ In New Zealand visit http://nz.rs-

online.com/web/
A310 PCB top as modified with 12 component substitutions, eliminating four (that remain onboard) including 1
of 2 audio carrying capacitors.

A310 PCB bottom, as modified, showing four jumpers: two by solder bridges and two by wire. Use of a
precision RailSplitter eliminates DC offset in the output (less than 0.3mV) without need for a output blocking
capacitor and requires only an external power adaptor of 12~35V DC.
Wiring to/from the PCB – Once modifications a~e) are made on the PCB itself, additional mods are
made to its signal connectors. Make these four wires/leads as short as possible, but just long enough
to reach the opposite channel’s terminals. (Add four ground wires to the jacks, or mount them in a
metal box connected to one of the PCB’s “GND” terminals.) For RF immunity, thread a wire through
a ferrite bead and loop around and through again, then connect from each input jack to its PCB “IN.”
Each L & R “OUT” is wired through a 1,650Ω resistor to its output connector, plus a single pole
switch between them for a “mono” laterally modulated groove. (For a hill-and-dale recording,
temporarily reverse the R+ and R- clips at the cartridge.) Use the stylus appropriate for standard
groove 78rpm & transcriptions or microgroove LPs & 45s. Connect inputs using the separate tone-
arm ground wire, and remove the cart’s ground strap unless it is insulated from the arm. PCB
documentation at http://www.audiowind.com/pdf/A-310.pdf no longer pertains – select the cart
loading using the table on p7. Finally, trim the phono system’s balance per the steps below…

How to balance your phonograph system using an A-310 phono stage as modified: C- and R-load
switches A~G may be engaged in any combination - set per manufacturer’s specifications for your
stereo cartridge (same for L & R), taking into account the tone-arm-to-preamp wiring capacitance
as in §1. Gain switches H and I may only be used individually, not both ON together. Adjust the
balance of your phonograph reproduction (stereo cartridge sensitivity difference and preamp gain
error) with these steps:
1) Begin by setting both channels’ H/I gain switches to 1 ON, 2 OFF. While playing a mono
record with the mono mode switch in “stereo,” observe the output levels*** and determine the
difference, likely not more than 2½dB. If the channels are different by less than ½dB, skip to
step #5. (***Use meters of a recorder; or reverse wires of one cart channel, place switch in mono, and listen for the lowest
level.)
2) If the system’s L-channel is higher than R by more than ½dB, skip to step #3. However if
lower, reverse each pair of inputs & outputs at the preamp PCB so that its labeled “L” side is
in the system’s R-channel, and the board’s “R” side is in system L. Continue with steps #3 &
#4, but now address channels and “H” & “I” switches of the channel written as {L} instead
on the opposite side of the board labeled “R,” and those written {R} on the side labeled “L.”
3) Now for the system’s {L}-channel level being higher than the {R}-channel by more than
½dB, flip the PCB’s {L}-channel “H” switch OFF, “I” switch ON, and again observe the level
difference. If less than ½dB, skip to step #5.
4) If the system’s {L}-channel is still higher than {R} by more than ½dB, flip PCB {R}-
channel “H” switch OFF, “I” switch ON, and observe the level difference. They should now be
within less than ½dB – skip to step #5. If not within ½dB, either the disc, cartridge, or your
level metering is defective, and you can proceed no further until one or more are corrected.
(Evaluate metering by swapping channels and note any disparity in readings, or use one meter.)
5) Your system is balanced within less than ±½dB, or >24dB (>94%) reduction of vertical
artifacts. Switch to “mono” for cleaner sound of monaural recordings, or leave the switch in
“stereo” for a finely balanced soundstage.
(Em)powering: Audiophiles have alternatives for phono stages, usually much more costly than $30
for this PCB and modifications, plus power supply and case, if any. If not pretty enough (or
expensive enough) to call attention to, mount the bare PCB under the turntable base near the tonearm
post, the arm wires secured directly to the board’s “IN” terminals. (Compensate for the shorter cable
capacitance, lower by ~100pF, with a higher C-load selection.) The preamp can be powered with
two 9V batteries, wired through a 2-pole switch, giving about 100hr of use per set of fresh batteries.
Better is a regulated bipolar power supply to the OPA2134’s max ±18Vdc resulting in double the
headroom, eliminating over-modulated 45’s or pops from latching up the IC, requiring a power
cycle. Best as shown on p7 is Analog Devices’ TLE2426 precision “RailSplitter” and almost any
12~35 volt DC “wall wart” in your spares box. The PCB has power filtering including RF, so the
power supply may be mounted several feet away. Thus empowered, enjoy.

Modified preamplifier performance & conclusion

The modified single-stage amplifier with RIAA equalization offers simplicity and low cost. Its
roots were first optimized by Lipshitz in 1979, and with improving opamps, evolved like the A-310,
or the Very Simple Phono Stage (VSPS)[iv]. In some, UHF boost results from non-inverting op-amps’
minimum unity gain.

In contrast to the original unmodified A-310 (brown) with its MM gain of 30dB, the improved,
flatter frequency response of the modified preamp with 39dB gain (green) agrees well with its
design simulations below.

Author’s circuit design simulations show ideal frequency response of the A310 as modified in the
Appendix (blue) compared to its input, the inverse RIAA response (red) output fed to it by an ideal
cartridge & recorded disc.
 The phase response of the inverse RIAA filter used in disc mastering is baked into the LP groove (red). One objective of this
paper is to realize practically a flat response both for accurate timbre and for phase error to turn out correct (<10º 50~30kHz) at
the modified preamp’s output (blue).

This paper’s minimal component changes result in improved audio performance, with measured
frequency response, at useful gains for balancing of 38, 39, or 40dB, within less than ±¼dB of RIAA
between 40~20kHz. Modifications offer more selection of cartridge capacitive load that completes
this response. With improved response including the cart, phase response and thus transients
improve. Adjustable balance optimizes monophonic clarity by lowering distortion, and optimizes
stereo soundstage.

PS: The phonograph v. magnetic tape v. digital…

Even before you lay eyes on any performers, you instantly know in any space that the music is live. Recreating perfect auditory
reality demands zero distortion, and immersion in the full 3D sphere of hearing, not just one or two channels in front, or five or seven in a
flat 2D circle. A century plus of audio reproduction still falls far short of that goal.
The bugaboo of grooved media is level-dependent 2nd harmonic distortion due to pinch effect. With magnetic tape, non-linear
hysteresis causes odd-order artifacts. Bias minimizes it, but instantaneous peaks have 3%. Commonly the mastering source of discs,
tape adds odd order distortion to discs’ even. Friction causes scrape flutter on tape, skating in vinyl. Loud passages echo by print-
through on tape, or by “horns” raised aside grooves by heated cutters. Digital suffers none of this…
Many agree with the author that digital audio has advantages in most ways, evident in well-recorded, demanding acoustic jazz,
choral, folk, or classical. But in many new/re-released highly-produced pop, processing tools are so much easier in digital compared to
analog that they are more overused in order to be most compelling (sell) on lo-fi gear. Possible are AutoTune® and a host of other
effects, but dynamic compression tops the abuses, squashing levels toward ceilings, sucking life out of exciting musical dynamics, and
impairing intelligibility of speech consonants. “Loudness Wars” of radio/TV spilled to digital that with 96+dB doesn’t need it.
“Headroom” intended for dynamics (12dB for tape/vinyl, 16dB for CDs, and 20dB for cinema’s natural sound) is taken up needlessly
cranking average levels, leaving (measured) 3dB for dynamics! Why, when users could simply turn up the volume, if their devices
supported lifelike dynamics? Or implement the dynamic compression in phones and car receivers to compete with noise? Those with
better equipment or quieter environs would enjoy the better sound – and buy more music.
Data reduction (aka the other “compression”) tosses “redundant” audio (up to 90%!), perceivable by many, but for most ear-bud
listeners not so overdone so as not to cram down digital pipelines more services. At low levels similar to background music, the artifacts
are drowned out by environmental noise. But at cinema or audio enthusiast volumes, a much lower threshold of distortion becomes
audible whenever it exceeds the much lower noise. Unnatural; irritable for some; for most, fatiguing.
Technically as “obsolete” as the audiocassette, analog AM, FM and TV/FM have yielded to the digital stream. But “HD” radio
transmits no content above 8kHz; HF “sounds” are synthesized (faked) in receivers! In effect like analog FM multipath distortion,
network or WiFi dropouts are “fixed” by digital buffering. But satellite radio fails in rain, and in tunnels without repeaters. Man-made
noise is increasing, so RF-based communication is chasing its tail. Lifelike sound for consumers is still a dream. But content is king, and
so it can satisfy despite the technology.
The author…

Robin Miller is a pianist & orchestrator, Peabody-winning filmmaker, and audio engineer with
more than 50 years in music recording & mixing films, television specials, and historic restorations.
With Filmaker Technology he is a Patent-holder (full-sphere 3D audio reproduction) who designs,
integrates, and publishes about Ambiophonics and other audio innovations.

Having every technological gadget known, the author’s grandsons were mesmerized by a century-
old wind-up Victrola IX playing an acoustically recorded shellac 78. What audio media will they
enjoy as senior citizens?
 RCA’s popular 45rpm player of the 1950s in grandpa’s childhood.

Filmaker Technology White Paper

Special instructions for installing the A310 RIAA phono stage [16]
Robert E. (Robin) Miller III BSEE AES SMPTE BAS ©3/31/2016ii

Please refer to the whitepaper above, “The tuning of phonograph reproduction by proper cartridge loading & channel
balancing, along with DIY instructions for modifying an inexpensive PCB.”

Despite its simplicity and low cost, this modified printed circuit board (PCB) is a high-performing
preamplifier for moving magnet (MM) / moving iron (MI) gramophone pickups (cartridges) having a
nominal stereo sensitivity of 3.5mV/cm. The critically important capacitive and resistive loads are
selectable onboard the PCB to match pickup manufacture's specifications, thus realizing the cart's
specified frequency response, and ultimately delivering the correct phase response and timbre of
musical instruments and voices.
As modified in the paper above, the PCB, using a fast JFET opamp, will apply precise RIAA
equalization with a magnitude-frequency response within better than ±½dB 30~15kHz. Excellent
phase response of <5º error between 100~15kHz results as the preamp precisely compensates the
inverse RIAA-made master recording AND after proper R- & C-loading of the replay phono
cartridge – see chart on p9 of the paper.
Gain selections per channel balances the cart's outputs within ½dB for best stereo soundstage and
cleanest monophonic reproduction, selected using an external switch. Power required is bipolar
+\-15vdc (including batteries), but a single supply up to 30vdc and a "rail splitter” is described in the
paper and overleaf.
The preamp may be customized to suit the user. One prepared configuration is shown below, with
all interconnects for using the PCB bare, or for mounting (without disassembling) within a user-
supplied enclosure that permits access to the onboard switches.
 The phonograph preamplifier, modified in the “Tuning…” whitepaper, fitted with all connections, “ground zero” screw, and
“mono” switch. Grommets on power and output cables permit installing without dismantling in a user’s enclosure.
Magnitude-frequency response is as in the green curve on p9 of the “Tuning…” whitepaper, and will realize the cart’s
specified response if the proper R- and C-load are selected by switch combinations on the left.

The whitepaper reveals how, for decades, ignorance regarding cartridge loading has caused
unsubstantiated subjective reviews by audio trade magazines and audiophiles, such as proclaiming a
pickup “sounds too dull” or “sounds too brittle.” The R- and C-loads are needed to complete the
cartridge’s circuitry and performance, but are user-provided, and thus beyond the control of the
cartridge manufacturer. Yet often proper loading is not attended to as reviewers and audiophiles
interchange cartridges. Such judgments are not valid because uncontrolled variables are in play.
Before connecting & powering the preamp…
Examine PCB for any damaged components or wires. Do not power the PCB until you sort out
anything suspicious. Check that all terminal strip connections are tight using a small flat blade
screwdriver. The high frequency performance (and therefore the timbre of instruments and voices) of
the MM/MI cartridge with this, or any, phono preamp will depend on the user’s fulfillment of the
capacitance load requirement in the cart manufacturer’s specifications. This requires a capacitance
meter to measure the tonearm-to-PCB interconnects with both ends, cart and preamp, disconnected.
[17]
Short, low-C interconnects are best to start with. It is easier to make up needed C-load on the
PCB than to shorten interconnects to reduce C-load. The C required of the preamp is the C specified
by the cart manufacturer minus the interconnect C. Again the science, consequences, and settings are
in the paper.
R-load is nearly universally standardized at 47kΩ, although other popular values are available
using the onboard switches on the input side of the PCB. Set R- & C-loads identically for each
channel by letter labels according to the loading table overleaf.
Powering (only during setup overleaf)…
Apply no more than 30vdc, filtered & regulated. May be either bipolar +\-15vdc, or a single
18~30vdc supply using a railsplitter. Also possible is three 9v alkaline batteries in series (27vdc
when new) which can power the PCB continuously for a week or more.
IF A SINGLE POWER SUPPLY IS USED WITH A RAILSPLITTER, IT MUST NOT ALSO POWER ANY OTHER
COMPONENT IN THE AUDIO CHAIN, AS SHORTING OUT OF THE PCB CAN RESULT .

