Modelo Normal

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Density curves
A density curve is a mathematical model of a distribution.
It is always on or above the horizontal axis.
The total area under the curve, by definition, is equal to 1, or 100%.
The area under the curve for a range of values is the proportion of all
observations for that range.

Histogram of a sample with the

smoothed density curve
theoretically describing the
population
 Income distribution
Let’s consider the very large database of individual incomes from the Bureau of Labor
Statistics as our population. It is strongly right-skewed.
Density curves come in any
imaginable shape.

Some are well-known

mathematically and others aren’t.
Uniform distributions
Uniform distributions are a family of density curves
defined by an upper and lower bound: U(a,b).
1
f ( x) 
ba
1
Notice that this distribution forms a
ba
rectangle and that the area of this
rectangle is

 1 
0   0  * b  a   1
a b ba 
Normal distributions
Normal—or Gaussian—distributions are a family of
symmetrical, bell- shaped density curves defined by a
mean m (mu) and a standard deviation s (sigma): N (m,
s). 1  xm 
2

1   
s 
f ( x)  e 2
2 s

x x

e = 2.71828… The base of the natural logarithm

π = pi = 3.14159…
 A family of density curves
Here the means are the same (m =
15) while the standard deviations
are different (s = 2, 4, and 6).

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

Here the means are different

(m = 10, 15, and 20) while the
standard deviations are the same
(s = 3).

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
All Normal curves N m, s) share the same properties

 About 68% of all observations

are within 1 standard deviation Inflection point

(s of the mean (m).

 About 95% of all observations

are within 2 s of the mean m.

 Almost all (99.7%) observations

are within 3 s of the mean.
mean µ = 64.5 standard deviation s = 2.5
N(µ, s) = N(64.5, 2.5)

Reminder: µ (mu) is the mean of the idealized curve, while x is the mean of a sample.
σ (sigma) is the standard deviation of the idealized curve, while s is the s.d. of a sample.
Uso de Tablas:
ZyF
 Using Table A
Table A gives the area under the standard Normal curve to the left of any z-value.

.0082 is
the area
under
N(0,1) left
of z = -2.40

0.0069 is the
.0080 is the area
area under
under N(0,1) left
(…) N(0,1) left of z = -
of z = -2.41
2.46
Note that the 68-95-99% rule is only an approximation. The most important part is “at least.”
Percent of women shorter than 67”

For z = 1.00, the area under

the standard Normal curve
to the left of z is 0.8413.

N(µ, s) =
N(64.5”, 2.5”)

Area ≈ 0.84

Conclusion: Area ≈ 0.16

84.13% of women are shorter than 67″.
By subtraction, 1 − 0.8413, or 15.87%, of
women are taller than 67". m = 64.5” x = 67”
z=1
 Conditions for ANOVA
We have I independent SRSs, from I populations or treatments.

The ith population has a Normal distribution with unknown mean µi.

All I populations have the same standard deviation σ, unknown.

The ANOVA F statistic tests:

H0: m1 = m2 = … = mI
Ha: Not all the mi are equal.

When H0 is true, F has the F distribution

with I − 1 (numerator) and N − I
(denominator) degrees of freedom.
 dfnum = I − 1

For df: 5,4

p F

dfden
=
N− I
 ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Between Groups 101 3 33.5 12.08 0.00062 3.4903
Within Groups 33.3 12 2.78

Total 134 15

Fcritical for a 5% is 3.49

F = 12.08 > 10.80

Thus p < 0.001
 Table C

x m
t
s n