Avoiding hum by design...

Unless the preamp is mounted in error too close to a turntable’s AC motor, amplifier transformer, or
an AC mains carrying high current, the PCB itself is very likely NOT the source of hum. Any fault
lies in how it is connected to the outside world, such as inadvertently creating a "hum-loop."
Eliminating hum is therefore the user's responsibility. If located at least 1ft from the radiated hum
fields of a typical motor, transformer, or mains, even the bare PCB may be sufficiently hum-free with
loop-free wiring.
A likely cause of hum is employing BOTH the cart’s strap connecting its case to a common pin,
AND the ground lead from the tonearm & headshell to the PCB. Better is to use the ground lead,
removing the cart's grounding strap. (When one only is connected, a hum-producing loop cannot
exist.) The cart is shielded by not insulating it from the headshell and tonearm.
The second most likely cause of hum is an external component, (receiver/amplifier or power
supply) suffering in its design from "pin 1 problem," permitting a loop through the AC mains ground
system. This may affect other components of the audio system as well. Lifting a mains ground pin
may isolate the problem unit, but it is an unsafe solution that should not be used beyond testing.
Phono cart signals are low level, on the order of a millivolt, and at medium-high impedance, so
input wiring should be kept short, using either twisted wire pairs or coaxial cable of low-
capacitance. Raised in level as much as 60dB, the preamp's output is now at high "line" level,
nominally about 300mV, and at low impedance, so wiring may be up to 10ft (3m) of coax, or longer if
2-conductor twisted pair cable is used and the shield is connected at only one end. (In high a RF
environment, such as near a radio transmitter, the other end of the shield may be connected to ground
through a 0.02µF (20nF) capacitor.) Fed by the PCB output, the following receiver/amplifier’s input
impedance should be at least 20kΩ.
Simple steps to install the bare PCB...
Check off the following steps as you perform them in order:
□ Connect the turntable signal wires to the left L and right R inputs of the PCB. Connect tonearm
ground lead to ground screw.
□ Connect the outputs following the “mono” switch to the stereo receiver/amplifier. Take care not
to stress flying resistors.
□ Connect bi-polar power up to +\-15vdc (filtered & regulated) or batteries. Or (best) a single
18~30vdc power supply using a railsplitter to create precise bipolar power, with no appreciable DC
at the outputs. CAUTION: DO NOT USE THE SAME RAIL-SPLITTER POWER SOURCE FOR ANY OTHER COMPONENT IN THE AUDIO CHAIN CONTAINING
THE PCB PHONO STAGE, AS SHORT -CIRCUITING OF THE PCB CAN RESULT .

□ Set the cart loading R & C switches per manufacturer’s specs minus the measured/estimated C
of tonearm interconnects. See accompanying loading table, reprinted from the “Tuning…” paper.
 □ Apply power to the PCB preamplifier, set the tonearm on a stereo disc, and listen for spatial
sound from both channels.[18]
□ After setting the gain balancing switches per the "Tuning..." whitepaper, enjoy the music, stereo
or mono. (If hum is heard, see “Hum…” paragraphs.) With the bare PCB, keeping it free of dust
accumulation and liquids is the only maintenance necessary.
Installation in an enclosure...
Clicks and pops even when not playing a record are a symptom of radio frequency interference
(RFI), usually resolved by an enclosure. An aluminum or steel (conductive for shielding, so not
plastic) box, just comfortably larger than the PCB, may be simply machined for enclosing the preamp.
[19]
Firstly, give consideration to where the box will be located: two of the possibilities are sitting on
a shelf near the tonearm corner of the turntable; or attached under the turntable plinth, etc. Before
marking or drilling anything, sketch your plan. Envision which surface of the box will be the mounting
side, and whether holes will be needed for screws. Envision the PCB positioned inside, and how it
can be secured (maybe only minimal using only non-conductive putty?).
Now envision locating the three (3) holes for the input jacks and ground screw, which is fastened
from the inside out. Envision the room needed for wires behind these. Envision the location of the
mono switch and its mounting hole. Mark the drilling locations with a Sharpie, including the diameter
drill needed for each. (Sharpie marks can be scrubbed away using a cotton swab and alcohol.)
Envision the two grommets: for the combined output cables; and for the power cable. If either
remains pre-wired, its grommet hole may be located near an edge so a slot can be cut through to that
edge with a metal saw or nibbling tool for the grommet to slide into final position. Measure twice,
drill once!
Measure & mark hole centers & sizes to be drilled as follows:
a) Input jacks may be either insulted, with two wires from each jack to its respective side of
the PCB), or, using smaller holes, electrically bonded to the metal box with only the center wire
connected to "L/R" of the PCB input terminals.
b) The ground screw is tightly bonded electrically to the box between lock washers (for the
tonearms's ground lead/spade lug, tightened under the nut outside). It is connected inside the
box at the “ground-zero” center position (common) of the power terminal strip to avoid ground
loops and hum.
c) If using nibbled slots, slide on the grommets for the output cable pair and power supply
cable without disassembling.

d) Secure the mono switch. (Also cancels vertical artifacts.)

e) Attach the cover of the box, careful not to pinch any wires. (Normally no cooling vent holes
will be needed.)
f) Apply adhesive rubber feet if desired for a freestanding box.
g) In an aesthetically acceptable manner, label L & R inputs, mono switch, and maximum
 voltage(s) for powering. Also that user-selectable R/C-load and channel balancing switches
are inside to change cartridges or tonearm wiring in future.

Left, R & C cart loading table for setting switch combinations A~G onboard the PCB. Right, a rail-splittercreates
precise bipolar powering from single 18~30vdc supply (filtered & regulated, or batteries) shown as + yellow and – black
wires. OBSERVE CAUTION ABOVE.

The important final step is to follow gain balancing instructions in the "Tuning..." whitepaper. This
procedure results in the most balanced stereophonic soundstage, and monophonic reproduction
cleansed of vertical distortion. Then on to vinyl enjoyment![20]
Also by Robin Miller - Stories, the pioneering technology, and unseen practical jokes among the hundreds of thousands who
worked on-air and behind the scenes in local Radio during The Golden Age. https://www.amazon.com/American-Radio-Then-
Now-Stories-ebook/dp/B0141JRPN0

Making a steampunk tonearm…

 You have seen this tonearm before. It was featured at the very end
of the first chapter, captioned “one of the author’s archiving
turntables.” I’ve made several, and perhaps you will want to too.
But how-come?
It began a long time ago in a place far away: “Electrical
Transcriptions” (ETs) were large 16in records, not for sale to the
public, but for interchange of radio programs between syndicators
and stations. In the day when home disk recordings were limited to
3~4½ minutes, entire 15, 30, & 60 minute shows were presented from
disk(s). Programs combined a host\announcer, featured celebrity
performer(s), orchestra, and the approving sounds of a “live”
audience. In order to prevent listeners storming their local station,
thinking the live-sounding celebrities were right across town, the
FCC mandated the station announce: “The following program is
transcribed.” Thousands of these large ETs were mailed every week
for the purpose, not surprisingly, of hawking their sponsors’
messages. [More radio history in the author’s book “American Radio
Then & Now: stories of Local Radio from The Golden Age,”
available at Amazon\Kindle.] 16in transcription disks required large
turntables 16in in diameter – and tonearms that could reach across
them. But these “transcription tonearms” had another quality: they
produced the lowest tracking distortion for any size disk.
A typical “9 inch” (~230mm) pivoted arm adds about 1% distortion
solely due to its length. The “12 inch” (~300mm) arm described in
this chapter produces at most half that distortion. For this reason,
well-heeled audiophiles pay $600~$4,000 and more for a 12incher
(Americans call them 16in for their disk size limit). They might add a
second or third arm! For the project below, the parts are available at
any local hardware store for about $30 – the same trivial cost as the
preamp above.
This means that for about $250 total, a newbie to vinyl can buy a
used turntable from eBay or Good Will Industries (less than $100 for
a good direct-drive, if not $5 at a yard sale), add a $30 preamp, $30
tonearm, a replacement stylus, and have enough left for a trip to the
new or used record store for a starting collection of a few dozen
disks.
This next chapter gives the instructions for making yourself, as
well as properly aligning, a high-performing transcription tonearm.
What it lacks in universally acclaimed beauty it makes up for in a
modest ingenuity – the author’s and yours. It requires moderate
skills with a drill press, a tap & die set, and common hand tools. It
takes about 5 hours to machine and assemble the arm once materials
are at hand. There might be blood, so have a first-aid kit handy. This
effort and pain will prove a small price to pay for a lifetime of
enjoyment with a nicely handling arm.
The alignment is universal for any size disk, optimized for 0.47%
maximum distortion tracking 12in LPs. Add it as a second (third?)
arm to an existing setup, and align them optimally for specific size
disks, with styli for different groove widths. (The image below
shows a 1950s broadcast turntable with the requisite two 12in arms
for the four disk sizes piled on.)
An aside: Now at ⅔ through this book, you must have wondered
about the OCD of the author. (I prefer CDO, the initials in
alphabetical order.) And whether, with your own hopefully milder
case, you would rather just spend $300 on a new Stanton model 92
integrated turntable (with a very serviceable Audio Technica
cartridge!) and be done with it. I understand. For context, do you
know any model railroaders? [I speak from experience; my father
was Miller Backyard Railroads.] The present hobby is as rewarding,
less expensive, and doesn’t require help to lift anything. As with the
DIY preamp above, the results will return your investment in effort
for years. And would be hard to equal at any price. So hang in!
Popular with broadcasters were two or more of this RCA BQ-2B 16-inch turntable. Look carefully at the pile of
disks: 16in, 12in LP, 10in 78, and 7in 45. Both arms are 12in (effective length, pivot to stylus tip.) Arm at the right
is aligned for 12in and smaller, the arm at back for larger ETs. The 16in format permitted 15minute programs to
be aired, or 30min and hour-long programs by segueing between two turntables.
Filmaker Technology White Paper
Steampunk 12in transcription tonearm
Make a “low-end” but high-performing 12in (305mm) phonograph arm
Robert E. (Robin) Miller III BSEE AES SMPTE BAS
©12/3/2016 Filmaker Technology www.filmaker.com rev.5/9/17

A quick solution, intended only for evaluating a rehabilitated 1940s 16in turntable, was made with ordinary hardware. However the
resulting low mass 12in (305mm) tonearm worked and sounded much better than expected, tracking as low as 1g. It led to appreciating
the evolution over more than a century and a half of the analog phonograph, which is enjoying a comeback. For audiophiles, instructions
for making the arm as a DIY project for near $0 can be rewarding.

1. Background & purpose

Even if you don’t have, or plan to acquire, any 16in diameter “electrical transcription” (ET)
discs, and 16in broadcast turntable to play them, your vinyl/shellac record collection can benefit from
a long tonearm. In the US sometimes termed “16in,” they are ~12in effective length, arm pivot to
stylus tip. More common are shorter ~9in effective length arms for playing 33⅓rpm LPs.
With a smaller offset angle, longer arms do not suffer much “skating” (inward force due to
friction). Add a shorter overhang, they have lower distortion due to tracking error, where cantilever
is not tangent to groove. 12+in tonearms were/are professional equipment for disc mastering,
broadcasting, and archiving, implying high reliability and reproduction quality. Professional
turntables often have two arms, in order to accommodate more conveniently two disc formats. One
can add an outboard arm-board to an existing turntable for a second tonearm of 12in.

“Steampunk” 12in tonearm compared to a more typical 9in arm. Although long arms were intended
for 16in discs on 16in turntables, they also have advantages for 12in records on 12in turntables.
Never mind it’s not pretty.

Underlying this project are several realities of acoustical-, then electro-mechanical phonograph
reproduction. It deserves appreciation for development over more than a century and a half, at first
as an art-form, then as a science. Second, we must acknowledge that technically superior methods
have succeeded it, such as high performing magnetic tape and digital sampling. Yet the phonograph in
its evolving incarnations offered superior quality in distribution. Third, notwithstanding the great
strides in audio, none equal live listening – we are far from virtual reality (that requires 3D
recording & reproduction). Yet with well made records from the hi-fi era on, the phonograph sounds
much better than one might expect. Fourth, the century and a half of recorded history is preserved
mostly on analog electro-mechanical records.
My first job, not working for my dad, was at a 250 Watt #70 market radio station, where its 16in
turntables had 12in tonearms. [21] They were reliable (never skipped) and sounded great. Along with
their industrial Art Deco aesthetic, handling them felt good; back-cueing and slip-cueing, they just
seemed ‘right.’ Then they added a sense of professionalism, agree peer reviewers of this paper.
Today, they can add to the experience of playing vinyl.
In the Golden Age of Radio from the mid 1920s to the mid 1960s, program syndicators mailed to
local stations recorded music and complete programs by the thousands on 16-inch ETs (LPs are 12in,
some 10in). Although at 33⅓rpm, ETs have the coarse grooves of Standard Play (SP) 78 rpm shellac
discs. ETs were supposed to be returned or destroyed after two airings, but many survive today,
bearing drama and musical variety of stars Sinatra & Fitzgerald, and Basie & Ellington big bands of
the era.
Even after introduction in 1948 of the 12in LP that shrunk the monophonic microgroove stylus to
1mil across, broadcasters continued to use their indestructible 16in turntables with later, even better
handling and performing 12in arms. Today as an audio engineer and conservator, I’ve restored and
use daily five turntables (two 16in), three typical 8~9in, and five 12+in arms.
Compared to light 9in arms, typical 12in arms have higher mass – more moment of inertia –
matched by lower compliance (springiness) stylus cantilevers. Cartridges made by Pickering and
successor Stanton were favored by disc mastering engineers and Golden Age broadcasters. Pickup
cartridges far outlast their interchangeable styli that range from 10 to 30 compliance units (CU).
Originals still appear at auction, although new-old-stock (NOS) are disappearing. With a still
useable cantilever, Expert Stylus, UK, can evaluate and re-tip a stylus for reasonable fees.
Expert says wearing of grooves and diamond tips is minimal up to 3 grams vertical tracking
force (VTF). At this pressure, the DIY arm described can mate with 10~14CU styli, e.g. a Stanton
500 with 10CU D5100A(L) spherical stylus or 12CU D5100E(L) elliptical. But with its variable
mass, it can also accommodate 18~30CU styli (Stanton 680\681 or 880\881 pickup, along with
Ortofon, Shure, and Audio Technica, etc.) tracking at 1~1¼g, as with a light-weight 9in tonearm
(SME-3009). 9in arms take less room, but require anti-skating compensation, are more prone to hop
grooves, and generate 50% more tracking distortion than 12in arms that have less cantilever-to-
groove tangent error.
What follows are steps for making an experimental low mass 12in transcription tonearm.[22] Its
industrial design & construction are simplified as much as possible. You need a modest shop’s
typical hand tools (pliers, screwdrivers, hacksaw), a vise, a drill press, file, emery cloth, and a 30W
soldering pencil. Perhaps atypically, you will need a pop-rivet set, and a ⅜x16 thread tap. Cost: a
day or so of your time, but <$30 US in parts – less if you have them already, as I did ($0!). It’s
engineered so the precision of parts and machining is forgiving. Modest craftsmanship is acceptable,
except items marked * that require extra care. The help-line is discussion by your peers at the
friendly audio forum http://www.lencoheaven.net/forum/index.php?topic=25067.0 . But I cannot
warrant your results, nor be responsible for errors & omissions or any collateral damage. For
continued improvement, design and instructions are subject to change without notice; the latest
revision is indicated by the date below-right in the byline at www.filmaker.com/papers/RM-
Exper%2012in%20ToneArm.pdf
The contents of this paper are organized in nine (9) sections:
1. Introduction & purpose;
2. Bill of materials and initial machining;
3. Fabricate wand sub-assembly;
4. Wiring (up to preamp connectors, left to user’s choice);
5. Fabricate finger lift, armrest & clamp sub-assembly;
6. Tonearm installation on base, alignment, & testing;
7. Fine tuning – adjust arm resonance, preamp interfacing;
8. Conclusion – further considerations, and what to expect?
9. Addenda – pictorial tips, reports in use, 2nd prototype.
Sections §2~5 cover construction of the arm; §6 installing it on a turntable. §7 & 8 address
performance of the arm, link to a paper on cartridge-preamp issues, with $30 DIY preamp that,
adding a low rumble turntable, complete a largely DIY phonograph. §9 adds has pictorial tips,
including a DIY stylus pressure gauge. I recommend that you read this paper entirely prior to
beginning.

2. Bill of materials and initial machining (check off as you go)

□ *½x½ x 1/16in-gauge aluminum angle, cut 16in long.

□ ⅜-16 zinc-plated steel all-thread, cut to 2¾in length.
□ ⅜-16 “coupler” ⅝x1¾in zinc plated steel (53g weight).
□ Two (2) ⅜-16 x ¾in zinc-plated full-thread steel screws.
□ Two (2) ¼-20 zinc-plated steel all-thread, cut 5+in long.
□ A half dozen+ (6+) ¼-20 nuts & combination lock-nuts.
□ Four (4) each 1in OD x ¼ ID chrome-plated flat washers.
□ Four (4) 1in OD x ¼ ID soft rubber washers ⅛in thick.
□ One (1) ¼-20 stainless steel wing nut.
□ Two (2) #6-32 long screws, 2in length.
□ Six+ (6+) ea. #6-32 nuts, flat washers, nuts, & lock nuts.
 □ Several #5 x ½in Phillips steel screw (select for potential polishing a conical point; also for
replacing pivot point in future).

□ Two (2) ea. #4-40 screws ⅜in long & #4-40 lock-nuts; several sizes #4 flat washers (for
adding mass to cartridge).

□ ⅛ x ⅛in grip steel (not aluminum) pop rivet, and tool.

□ Two (2) 5/16in and one (1) ¾in self-stick felt pads.
□ One (1) droplet of grease (prefer white with Teflon).
□ 5/16 x 2in strap snipped from ⅛in aluminum flat stock.
□ Salvage 1¼in long piece ½in ID rubber garden, air hose, or ¾in OD neoprene power cable
jacket). Slit down one side.

□ Optional wood 1x4+ arm-board, cut to long dimension of turntable base, plus attachment
hardware as needed.

□ Pickup\stylus to work with variable-mass arm. Tested 1¼~5g VTF with Stanton 500 & 680
with 10~25CU styli.endnote NB

□ *Salvage an analog mouse cable 4-conductor+foil shield (very flexible stuff), with outer
jacket carefully slit & removed.

□ Four (4) push-on phono cartridge connector tabs.

□ Two (2) #6 tinned spade lugs.
□ One (1) heaping tablespoon of BlueTac putty.
□ 1in square of MagicEraser. (Whaa?)
□ One (1) steel jumbo paper clip. (Whaaa?!!)
Now on a cleared, well-lighted workspace, organize parts, tools, reading glasses\magnifiers,
bottled water, Ibuprofen, etc. Mistakes won’t cost much, so just settle in for hands-on fun!
Parts for 12in tonearm are ordinary hardware. Clockwise from left: pop rivet, #5 pivot screw, cartridge & connector tabs, ⅛in aluminum
for finger grip, ½x½ in aluminum angle, ⅜ & ¼in all-thread, ⅜-16 coupler ⅝x1¾in, MagicEraser, ⅜-16 round-head screws & felt stick-
ons, 1¼in neoprene cable jacket (or garden\air hose), BluTack, ¼in all-thread for arm-rest, what’s left of the mouse and its harvested
cable, 6in scale, 1in rubber & stainless washers, #6-32 x 2in screws & lock-nuts, and jumbo paper clip.

3. Fabricate wand sub-assembly [23]

This is the first of four groups in §3~6 of construction steps:

□ Measure 1⅛in from one end of the aluminum angle and flatten in a vise. Twist flatted end to
be 45º to remaining flanges.

□ *Under the other end of the wand, mark from end ¾in, 3in, & 4in. Double check innermost
mark is 12in to flatted end.

□ *Clamp wand horizontally in the drill press vise, with the open “V” shape facing up, blocked
with 45-45-90º wood chocks.

□ *Drill the innermost marked hole at 4in using a ⅛in bit.

□ *Drill two end holes at ¾ & 3in with a 9/64 bit.

L – Underneath arm, intersecting lines mark mounting holes, after drilling 7/16in, with offset angle 18º. “Walking” of drill is negligible
only if it affects holes identically, preserving precise geometry. R – Stanton 500 pickup installed. Blue-tac supports wiring and damps
arm resonance.

□ *Use a protractor, and refer to the photos.On underside of wand’s flatted end, mark a line
from the end corner on spindle side at precisely an 18º angle to wand’s length. Sets the critical
offset angle. Double-check angle from other side of the wand.

□ *Mark a point from the end corner precisely ⅛in more than the tip-to-ears dimension of the
cartridge you intend to use.[24]

□ *Mark a second line precisely perpendicular to first line.

□ *Mark a point on the perpendicular line precisely ½in from the intersection of the two lines.
□ *Mark a third line perpendicular to the second. Confirm that it is at precisely 18º to wand’s
length, or REDO last 5 steps.

□ *Double check that the first and third lines above are precisely ½in apart (parallel)
everywhere along the lines.

□ *Center-punch the intersections, and drill 7/64in holes.

Caution: especially using power tools, wear safety glasses; consider gloves. To avoid
especially magnetic particles from fouling cartridge, after cutting or drilling, remove burrs
with emery cloth. Clean with forced air (30psi), wash part & your hands, towel dry part, and
thoroughly air-dry with forced air.

□ Only snuggly install two (2) #4-40 screws & nuts from the underside (for later mounting the
cartridge and finger lift).

L - Steel pop rivet, carefully drilled out to 7/16in. Note 45\45\90º wood blocks in drill press vise. R – Drilled dimple atop ¼in
pivot post for pivot screw, installed in wand rivet. Precision machining is not necessary, as tonearm is self-righting even with a
non-level base or outrigger armboard.

□ Install a ⅛ x⅛ in grip steel pop rivet from the underside in the hole 4in from the back end of
the wand.
 □ *Clamp the wand in the drill press vise, with 45\45\90º wood blocks; drill out the pop rivet
using 3/32in tool steel bit.

□ *Spinning in the drill press, polish smooth a cone and point of the #5 x ½in Phillips screw
using a file & emery cloth.

□ *Screw from top half way into rivet #5 x ½in screw as perpendicular as possible to wand.
Point should protrude ~3/16in below rivet flange.

□ Install from top two (2) #6-32 x 2in screws in wand holes at ¾ and 3in.
□ Underside on each 2in screw, spin up a #6-32 flat and lock-nut. Only finger-tighten for now
to allow for aligning later.

□ *Mark & center punch center point on ⅜-16 coupler side.

□ *Drill coupler through other side using a 5/16in bit.
□ *Tap ⅜-16 coupler, hereafter called “counterweight.”
□ Thoroughly wash debris, and blow-dry counterweight.
□ Clamp in vise between blocks ⅜-16 x 2¾in all-thread.
□ *Mark dead center ¼in from each end straddling threads.
□ *Drill through holes using 9/64in bit. Wash debris & dry.
□ Spin counterweight about half-way onto ⅜-16 all-thread.
□ Spin up ¾in on 2in screws #6-32 nuts + lock washers.
□ Add a jumbo paper clip at one end, double-loop side out.
□ Slide all-thread with counterweight up arm’s 2in screws.
□ Add two (2) lock-nuts. Slide all-thread down 2in screws and adjust lock-nuts flush with
ends of 2in screws.

□ *Align counterweight sub assembly parallel with wand. Tighten all nuts (6), aligning paper
clip on-axis with all-thread, clamping the end of the clip’s single-loop. (See photos below.)
 L – If counterweight all-thread is not aligned with wand, use a screwdriver to pry parallel.
Counterweight ranges 1~5+g vertical tracking force (VTF). R – Wand from pivot back, featuring
“anti-roll & dive control” paper clip.

□ Stick two (2) 5/16in felt pads on the ends of ⅜-16 x ¾in all-threaded screws, and trim felt
edge inside the screw diameter.

□ Thread ⅜-16 x ¾in felted screws in counterweight ends.

□ Test that felted screws arrest counterweight spinning.
This completes the wand sub-assembly; set it aside. Congratulations! You qualify to finish the
project, as no further steps are more difficult. Let’s take a break and solder!

4. Wiring (up to preamp connectors, which are user’s choice)

□ Power 30W soldering pencil; allow to reach temperature.

□ Meanwhile, unravel ends of the 4-conductor mouse cable back 1½in. Strip shield. Strip
inner conductor insulation 3/16in.

□ Clean soldering tip on damp sponge. “Tin” by applying thinly #22 flux-core electrical solder
(prefer 63\37 eutectic).

□ *Tightly twist ten (10) wire ends. Tin thinly with solder.
□ *If heat-shrink tubing & gun are available, insulate shield wires & shield terminations.
Slip ⅜in shrink tubes over eight (8) inner wires and back from ends for after the next step.

□ *Form a hook in each tinned wire end, pass through the eyelet of a pickup connector tab,
gently crimp, and solder (4).

□ *If heat-shrinking, stress-relieve wires and end of tabs.

□ *At preamp end, solder to chosen connectors, & shield #6 spade. Left pair opposite, ditto
right pair, not pairs side by side. [25]
 □ *If heat-shrinking, insulate shield wire & at end of shield.
□ *With wand down-side-up, arrange cable, with a bit of excess length at the cartridge end.
Secure with a dollop of Blue-tac in random places along underside of wand, being careful not to
disturb twist of conductors. The last dollop should be ~1in in front of pivot. Smush over top of cable
to secure it (see photo).

□ Underneath head of wand, install pickup cartridge, with stylus removed for its safety, under
the #4-40 screw heads. If moving iron type (MI), tape over mounting tube to prevent magnetic
particles entering. Press on the four conductor tabs to correspond with the L+, L-, R+, and R- wires
at the preamp end.

Underside of finished wand. Shown for high RFI environments is optional 100% braid-shielded 4-conductor phono cable, with
ground eyelet under one cartridge mount screw head. Secure at random points with BluTack, ending ~1in before the pivot screw.
Smear putty over cable to hold it when suspended. (Shield should not make contact with wand.) Putty may be added, subtracted,
or moved to dampen resonance.

5. Fabricate finger lift, armrest, & clamp sub-assembly

□ *Drill two (2) ⅛in holes ½in apart at one end of the 3/16 x 2in aluminum strap (finger-lift).
□ *Opposite, form a finger diameter inverted “U” (⅞ Ω?).
□ Install atop wand flat end under #4-40 nuts holding cart.
□ *In center of rubber hose opposite slit, drill a ¼in hole.
□ Screw in 5in ¼-20 all-thread to protrude ¼in inside tube.
□ Fasten inside tube with ½in stainless flat washer and ¼-20 nut. Adjust until end of all-
thread is flush with nut.

□ Fasten outside tube (its bottom) with larger stainless washer and ¼in lock-nut. Tighten until
tube slit opens ~⅜in.

□ Apply ¾in felt stick-on to all-thread & nut inside tube.

 □ Loosely add ¼in nut, 1in stainless washer, two (2) 1in rubber washers, 2 nd
1in stainless
washer, & lock-nut (see photo).

6. Tonearm installation on base, alignment, & testing

Next, prepare the turntable base, or if cramped an external arm-board alongside, minimum size ¾
x 3½+in. If the only arm, locate it along right side of turntable; if a 2nd arm, locate at back facing left.
On base or arm-board, mount pivot post & armrest:

□ *Near desired position for tonearm pivot post, mark an arc of 11¼in from the spindle, and a
second arc of 12¾ in.

□ *With a straight edge bisecting the angle between spindle and the imagined armrest, draw a
line connecting the two arcs.

□ *At the two (2) marked intersections, drill two ⅜in holes.
□ *Using a sabre, scrolling, or coping saw, finish a ⅜in slot for easily sliding (about 1¼in) the
¼-20 pivot post assembly.

L: Arm is easily returned to the grip one-handed by prying open outside of clamp with the outside of a free finger. R: “Roll & dive
control paper clip” is snug to pivot post. If base room limited, install in ⅜in wide slot shown, plus ⅜in hole for armrest, in outrigger
board firmly affixed alongside base.

□ *Precisely punch dead center at one end of the ¼-20 all-thread. Clamp in drill press vice
using wood blocks near top end.

□ *Using ⅛in bit, slowly drill a dimple top of all-thread. Slowly continue to depth ~⅛in,
pausing at bottom to polish.

□ Thread a ¼-20 wing nut (wings first) about 1½in onto the pivot post. Add a 1¼in chrome
washer and rubber washer.

□ *Adjust wing nut up\down to raise or lower top of pivot post, so wand will be horizontal with
cartridge resting on a disc.

□ Insert the pivot post through the base slot, underneath adding a second rubber washer, chrome
washer & lock-nut.

□ On base underside, hand-tighten a second ¼-20 nut against first. Using two box wrenches,
lock the nuts together. Hereafter, move pivot post in base slot using topside wing-nut.

□ To locate armrest, mark base or armboard 9 to 9½in ahead of pivot post, comfortably away
from turntable platter.

□ Drill ⅜in hole, install pre-assembled armrest, with rubber washers either side of
base\armboard, aligning slit toward pivot.

□ Place a tiny droplet of Teflon grease in the pivot post dimple. Completely mop up any
spillage outside the dimple.

□ *Preparing to install wand, test & adjust (slightly widen using a pliers) the inner loop of
paper clip “roll & dive control device.” Bend to re-form clip to be snug around the pivot post.
Exercise caution anytime you move the arm wand, as the pivot point can jump off its pivot
post and cause damage.

□ *Slide wand assembly onto pivot post. Re-test & readjust paper clip inner loop for no
rolling of the arm about its axis when at record height. Test arm swing for no resistance,
horizontally or vertically (until it reaches the dive limit of the paper clip).

□ *Examine whether cartridge is precisely perpendicular to record surface, straight up & down.
To adjust, forcibly twist arm near pivot to bend “roll & dive control paper clip” left or right.

□ *Install the stylus, exercising care in the steps that follow.

To avoid breaking delicate styli, anytime tonearm is not playing a record, return it to
armrest and secure in clamp.

□ *Check pivot wing nut so arm is parallel to top of record. Remove arm from record (clamp it
in armrest) before adjusting wing nut, then re-check. Finally tighten wing nut. Check again!

□ Lay a square of MagicEraser on a stylus pressure gauge, kitchen scale (or 2.5g penny
balanced on a cardboard “see-saw”).
Shim under pressure gauge so surface is flush with record on turntable platter. Above or
below will read in error!

□ *Set the stylus on the MagicEraser atop the pressure gauge, and read the current vertical
tracking force (VTF). [26]

□ Remove stylus to armrest. Loosen the counterweight locking screws, and spin counterweight
an estimated distance (total range 1~5+g) outward to lighten, inward for heavier VTF.
 □ *Repeat measure until VTF = stylus manufacturer’s spec. (Typical range for this tonearm is
1¼ ~3g.) Snug end screws.

□ *Print this page with “Scaling: none.” Measure overhang gauge below, so on paper it is
precisely 1.50in square. Cut it out.

Tonearm alignment minimizes tracking distortion to 0.47%. Aim scale at arm pivot, parallel to the DIY
arm wand, not the cartridge. Slide the pivot post until the stylus tip rests on the 13mm mark directly
opposite the post.

□ *Using sharp (Exacto) knife, slice blue lines to remove center diamond. Scale sets distance
of stylus-past-spindle.

□ *Straddle gauge on pencils on either side of spindle. (Or center gauge on a flat 45rpm
adapter.) Rest stylus gently on the paper gauge, with graticule inline with and opposite pivot. Read
and note ____mm current “overhang.” Return arm to rest.

□ *Loosen wing nut, move arm & post in its slot. Repeat until stylus tip rests on 13mm line, the
post centered in slot so post makes no contact with base. Snug wing nut to fix post. Return arm to
rest. Tighten wing nut. Double-check 13mm.

□ *Arm might be sensitive to skating across record due to torque from wiring. Gently allow
arm to descend and float free away from base. Check that wiring is not biasing arm inward – slightly
outward is desirable. Wrap wires in a loose coil counter-clockwise around the post to provide anti-
skating. Tighten or loosen the coil using your ears to detect a difference in distortion between the
channels. Secure (wire-tie) cable beyond the coil.

□ Preamps vary in their connections. Consumer audio uses unbalanced phono plugs (“RCA”),
while professional installation preserves the pickup’s balanced wiring with a 4-terminal strip.

□ Connect five (5) wires to preamp inputs and ground lug. If using RCA plugs, each counts as
two (2) connections. If using a PCB preamp, clamp twisted wires under input screw terminals.

□ If preamp provides selectable capacitive load, select C-load according to cartridge

manufacture’s spec., minus cable capacitance. Results in flattest frequency & phase response.[27]

□ Place a sacrificial record and note how the arm tracks the groove. Is the stylus pulled to one
side of its grip? Does needle jump when mildly thumping the base? If so, double-check that wiring is
not biasing arm inward (very slightly outward is OK).

□ If the preamp has individual channel gain controls, play a monophonic record and adjust for
equal channel output levels. Results in best soundstage for well-made stereophonic records, and
lowest vertical distortion artifacts for all monophonic discs.[28]

□ Again play sacrificial record. Does needle jump when mildly thumping base? If so, increase
VTF (not above mfgr’s spec.) and retry. Also see resonance test & adjustment below.
This completes constructing the experimental 12in tonearm. True, for $600~2500 and up you can
buy a better arm than you just made. Or can you? Assembling dozens of kits as a teenager (and
designing & building many more custom electronic devices since), I have found much greater value
than if I had had no hand in making them. Hadn’t had more long term satisfaction than the instant of
pleasure unwrapping store-bought stuff. Even if this is your first experience, if you have (or can
borrow?) the tools, you might likely find this project only moderately challenging. (Or recruit the
person with the tools?!) And soon just to Enjoy!

7. Fine tuning– adjust arm resonance; preamp interfacing

If you were successful following the instructions above, your experimental 12in transcription
tonearm will likely work, and sound amazingly good, as mine did even the first time out. But
tonearms are critical energy transducers, with many dependent variables. Before playing other than
a sacrificial record – and remembering to return the arm to rest whenever not playing a record – fine-
tune these variables, as instructed next in italics…
1. Check the cartridge (not a twisted stylus!) is perpendicular to the record surface. Twist the arm
wand about the pivot point to bend the paper clip until the cartridge is precisely plumb.

2. Check that there is no rolling – not even a wobble. Adjust by bending inner loop of the paper
clip snug around all-thread, yet so it doesn’t impede arm’s horizontal or vertical motion.

3. Check that the arm and cartridge are parallel with the platter. Adjust wing-nut after unlocking
pivot post nuts under base. Relock the nuts underneath, and note overhang has changed.

4. Check tracking pressure with reading surface of gauge at record height. Set VTF for the stylus
in use (see cartridge specifications – commonly 1¼g for high compliance styli; 3g for low). If
counterweight cannot reach lightest desired VTF, ≤1g, add a ⅜-16 nut etc. at back of ⅜-16 all-
thread.[29]

5. Check overhang of 13mm. Viewing from above straight down, check that the stylus cantilever
(not the body of the cartridge behind it) remains tangent across a 12in LP. (This verifies both the
13mm overhang and 18º offset angle of the arm head.) Adjust by loosening wing-nut and
moving pivot post in slot in base, relocking to have no contact with it.

6. Check that wiring is not biasing arm inward (very slightly outward is OK). Rearrange lay of
cable in a loose coil. Try inverting the coil, or twist\untwist so arm stays still. Wire-tie gently
 only on the side of the coil away from the pivot.

7. A remaining critical adjustment is the resonance of the combination tonearm & stylus. If not
optimized, resonance can produce an unnatural bump in low bass, accentuate rumble, and cause
the stylus to lose contact with, or jump out of the groove. Adjust resonance for 8~12Hz by
varying mass (moment of inertia) with cartridge weights or BluTack.
To measure arm-stylus-platter resonance: With the turntable still, gently plant the stylus in a
silent groove (lead-in or run-out). Tap pivot post lightly with a wood\rubber screwdriver handle. A
free recording app’s spectrum analyzer (or expensive single-triggered digital oscilloscope, DSO?!)
likely will show a broad resonance bump, if not too attenuated by high-pass filtering of the preamp.
If >12Hz, add to the tonearm’s mass – add Blue-tac, or small cartridge weight, and then re-adjust
VTF, or use a higher compliance stylus (18~25CU, to 30 max). If <8Hz, decrease tonearm’s mass, or
use lower compliance stylus (10~14CU).[30]
Using the Spectrum view of Audacity (freeware audio recording\editing app), look for a
resonance peak along the horizontal axis in the region <30Hz. In the DSO screenshot below, the
prototype’s resonance was adjusted to a nearly ideal 11Hz, down from an initial resonance of 14Hz
that exceeded the high limit. (The arm project is intentionally higher than the ideal 10Hz because it is
easier to add mass than to subtract it.) Add or subtract cartridge weight or BluTack as required to
either lower or raise, respectively, the resonance frequency to approach 10Hz. And ideally
dampen the response to reduce its relative amplitude, as in the screenshot, despite the high level
impulse (tap on pivot post). This image shows, after adding washers of decreasing sizes under the
cartridge mounting nuts atop the wand, plus readjusting VTF, mild resonant “ringing” at a very
acceptable 11Hz, diminishing in time (within several cycles).

The final touch making the 12in tonearm is correcting its arm-stylus-platter resonance. Use a free
recording app’s “spectrum analyzer,” or the above Digital Oscilloscope, to adjust resonance, here to
a nearly ideal ~16Hz.

As styli vary in compliance, changing styli alters resonance. Whenever swapping styli differing
in compliance, it is prudent to re-measure resonance. (I don’t trust “marketing” specs, so I measure
the resonance anyway.) Underscoring that resonance can change with different styli, even claimed to
be direct substitutes, the screenshot above is with a new-old-stock (NOS) D5100EL made in the
1980s by Stanton. But in contrast, a new N500-6 by the modern incarnation of Stanton resonated at
22Hz, potentially troublesome, and requiring much correction. [31]
 Now it’s safe mechanically to play a good record. However, the sonic qualities of the cartridge
(frequency & phase response) will depend on integrating it properly with the preamplifier (“phono
stage”). Using MI or MM pickups, a load mismatch can cause sound to be too dull, or too bright. Or
bass relatively too weak, or boomy. Imbalanced L\R levels ruins the soundstage in stereo, and passes
distortion in mono. Solutions are found in the chapter above “The tuning of phonograph reproduction
by proper cartridge loading & channel balancing.”

4-conductor tonearm wire, harvested from a computer mouse. Although the wire is very flexible,
coiling it 1½ times counter-clockwise around the post provides variable anti-skating torque by
loosening or tightening the coil.

As work of this paper concluded, I built a second prototype, following the instructions above. It
took 5hr, taking my time, as you, should, dear reader. A medium compliance stylus tracked at 1.0g
with no issues! (See §9.) This is good performance for a 12in arm. The lower VTF means skating is
negligible. The uni-pivot design has proven worthy, simplicity itself, and apparently requires no
exotic materials or expense. Walter O. Stanton himself is the inventor, having applied for a Patent in
1957.

8. Conclusion – further considerations, and what to expect?

Properly aligned, the experimental pivoted 12in tonearm has offset angle 18º and overhang
13mm, within <±¼º and <±¼mm (as fine as you can set them). Very early straight arms (later used by
scratch DJs) of 0º offset angle and 0mm overhang create(d) 5~10% distortion, deemed acceptable
until the high-fidelity era >1948, when expectations improved an order of magnitude to <1%.[32] But
for any audio component, 0% distortion implies no coloration, which also evolved in subjective
preference by some.
Audiofan magazines have been complicit in forming popular opinion, touting in vague
unscientific terms which colorations (actually distortion or altered frequency response) “sounds best”
to the golden-eared. Advertisers’ hype and inverted price-for-value claims should be taken with a
grain of salt. Studies show that most listeners become habituated perceptually, remaining fixed in
taste until re-acclimated. My dad often advised me: “Better to question the answer than to answer
the question.” So I trust opinions of those reviewers who use unbiased double-blind methods, and
who try to confirm subjective opinions with the admittedly imperfect objective measurements we
engineers use.
 Total harmonic distortion (THD) due to tracking error for various disc sizes & speeds is in red
in the simulation overleaf. It’s a low 0.47% maximum, actually 0% at two null-points across a 12in
stereo LP. For 16in ETs, with their higher linear velocity at the outside groove, it is 1.25% max.[33]
Calculated for higher speeds, THD for 78s and 7in 45s is just 1% max. Note that a fine 9in tonearm
can be aligned at best to 0.70% THD max. Worse sounding intermodulation distortion (IMD) is
likely comparable.
There are other forms of distortion and artifacts; all forms are most audible playing recordings of
acoustic instruments, and the human voice, in genre including classical, jazz, folk, choral, speech,
etc. We unconsciously remember our experience hearing these acoustic sources live, and so have a
reference in memory that is distortion-free. On the other hand, reproduction of electric instruments –
rock, heavy metal etc. – offers little or no memory reference, as each guitar amp or produced effect
sounds different.
For this or any tonearm, pivoted or not, tracking distortion may be masked by tracing distortion
caused by poor performing styli, due to pinch-effect (2nd harmonic, out-of-phase in stereo), poid
tracing (3rd harmonic), or prior wear of groove, or tip, or both. Artifacts are aggravated with a
spherical stylus playing inner grooves, where linear groove speed is half that outside. Properly
mixing L & R preamp signals for monophonic records cancels pinch-effect, therefore monophonic
reproduction from a groove (mono or stereo) is inherently cleaner than stereo replay!

Simulation shows harmonic distortion (red curve) due to mistracking a 12in LP is 0.47%. Calculated for 78s &
45s, THD is 1% max. For 16in ETs, while outer groove shows highest angular error, high linear speed reduces
its max THD to 1.25%.

While these distortion products are not recorded in the groove, and might be avoidable by better
replay, there are of course distortions baked in during recording, mixing, and disc mastering
processes. Now we might be back to reproduction distortion of 10+% overall, before loudspeakers
add still more![34]
Frequency & phase response will be dictated principally by the combined cartridge &
preamplifier (“phono stage”). Since 1953, most records are mastered using the standard “inverse
RIAA” characteristic, which must be reversed in the preamp.[35] Previously, labels used hundreds of
combinations of Turnover, Rolloff, & Rumble filters, and often kept them trade secrets.[36]
Users and reviewers too often overlook the need for properly loading a moving magnet (MM) or
moving iron (MI) pickup. Resistance (R) load is mostly standardized at 47kΩ. In parallel with the
47kΩ, capacitance (C) is typically 275pF (pico-Farad), and is the sum of distributed C of the wiring
and lumped C inside the preamp. It is possible for the combination of cartridge & preamp to attain
performance of ±¼dB from 30~15,000Hz.[37]
I hope you enjoy making and using the DIY 12in tonearm – there is great experience and
satisfaction to be had. Please share, as I have, your experience on internet audio forums, etc. And
enjoy many years playing phonograph records a little better.
_____________
Acknowledgements: Peer reviewers R A Bruner and G H Aykroyd and their spouses. My lover, partner, critic, & best friend Nancy D.
And audiofans on several forums who made $30 preamps per my “Tuning…” paper, asked questions, questioned my answers, and
shared their results. Brand names mentioned are registered ® or trade-mark ™ their owners.

NB - The experimental 12in (305mm) tonearm was tested at VTF 1~5g with standard play (SP, coarse-groove) ETs & 78s 0.5x3.0mil
elliptical; and for fine-(micro-)groove LPs & 45s, 0.7mil spherical, 0.4 x 0.7mil elliptical, and 0.3 x 2.8 mil Stereohedron styli. Compared
with conventional spherical (erroneously called “conical”) tips with circular cross-sections, elliptical and advanced line-contact profiles
decrease tip\record wear & distortion while increasing high frequency response, especially in loudish inner grooves. Recommended for
any phonograph replay are elliptical diamond tips of (side radius x width): 0.5x2.0mil for ETs, 0.5x3.0 for 78s, and for microgroove 33⅓
& 45rpm, 0.3x0.7mil elliptical or 0.2x3.0mil (up groove walls) “line-contact\Shibata” e.g. Stereohedron\II (Pickering\Stanton), Paratrace
(Expert), etc.

The author – Robin Miller is a pianist & bandleader, Peabody-winning filmmaker, and audio engineer with
more than 50 years in music recording & mixing films, television specials, and historic restorations. With
Filmaker Technology he is a Patent-holder (full-sphere 3D audio reproduction) who designs, integrates, and
publishes about Ambiophonics and other audio innovations.

9. Addendum – pictorial tips, reports in use, 2nd & 3rd prototypes

Shortly after making the 1st DIY “steampunk” 12in tonearm and drafting this white-paper, a 2nd
prototype confirmed both the instructions and performance. The 1st tonearm was disassembled
(except for machining & wiring) and reassembled by the author’s grandsons, age 10 & 8, who then
delighted in their handiwork’s ability to play “old records.” Their father, the author’s Gen-X son,
became hooked, and now frequents used record stores. Here are a few pictorial tips, and tracking a
high compliance cart at 1g.
 Turntable mounted on deeper base for the 12in arm. DIY stylus pressure and overhang gauges are at
back. The turntable’s 9in arm is still usable.

An equally steampunk base adds 5in to the depth to accommodate the 12in arm pivot and armrest. Fastened to the turntable’s
original screw mountings for its feet, the rubber feet were relocated to the base. At back are the slot for the pivot post to adjust
overhang, and the armrest mount.
 A DIY stylus pressure gauge for measuring vertical tracking force (VTF). After cutting “parts” out of thin corrugated cardboard,
straight pins hold all together. Flap still provides rigidity for the beam. Beam is “exercised” to elongate pin holes for freedom of
movement. A penny weighs ~2.5g, but vary from 2 to 3+g, so check the ones you use on a kitchen (if not a laboratory) scale. If it
doesn’t blow your turntable budget, spring for a modern dime, which weighs a more consistent 2¼g.

A Stanton 681 calibrated cartridge with compatible new-old-stock (NOS) Pickering D72E elliptical
(0.4x0.7mil) stylus tracked with no issues at 1g.

12in transcription tonearm is the 2nd arm for a used 2-speed direct-drive turntable ($37 at auction). Out-of-pocket costs total less
than $100 for the 2-arm phonograph (plus pickups & styli), including a $30 RIAA preamp in the author’s “Tuning…” white paper
in a prior chapter.

With outcome much higher performing than expected, the author has permanently assigned the
“model RM-305 steampunk Transcription Tonearm” as primary arm on a 3-speed archiving turntable
(Technics SP-15) for professional conservator work.
After drafting the original white-paper, reassembly and a 2nd prototype confirmed both the
instructions for making the DIY steampunk transcription 12in tonearm, and its performance. The 1st
prototype was disassembled and reassembled by the author’s grandsons, age 10 & 8, who then
delighted playing “old records.” Their father, the author’s son, also became hooked! Here follows
some pictorial tips, and expectations tracking at 1g.
 As a holiday activity, the disassembled prototype kit (retaining machined parts and wired wand)
were reassembled by author’s grandsons, Max & Henry, 10 & 8. The project held attention for an
hour a day over five days.

Satisfaction & wonder on first hearing their handiwork, playing a test LP. A lesson learned about how, when a
band plays, sound “wiggles” in air become wiggles in plastic and back again, and travel to your ears & brain.
Now to enjoy listening! However with no speakers in the boys’ room, we moved the project to their living room – with parents’
approval of course. 8-year-old Henry is mesmerized as 12in arm plays Dire Straits. GramPa likes classical & jazz; more than a
century and a half of recorded history!

“Hooked” on sound better than mp3, the boys’ father’s (author’s son) posts to FaceBook friends. He’ll
be playing opera & 80s+ rock he grew up with.
Back at Filmaker Technology, and with outcome much higher performing than expected, the author has permanently
assigned prototypes 02 & 03 of the RM-305 steampunk Transcription Tonearm with a refurbished turntable (Technics SP-
15) for professional conservator work.

Where the steampunk tonearm gets its tracking pressure. } ;<{)#

Recording in the acoustic era 1877 to 1926 at the RCA studios in Camden required horns on the violins. The band was “mixed” by
crowding them at the front of the large horn that fed the recorder, isolated in the booth at left. The “volume control” was a ball of yarn
stuffed in the connecting tube.

In the same recording room as above, now in the electrical era beginning 1926, a single microphone (atop its box of electronics) makes
life a lot better for the performers. Looks like the same conductor?
The decibel, engineering precision,
audio history, & auditory perception
In case the author assumed incorrectly that decibels (dB) were
understood, our apology will be in the form of this short chapter. It
does away with cumbersome logarithm mathematics, and gives you a
simple, memorable way to make useful audio measurements in your
head.
More important, it makes sense of the dB insofar as what it says
about what we hear. Or more precisely, how our brain interprets
(perceives) the “auditory events” relayed to it by our ears with each
passing microsecond!
For as important as are frequency response, noise, and preamp
gain, most important is psycho-acoustic perception. These quantifiers
and qualifiers of hearing are usually measured in dB!
In the context of this book, the decibel is also a relevant example
of the essence of engineering in general. For those who do not know
what an engineer is, we nerds are not absolute scientific physicists or
mathematics perfectionists; we’re not as smart as those guys.
Engineers are merely precisionists. Given the degree of precision
desired, the engineer will tell you what you can get away with. How
much less steel in a bridge is unsafe, how much more is needless.
Engineers apply math & science in practical ways. Audio engineers
balance performance within limits (cost, size, weight, power
consumption, ease of use, etc.). In the case of DIY projects in this
book, an engineer (me) found solutions for which high sonic
performance belies their low cost. But instead of licensing them for
millions, I practically give them away for the low cost of this book!
You, dear reader, are the beneficiary. [For humorous look at our
technological world, I refer you to engineer & standup-comedian
Don McMillan.]
Edison patented the phonograph in both cylinder and disk form in
1877. He was a tinkerer rather than an engineer, who invented by the
process of trial & error. Audio really got going in the 1920s with the
more scientific application of the first active electronic component,
the vacuum tube, which made possible radio and the electrical
recording of disks. Bell Labs invented the decibel (1/10 of a “Bel”) in
1923, naming it for Alexander Graham Bell the year after he died. By
the 1930s, engineers devised stereo, and foresaw the advanced tip
shapes elliptical and line-contact.
In the 1940s, still in the vacuum tube era, 10% distortion was a
common benchmark of quality for audio manufacturers. A decade
and a half later, about 1955 with the transistor and the popularity of
hi-fidelity, 1% was the newly accepted level of precision. In another
decade and a half in the 1970s, integrated circuits decreased electronic
non-linearities another order of magnitude, to 1/10% or lower
(although loudspeakers remain higher to this day). Now distortion
products were attenuated to 0.1% (that is –60dB). This precision
approached the ultimate goal of the inaudibility of distortion, not just
as background music or masked by street noise, but even when
playing back music at near its original loudness.
One decibel (1dB) is the change in level that is just detectible. It is
1 dB out of the 120+ dB our ears can hear! That’s 1,000,000 to 1 in
sound pressure, 1,000,000,000,000 to 1 in sound power. Thank
goodness our perception is logarithmic! So an overall system
frequency response that deviates in precision by less than one decibel
up or down (±1dB, 12% up or 11% down – again, its logarithmic) is
quite acceptable to the ear\brain. Smaller deviations for each link in
the audio chain are not likely to add up to unacceptable alterations in
tone color (timbre), the holy grail of audio reproduction.
As with many physical phenomena, the dB is a measure not of
perfection, but of precision that is good enough. Over-building the
bridge is unnecessary and impractical; under-building it risks
disaster. Similar log-based measures are used for earthquakes, video
levels and image exposures, musical intervals, acidity, etc. In audio, a
few scientific units tell what your ears will likely hear: distortion
products in % (overly bright, harsh, “sibilance”); watts of power over
the full audible range in Hz with a maximum percentage of harmonic
and\or intermodulation distortion with all channels driven (no
speaker-destroying clipping); signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio in dB (no
hum & hiss); and the range of reproducible frequencies in Hertz (Hz,
named for Heinrich, in cycles per second) with a maximum deviation
of ±__dB (preservation of tone color). Any audio component that is
offered without these performance data is possibly not worth
buying! Omitting, obfuscating, or falsifying measured specifications
it will meet likely means the manufacturer has something to hide.
And for you, there will be no evidence to make a warranty claim of a
lemon!
As with other quality measures, the mere appearance of “__dB” in
specifications connotes a higher quality product. dB specs suggest
the manufacturer is being truthful, as others could repeat and possibly
refute their claims. For listeners, the dB suggests the difference
between a distortion-induced ear-fatigue v. enjoyment of lovely
transparent sound. The effect is applicable to listening via PA system
at a concert, a movie in a cinema, or to vinyl at home. The following
White Paper, “dB wiki,” only a bit longer than this introduction,
might be all you need to know.
Filmaker Technology White Paper
dB wiki
the decibel & perception
Robert E. (Robin) Miller III BSEE AES SMPTE
Filmaker Technology www.filmaker.com ©5/22/2017iv

Like the mechanical analog computers that engineers once relied on to add or subtract the lengths of two sticks, the dB
allows multiplying & dividing simply by adding & subtracting. (You could discern the slide-rule’s answer if you already
knew it.) The dB is useful because human perception, e.g. the senses of hearing & vision, is by nature exponential
(logarithmic). Especially for audio, this brief seeks to make dB understandable, and handy.

The Bel honors Alexander Graham Bell, who with the telephone birthed the field of audio. Not just a
physical unit, the Bel measures hearing perception. The Bel is any change in level – an electrical or
acoustic quantity – that approximates in our brain a halving or doubling of perceived loudness. The
deciBel (dB) is 1/10 of a Bel that jibes with what psychologists term a “just noticeable difference”
(JND) in loudness. So it is the dB that is more useful in audio\video measurements. Measured
performance specifies how well a technological device works, whether it needs fixing, or whether
there’s room to improve it.
Vive la différence…
A number of dB denotes a difference. Two levels are compared, such as measurements at two points
in a circuit, or at two frequencies. So a number of dB describes amplification (+__dB), or
attenuation (–__dB) between input and output signals of a circuit or device.
One of these compared levels can be a fixed reference, then dB adds a letter(s): dBw to 1 watt; dBµv
to 1 micro-volt (for radio/TV/WiFi reception), etc. Of most interest in audio are 0dBu (0.775v rms),
or IHF standard –10dBv or dBs re 1.0v rms, =315mv. Obsolete is the dBm, referenced to 1mw
dissipated by 600 Ω, now the same voltage level as dBu.
A microphone or phonograph pre-amplifier might need +60dB of gain from input to output.[38] It
needs gain because its undistorted output might need to reach +5dBv, but a mic might output only –
55dBv. The 60dB (without ref) difference is the needed gain.
The dB for measuring pressure or power changes, simplified…
But the ear is sensitive to smaller changes of a dB or two: –1dB is about 89%; +1dB 112%. Less
than 1dB often goes unnoticed. Easily distinguishable is a change of plus or minus ±2dB, either 79%
or 126%. ±3dB is 71% or 141%. In stereo, it takes only 15dB difference between channels to
localize the image of a sound fully to one side [Theile]. And only 2dB imbalance causes a soloist to
shift quickest off center – the “hole-in-the-middle.”
To measure dB use an AC voltmeter with dB scale(s) for dBu or dBv. To calculate a __dB change in
voltage or sound pressure (SPL), divide the two voltages or SPL readings, V1 & V2, find the logarithm
in base 10, and multiply by 20. In math, it’s: dB=20x log10(V1/V2). Using a smartphone’s calculator
app, the key-presses are: V1, ÷, V2, =, log10, x, 20, =. Note that voltage is electrical pressure.
Because only a √2 change in voltage doubles or halves power, two wattages are compared using 10 x
log10(P1/P2). 0dB change is unity (x1).
Many dB calculations can be done in your head by simply adding or subtracting dB to represent
multiplying or dividing signal levels. For centuries this is what a slide-rule did! You already know
10x change (gain) in voltage or pressure is 20dB (because we multiplied the log10 of V1/V2 by 20).
Reducing to 1/10 is a loss of –20dB. Then amplifying 100x is 20dB+20dB =40dB. Adding
40+20dB, our 60dB preamp multiplies by 1,000.
Double the signal voltage is +6dB; half is –6dB. So 4x is 12dB; ¼ is –12dB. The two audio
references, 1v and 0.775v, differ by about –2dB. Then the difference between IHF standard –10dBv
and professional standard 4dBu is about 14–2dB. So consumer audio levels are –12dB lower
voltage than professional levels.[39]
To figure in your head a 5x gain, it’s half of 10x. In dB that is 20–6, or 14dB. And a 1/5 loss is –
14dB. Getting it? How many dB is 20x? What amplification is 54dB?[40]
Just two more examples for estimating dB in your head: +8dB is 14–6dB, half of 5x, or 2.5x; –8dB is
the reciprocal, 40%. ±2dB is 8–6dB, or half again, so 1.25x, and –2dB is about 80%, 79% to be
precise. But a ±3% change, only about ±¼dB, is inaudible.
Figure ±dB change by adding & subtracting, mentally or with the scale below, estimating between the
lower set of voltage ratios. Power changes are half as many dB. But pressure or power, the effect on
our brains of a certain number dB change is the same.

What dB “magnitude-frequency” variations mean to you?

You’ve already considered how to figure the gain of a preamp, and converting between a professional
level to a consumer one: + or –12dB. Footnote #38 gives the characteristic of an RIAA phono
preamp, and a “flat” mic preamp. Both are “rolled-off” above & below the audible range to avoid
noise. Flattest are amplifier stages with less demand placed on them.

Horizontal divisions are logarithm-spaced frequencies 10, 20, 30…100, 200, 300…; vertical divisions are 1dB. Curves show
frequency responses before & after modifying the DIY preamp.

The figures illustrate that dB measurements can reveal how a component or transducer will sound, i.e.
to what extent it will modify the timbre (tone color) of a voice or instrument. Note that bass sounds
will be perceived as timbrally weak if played at lower than original loudness, or artificially booming
if louder; highs are exaggerated less [Fletcher-Munson]. Above is a DIY phono preamp of audiophile
quality despite its $30 cost. Below, costing 50x as much (“+34dB$!”) is a Schoeps small diaphragm
condenser microphone with frequency response tolerance that for a largely mechanical instrument is
remarkable linear (flat). The polar response rings tell us why this model MK41 hypercardioid mic is
highly regarded for film/video dialogue pickup that sounds superior to shotgun units, although it has
the equivalent “reach.”
Cutoff frequencies “f3,” noise, & distortion in perspective
Transducers that change one form of energy into another, such as microphones and loudspeakers,
have the most difficult jobs in audio. Measurements in dB are clues about how they can be expected
to perform, even before you buy and try them. If performance specifications are not given, along with
their references, you can assume the unit has been designed to a price-point and not a quality-point.
With speakers, an advertised “frequency range” usually implies –10dB points, or worse, at their
limits of lowest and highest frequencies (LF and HF). Monitor-grade speakers specify a range of
frequencies where they fall to –3dB, or better. In audio, these f3 points designate the filtering action
having reached the limits of performance, if not intentional. –3dB results in reduction in voltage to
70.7% (or 50% power) and is an audible but not critical loss, as –10dB is.
Dips in frequency response might be noticeable: –2dB is usually acceptable. But a hump of +2dB can
sound harsh. Dips/bumps of a series of components add up in dB, and in phase error, too often to
disastrous effect. So good practice is to engineer out bumps and set the f3 points of each component to
a decade below/above audibility. A good amplifier stage design might cut off LF at 1.59Hz, HF at
159kHz, and vary <0.1dB 16~16kHz.
Noise is measured in dB below some reference, and termed the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Uncorrelated noises do not add up in dB the same way as response at specified frequencies. Noise
accumulates statistically from studio AC, the number of mic preamps, the storage medium (especially
analog), replay preamps (especially tape/phono), and the listening environment. 60dB is a typical
end-to-end weighted SNR of attentive home listening. E.g. the range between a moderately loud
90dB SPL in a room with relatively low noise of 30dB above the threshold of hearing (NC30). Or an
analog recording of 60dB SNR between overload distortion and surface or preamp noise. Less
audible LF noise is “weighted” lower, to its perceived equal at mid-frequencies where the ear is
most sensitive. In the figure below, a mic’s 3D pickup of spatial ambience, if not lost in noise,
preserves realism.
Digital audio SNR is referred to full-scale (FS), intending 16dB of headroom for a CD, with 16bit
maximum SNR of 16x6=96dB. Or 20dB allowed headroom for realistic-sounding dynamics of
motion pictures (not over-loud trailers). Human hearing has a dynamic range of ~120dB
(1,000,000:1). But because we can perceive auditory intelligence up to 20dB below noise, more than
a 110 dB total audible range is possible on a well-recorded CD.
Distortion is an issue whenever it exceeds noise. So an overall distortion of 10% (–20dB) from a
vinyl disc, AM radio, or low bit-rate streaming might be below audibility amidst masking car or
street noise. Or sound OK played only as background. But in a quiet theater, 1% distortion (–40dB)
is not masked by noise, so is likely to distract from movie goers’ suspension of disbelief. Relaxed for
home theater certification, THX for cinemas requires controlled acoustics, noise below NC30, and
undistorted SPL to 105dB for each channel. Audiophiles desiring comparable sound quality aspire to
own systems of comparable audio performance.
At the cost of reducing realism, dynamic compression reduces manufacturing costs of consumer
electronics. E.g. mixing recordings for 10dB less remaining headroom requires only 1/10 the power
capability for consumers’ power supplies, amplifiers, and speakers. Say that is 10w maximum
undistorted ratings. Reproduction that preserves the headroom would require components handle
dynamics reaching 100w (+10dB in power). But this also requires that labels return to dynamic,
uncompressed recordings! Consumers become habituated by highly processed sound. And if they
rarely attend live unamplified concerts for comparison, they then believe nothing is wrong that they’d
pay to change.

Courtesy Schoeps, this professional quality microphone is an energy “transducer,” as are phonograph cartridges.
At the top measured at some distance, it is shown flat in frequency response except <200Hz to compensate the
hypercardioid’s proximity effect when used close – it measures ruler flat at 12in (30cm). Dashed lines indicated
the maximum manufacturing variance is ±2dB. At bottom, polar responses show its pickup in any plane (they
rotate alike in 3D), and reveal its reach and flatness (uncolored) for sounds from any direction. For example at
almost any angle sound arrives from the front hemisphere, the frequency response varies less than ±1dB. This
instrument is an engineering marvel, given imprimatur by the dB.

The dB represents the exponential/logarithmic characteristics of hearing. Having explored audible

frequency response, noise, and distortion, we appreciate what the dB means in perception of
recorded localization, spatiality, and the holy grail, tone color (timbre). END
Afterword – up with better sound!
You have arrived at the end of the book, and the beginning of
optimal quality and increased enjoyment from vinyl LPs, 45s, and
shellac or vinyl 78rpm records. Of nearly a century and a half of
recorded history in music, broadcasts, and speech (drama, comedy,
etc.). Only the printing press exceeds the phonograph as an archive
of human experience.
We began with the question I am asked more than others: “How
come records sound better than digital?” It led to the first of the
double meanings in this book’s title “The Better Sound of the
Phonograph?” Yes, it suggested what many claim: that “vinyl sounds
better than digital.” Of course it wouldn’t if you are comparing well-
mastered digital recordings, especially but not exclusively of acoustic
music: orchestral, jazz band, piano, acoustic guitar, choral, etc. We’ve
learned about phono pinch effect, tracking angle distortion, “poid”-
like distortion, monauralizing below 150Hz, skating distortion, etc.
not to mention rumble and surface noise. With all these negatives,
the phonograph definitely does not sound inherently better than
digital sampling. Technically superior, digital should sound better
unless it has been poorly made, which sometimes is the case. So the
Beatles’ “Abbey Road” is better on CD; Fleetwood Mac’s “Rumours”
isn’t. “Blood, Sweat & Tears” is transcendent on vinyl; many recent
releases, not so much. So what’s going on here?
Are our expectations exceeded, or does the sound fall short?
We’ve mentioned about learned references and “habituation,”
(conditioning). Individuals refer new experience to the sounds
learned in their past, especially during their formative years. My
spouse and I are children of the hi-fi era of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s,
as the pop music portion of our record collection reveals. (The
classical and jazz albums are more timeless.) But it’s more than
recalling exactly the sound, because if I were to reproduce precisely
that audio quality today I would likely think it awful. It is not
imagining what it might have sounded like with the much better
playback apparatus I have now. It is not that we know intrinsically
what it should have sounded like. No, it’s something more. It is that,
having then no better comparison, we remember that it sounded
good to us then. That it met or exceeded expectations then, even if it
would fall short today.
We are not reliving the sound, but recalling whether or not
expectations were met. Fast forward to new experiences meeting
current expectations. And how those comparisons of yore affect
comparisons we make today.
It can go back further: playing 78s today and somehow preferring
the sound of an acoustic Victrola, perhaps conjuring what our parents
and grandparents experienced. Like today’s younger generation
immerses themselves not just in the music, but fantasizing about the
sound of the 1960s, long before they were born. Every era has its art,
its technologies, its sounds, its remembered expectations. In future
era, these gems might be added to, but are not lost, even if
“experienced” vicariously.
Instead of arguing when I hear “How come records sound better
than digital?” I try to understand, where is this personal, popular
conception coming from? Is it when a digital reissue is “mishandled”
by using the pop music methods of today? Comparing many an
original LP v. its reissued CD, download or stream, often the more
natural perceived sound of the LP will win over the artificially in-
your-face digital version that the powers-that-be have determined
sells well. After critical listening, that ear candy turns to a sugar low.
And then you will suspect new digital-only releases as well. Then
despite vinyl’s technical flaws, it sounds good. Better.
There are the inconveniences of old-fashioned analog record-
playing compared to the ease playing new-technology digital. But
many find they like the ritual of delicately placing a gemstone within
a half-mile spiral. Setting aside multi-tasking; taking time to enjoy
active listening. The pleasure lasts longer, as cleaner audio is less
likely to cause ear fatigue.
The other meaning in the title “The Better Sound of the
Phonograph” is that you can make almost any phono reproduction
sound even better by applying a bit of effort and scientific
knowledge. As we know, knowledge is power. Work to get one,
your reward is the other. Most errors (distortion) occur in replay, and
are not baked-in (mastered) in the record you are holding. So better
sound from a phonograph is really up to you!
Then taking into account the importance of experiencing 140+
years of recorded history is (50+ from the Hi-Fi era on), these gems
on vinyl and pre-Hi-Fi 78s might outweigh the convenience and shiny
newness of anything digital. Recall that most digital downloads and
streaming originate by "ingesting” from records into the digital audio
workstation (DAW) using a turntable with equipment on a par with
what you could have. The keys, after the stylus and its cartridge, are
the preamp and tonearm, like the projects in this book, if better than
what you have now.
If you made either DIY project, then you are likely hearing good
sound that will not reflect their low out-of-pocket costs (not
including your invaluable labor!). And if you already own the latest
and greatest, it is intended that the information herein (perhaps better
than you expected?) is just as valuable in optimizing your return on a
likely greater investment.
Is there a better sound for digital? [RANT ALERT] There are other
reasons why a recording might sound poor, but one reason is
ubiquitous. Begun in the 1970s while still in the analog era, led by
Top 40 Radio and the 45rpm singles that fed it and juke boxes, were
the Loudness Wars. Competition led to, and as de facto standard
procedure still lead to, a tail-chasing of audio over-processing.
Previously, deftly done and in moderation, processing could and did
lead to a better recorded product. With vinyl, it was to make
individual instruments stand out again amid the many layers that
overcrowd popular music’s wall of sound, as long as it did not ruin
natural dynamics and tone color. (Most artificial sounding would be
acoustic instruments, for which listeners have a remembered
reference, so processing classical & jazz is usually subtle or avoided
 altogether.) Processing was not a bad thing unless it was badly done.
The War escalated dramatically after 1982 with the introduction of
the compact disc – the CD – even though with 96dB of dynamic
range, little if any overall level compression is needed.[v] But it got
worse: One label’s policy was, after compressing the mix to squash
dynamics and “normalizing” it to the ceiling, they increased the level
further until 4% of samples were clipped, never mind that flat-
topping the wave generates the distortion percentages of 70+ years
ago. To compete, other labels followed. There is for consumers no
correction available, baked also in to downloads and streaming. The
waveforms illustrate this manipulation.

Top: original uncompressed (dynamic) recording, typical of vinyl. Bot: same recording smashed to the ceiling, typical of
over-processed digital audio – little is allowed to be naturally softer, or naturally louder. Opposite: close-up showing
clipped (distorted) peaks.

Of course the sound is not actually two or more times as loud –

that could be achieved without destroying dynamics (punch) by the
listener simply turning up the volume. But label deciders know
consumers don’t do that going from song to song on their smart
phone, or in the store. They do know that an instantly louder-
sounding song catches attention; that the distortion might be drowned
out by environmental noise; that by the time the buyer listens in a
quiet environment, it’ll be too late – the register already went cha
ching. Given this practice, analog vinyl sounds better. The sharp
turns in clipped audio waves that hardly inconvenience digital bytes
would have caused a stylus to jump out of the analog groove!
At this point, the sound has transitioned from the musicians’ art
and engineers’ craft to a producer’s marketing strategy, where the
policy is to top prior limits of “commercial sound.” Where long-term
value for the customer takes a back seat to the instant the sale is
consummated for the label. Consumers can become conditioned to
this con. Audiophiles buy expanders in an attempt to counteract the
effects of over-compression. [vi]
Too bad this book cannot play the recorded waveforms shown,
comparing the squashed version to the original’s dynamicism, with
the play volume simply raised. It should be a crime that, with many
popular music releases, it has been decided for consumers that little is
allowed to be naturally softer, nor naturally louder – everything is
BALLS TO THE WALL. The close-up shows clipped peaks that sound
raspy, called “sibilance.” After a while at original listening loudness,
the distortion can actually cause headaches and irritability. Readers
have all endured these effects, or become conditioned (habituated),
having acquired a taste for an artificial, distorted “reality.” It might
only take a song to reverse course.
We are concerned about these uniquely digital characteristics
because digital is the future. While high definition pictures continue
on the path of more and more natural reproduction, must audio be
robbed of similarly compelling natural quality? Of preordaining
releases for lowest-common-denominator audio gear,[vii] and
imposing one-size-XXXL-fits-all taste? [viii] Tts 140+ year history is
intact, because vinyl could not have been subjected to this processing
abuse. Had it been tried, the groove – which would look like the
clipped close-up – would be impossible to trace.
What is a more edified vinyl & 78 listener to do? In the digital
domain, producers might follow standards such as those for TV
drama and movie feature production, where dynamic headroom is
preserved.[ix] While we wait, you can make a phonograph system,
 and patronize your local and online used & new vinyl stores! And
set the volume where you want!
Whatever your level of interest and ultimate pursuit of better
quality sound, our best wishes in your endeavors in grooved media.
Thanks for reading – and for passing a good word.
THE END

Acknowledgements
Special thanks to editor R. A. Bruner. Thanks also to peer reviewers G. H. Aykroyd and H. S.
Moscovitz. [These three engineers together have well over a century and a half of professional
experience in analog & digital audio and broadcasting.] [x] Many thanks to photomicroscopy mentor
Mike Much. My spouse Nancy Desiderio for love and tolerance. Trademarks incidental herein are
property of their owners. Unless noted, images and text are Intellectual Property of the author and
may not be used without written consent.

The author

Robin Miller is a pianist-composer-bandleader, a Peabody-winning filmmaker, and sound

conservator & engineer with more than 55 years in audio recording and mixing films and
television specials. With Filmaker Technology he is a patent-holder (full-sphere 3D reproduction)
who designs, integrates, & publishes about Ambiophonics and other innovations. And yes, we do
need wires.

[1]
1,970Hz “cutoff” (-3dB point) with 1mil spherical [Bachman (Goldmark), Columbia 1948]. 2.8kHz with 0.7mil, 4.9kHz with 0.4mil
elliptical, 9.8kHz with 0.2mil line contact [calculated by the author].

[2]
Wear for other VTFs can be interpolated using the spreadsheet on p23.

[3]
And resulting contact footprint areas of 2.25x4.5 and 1.5x4.5µm.
[4]
“Vinyl” (poly-vinyl chloride, PVC), naturally clear, but died black or translucent colors. For economy 25~30% recycled is added in the
mix; premium labels use virgin to 10% recycled PVC (quieter). Pressing are in different “weights” (amounts) of vinyl, typically
120~140g, but “audiophile” grades are 180~200g. Weight varies the thickness of the disk, but has little to do with sound, and none with
mastering. Pressing stresses can lead thick disks to self-warp.

[5]
Analogous to a tuned L-C circuit, with inductance L the tonearm’s effective mass (angular momentum) and capacitance C the
cantilever’s compliance. The resonance frequency fr =1000/(2π*sqrt(eM*CU), where eM is the effective mass of the arm in grams, CU
the stylus compliance in um/nN. For example, a new D81 Stereohedron with lateral CU of 30 on an SME-3009ii with eM of 9.5g,
fr=9.4Hz. In general to lower the resonance frequency, increase either arm mass or stylus compliance.
[6]
To compete with records, releases on magnetic tape (half- and quarter-track stereo pre-recorded reel-to-reel, compact cassettes, and
8-track cartridges) had been standardized, beginning 1947 for broadcast & professional use, by the National Association of Broadcasters
(NAB).
[7] Integrated turntable manufacturers might have accounted for mechanical and electrical issues when combining the components of
cartridge, arm, & preamp, which the reader is advised to double check. While these might suit certain individuals, they are typically at
the low end of reproduction quality.

[8]
Richard Steinfeld “Handbook for Stanton and Pickering Phonograph Cartridges and Styli,” self-published (2010) rsteinbook@sonic.net
– a compendium of more than 100 products based on employee interviews.
[9]
Data courtesy Stanton Magnetics. Adapted by the author from Ballou “Handbook for Sound Engineers: the New Audio Cyclopedia,”
published by Howard W. Sams (1987).
[10]
With MC carts, cable noise immunity is less critical, and capacitance is a non-issue that can be ignored, but not lack of stylus
interchangeability.
[11]
Stopped at both ends, stringed instruments generate all harmonics (even & odd); also conical-bore saxophones. Open at one end
and cylindrical, clarinets & trumpets produce only odd. None has even harmonics alone.
[12]
In the Mid-Sides (M-S) form of stereo, M=L+R (lateral), S=L–R (vert.). Then L=M+S and R=M–S. (Normalize each result to
70.7%, or –3dB.)
[13]
1,970Hz cutoff with 1mil tracing radius [Bachman (Goldmark), Columbia 1948], now 2.8kHz with a 0.7mil spherical stereo stylus,
4.9kHz with a 0.4mil elliptical, or 9.8kHz with a 0.2mil line contact [calculated by the author].
[14]
Wild forces act on the stylus within the split second of these captures. Stanton/Pickering cantilevers are suspended inside mounting
tubes by a donut-shaped rubber elastomer acting as a compliant fulcrum, stabilized fore-and-aft and from twisting by a wire soldered at
the back of the tube.
[15]
An exception is the Decca-London cartridge with lateral & vertical coils (M-S, see footnote #5), so paralleling channels cancels
vertical precisely.
[16]
IP FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY. USE FOR SALE OR PROFIT ONLY BY WRITTEN LICENSE AGREEMENT WITH FILMAKER TECHNOLOGY –
WWW.FILMAKER.COM
[17]
If a C-meter is not available, roughly approximate it in pF at 25 times its length in feet, including the distance from the cart through
the tonearm.
[18]
If one or both channels produce no sound, switch power OFF and recheck PCB connections, and the settings of the
receiver/amplifier.
[19]
A Hammond extruded box (Mouser #546-1455J1201) is one solution.
[20]
One final note about cart loading: As Norman Pickering himself wrote, sometimes a mismatch in cartridge loading just happens to
compensate for subpar performance in a subsequent link in the audio chain, perhaps a loudspeaker, or listening room acoustics. So it is
possible that a preferred sound can be achieved by improper cart loading. For example, sound that is mid-range heavy but lacking in
brilliance can be gently compensated by decreasing C-load; a disc lacking presence but scratchy, increase C-load. The effect is often
more musical than tone controls, adding a 3rd for mid-range, and superior in phase response to tone controls. The expected outcome can
be viewed in the load charts in the “Tuning…” paper. But be sure to restore proper loading if any following component is changed in the
future. And remember that records can vary dramatically.
[21]
Also used as turntables for Vitaphone motion picture talkies with soundtracks on 12~20in disks.
[22]
Note that the result – an experiment, or prototype – is not pretty. So when demonstrating in front of your audiophile friends, you are
well-advised to have them HEAR the arm BEFORE you allow them to SEE it.
[23]
This paper avoids prior DIYers’ generally more complicated work, harvesting hard-drive bearings, etc. Subject arm continues to
evolve, so these instructions might be at variance. You might think of better ways to accomplish the same result – please share these in
forum discussions.
[24]
For a Stanton 500 (Pickering V15) or 680\681 (XV15), this is 9/16in.
[25]
This is “star-quad” configuration to minimize crosstalk & hum pickup. (Standard colors: L+ white, L– blue or black, R+ red, R–
green\yellow.)
[26]
MagicEraser cleans styli by poking it several times. Counterweight should be horizontal to optimize tonearm’s H v. V moments-of-
inertia.
[27]
Details are in the “Tuning…” paper above.
[28]
Ibid. The “Tuning…” paper also describes a DIY $30 preamp.
[29]
For the low mass 12in arm as built, use styli specified 18~30CU tracking 1~1¼g. Add mass for styli 10~16CU and VTF ranging
2~5g.
[30]
The equivalent circuit is L (mass) in parallel with a C (compliance).
[31]
Due to too low compliance (unspecified) of more recent cantilevers.
[32]
Tangential-tracking turntable-tonearm units have zero tracking angle error, no distortion due to it.
[33]
Broadcast and professional gear manufacturers considered IM distortion of 10% to be “inaudible” until the hi-fi era! Today’s
electronics (except speakers) can achieve distortion on the order of 0.01%.
[34]
Also listening room acoustics, speaker crosstalk comb-filtering, etc. Replicating live hearing requires full-sphere 3D reproduction,
e.g. the author’s HSD-3D using 10 speakers – see www.filmaker.com/papers.htm . Demonstrations by appt. in Bethlehem PA or the
Univ. of Parma, Italy.
[35]
EIA standard adds, for replay only, an infrasonic filter <20Hz.
[36]
For RIAA, turntable “Rumble” filtering is below 50Hz, “Turnover” is 500Hz, and “Roll-off” is above ~2kHz, down 13.7dB at
10kHz.
[37]
Cf. “Tuning…” chapter with $30 DIY preamp. I don’t plan (yet?) to turn an old bicycle into a turntable!

[38]
An RIAA phono stage needs about 60dB at 20Hz, 20dB at 20kHz, and 40dB at 1kHz. A microphone preamp needs “flat” response
of ±0.5dB.
[39]
Analog references are topped by “headroom” for dynamics of +10 to +20dB until the level is reached that produces overload
distortion. In digital, references are set –16 to –20dB below “full scale,” the absolute max at which clipping occurs, for headroom of 16
to 20dB. Movies in cinemas have near lifelike dynamics, with dialogue (“dialnorm”) –31dB below FS emulating normal conversation
(~74dB SPL). Least natural are over-compressed pop radio, streaming, CDs with dynamics quashed to as little as 3dB, and intentionally
clipping as much as 4% of peaks.
[40]
20x is 10 x 2, or 20+6=26dB. 54dB is 6dB less than 60dB, or 500x.

[i]
NB: “Line contact” as used in this book simplifies the evolution begun in 1972 with Shibata’s patent for Victor Co. of Japan (JVC)
to develop a stylus capable of response to 50kHz for 4-channel quadraphonic reproduction. It was followed in 1975 by the “improved
Shibata” by independent contractor Hughes (Diamagnetics) for the Stereohedron (I) of Stanton’s quad 780 cartridge, patented the year
before. Then in 1982 a robust development by Van den Hul, believed to be the Expert Stylus Paratrace. The goal of all line contacts is
to shorten tracing parallel with the groove for best high frequency response and lowest distortion, while lengthening the contact up\down
the walls to maintain contact area for low wear of both groove and stylus. Shibata accomplished this beginning with an elliptical stylus,
then adding two facets (total of four including the elliptical’s two) on the groove’s approaching side. Hughes (Stereohedron) used the
four facets in the illustration in this chapter, starting with a cone. Although quad did not live up to marketing expectations – and these
styli still destroyed the 50kHz modulation within a few playings – the improvements for stereo were marked. Other refinements are
named [spelling the author’s] FineLine, MicroRidge, etc.
[ii]
“Poid” distortion was first described in 1938 by Harvard researchers Pierce & Hunt, who also foresaw microgroove, elliptical, and
line-contact styli.
[iii]
Sliding friction is the predominant and only constant cause of the stylus skating toward the center of the record, of causing reduced
trackability, and of resulting uneven stylus and groove wear. Several other highly variable and unpredictable mechanisms’ effects are
small or insignificant, such as such as groove radius (only ±5% of the friction effect) and high level high frequency content [Kogen,
Shure 1967]. Coefficients of friction for a spherical stylus tracing vinyl vary widely between 0.15~0.43+ depending on the stylus profile
(more for elliptical, less for line-contacts depending on contact deformation area – comparable to normalized “wear” in red in the
spreadsheet above and vinyl “biscuit” composition used by the record label [Pardee 1981]. Then the anti-skating compensation called for
is perhaps only a bit more than the tangent of the offset angle times the force of friction, which is the coefficient of friction times the
VTF [Alexandrovich 1960]. For a 9in arm with offset ~24º the skating force alone is 0.445*VTF; for a 12in transcription tonearm with
offset ~18º, it is 0.325*VTF, or ~73% that for the 9in.
[iv]

VSPS (Very Simple Phono Stage) is coined by Richard Murdey of RJM Audio. Among his PCBs & kits, ordered by emailing
<rjm003.geo at yahoo.com> is his VSPS at http://phonoclone.com/diy-pho5.html . The essence of this paper – proper cart loading and
signal balancing – is fully applicable to Murdey’s VSPS. His and the A310 by Electronics-Salon’s use designs by Lipschitz & Jung in
1979. With Murdey’s kit, cartridge loading & balancing selections must be implemented externally, as in the VSPS these are not
included. Also the “Allen Wright” modification (altering standard RIAA response with a 6dB/octave 50kHz “Neumann” zero) should be
omitted, as advised by the author on p6 (if a unity-gain-stable IC is used), by simply inserting a jumper instead of R3 in both channels.
Murdey also prefers a polypro cap in the output rather than a larger one in series with gain resistors that in the author’s opinion is worth it
in more stable VLF performance using a single stage op-amp.

[v] To listen louder, do what we do with analog, just turn up the play volume! The record label doing it in the recording as released is a
rouse, like more salt in the chips, more sugar in the soda. To retain the “punch” of natural hearing, recording media allow “headroom”
for dynamics: Historically about 12dB evolved for magnetic tape and analog disks; 16dB for digital CD, and 20dB for digital movie
sound. Nominal levels are these many dB below magnetic tape “saturation” (3% 3rd harmonic distortion), of the maximum “undistorted”
modulation velocity of disks, and of clipping” that occurs at “full-scale” (FS) for the maximum digital quantizing number (±65,536 for 16
bit CDs). The taking of this headroom to rescale average loudness is folly; the punch of natural sound is permanently gone.
[vi] Even after the “final mix,” the audio is further (over-)processed and re-re-compressed for broadcast and streaming, etc. In
downloads and streaming, data reduction, the other “compression,” throws away up to 90% of the audio samples that are deemed
perceptually inaudible. At background levels, or in the presence of car and street noise, these manipulations and artifacts are masked by
the noise. If the same recording is listened to in a quiet environment on full-range equipment and at original loudness, the processing
artifacts can become audible, and annoying. Eventually listeners become conditioned (habituated) to the inferior sound. It happens to the
studio engineers at 3 o’clock in the morning, their ears tired from many hours of juggling all the digital processing tools at their disposal.
[vii] Playing level-compressed audio allows equipment to be cheaply made. To accommodate 20dB of natural headroom, home theater
amplifiers and loudspeakers should be capable of peaks 100 times the power of average levels. Say 100 watts maximum per channel if
average power is 1 watt. (Even with an average speaker 2m away, that measly watt might produce the cinema reference 85SPL.)
However if dynamics are compressed to only 3dB, power ratings can be reduced to 1/50, or 2watts maximum.
[viii] The better sound of digital would be possible if audio were distributed with all of the “punch” of its original, then at the receiving end
apply any compression under users’ control. Thusly, dynamics could be made to fit listening conditions, instead of preordained for lowest-
common-denominator gear or conditions. Impossible in the days of the vacuum tube hi-fi and the transistor radio, today this approach is
possible with integrated circuit (IC) and digital signal processing (DSP). However with deciders’ bonuses dependent upon impulse sales
of over-caffeinated product, it is unlikely to happen.
[ix] SMPTE\EBU standards set cinema volumes at a 85SPL reference per channel, with full-scale (FS) 20dB (SMPTE, EBU 18dB)
above reference. Absolute instantaneous program peaks are then allowed (limited) to 105SPL, ~110SPL if all channels were driven to
their peaks simultaneously. This is comfortably ~10dB below the threshold of pain for listeners. 31dB below FS (called dialnorm),
dialogue is mixed near the 74SPL loudness that typifies live conversation. Where natural sound is important, tone color (timbre) must be
preserved, which implies that reproduced loudness must equal original loudness to match the human hearing loudness contours measured
in 1933 by Fletcher and Munson of Bell Labs. Less demanding home television standards are lower for practicality. To date, too-loud
cinema trailers are not governed by SMPTE standards. TV commercials practiced Loudness Wars until enactment of the Commercial
Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act (the CALM Act) whereby too-loud commercials are electronically gain-ridden to match the
programs they accompany. Except commercial producers have recently figured how to subvert it, so the Loudness Wars continue.
[x]
How to be an engineer: It doesn’t have to begin with electrocuting frogs to make their legs jump. For the author and his reviewers it
began as pre-teens, tinkering with stuff, especially if it had wires. We diversified into making working bazookas of aluminum conduit, but
caution against this – always practice safety first! Contrary to popular belief, we are not socially backward, in fact we are naturally
helpful (some would argue too helpful!). Nor do we over-think things – we think them just right! If we hesitate to speak, it is only
because at the moment we have nothing important to say! We are trained to question the answer as much as to answer the question.
We liked math & science in junior high and high school, and earned degrees up to the Masters following rigorous studies. Thereafter it’s
ongoing learning by real-world experience. Should we engineers be looked at as odd for our naturally inquiring and open minds? For
readily accepting that we don’t know what we don’t know? For foregoing ambition for the satisfaction of putting broadcast stations on
the air, laboratories in space, and entertainment and information in people’s homes, cars, or the palms of their hands? Join us!

also by Robin Miller:

American Radio Then & Now
Stories of Local Radio from The Golden Age

A memoir / history book, "American Radio Then & Now: Stories of Local
Radio from the Golden Age" represents the hundreds of thousands who
worked in Radio & TV stations across America before automation and the
conglomerates. A Best Seller on Kindle in its category, it is all about our first
live mass medium, Radio. The author’s live, harried on-air experiences,
bloopers, and unseen pranks – lost details about how Radio was done when
doing Radio was fun. Bios of celebrities who began in Local Radio like John
 Lithgow, Dick Cavett, and Buffalo Bob Smith, and many more behind the then
hot new technology. Read on any device with free Kindle app. Non-fiction;
12 chapters plus appendix; 109 illustrations; 175 footnotes; by a Golden Age
on-air personality, musician, engineer, & award-winning filmmaker Robin
Miller. Follow this link for free sample –

www.amazon.com/American-Radio-Then-Now-Stories-
ebook/dp/B0141JRPN0

This book was posted by AlenMiler on AvaxHome!

https://avxhm.se/blogs/AlenMiler