Re Svlaadh #. ACE ‘a Engineering Academy Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bhopal] Bengaluru } Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai Electrical Circuits & Networks (Theory with worked out Examples, Self and Classroom Practice Questions} PSUs Electrical Engineering ACE is the leading institute for coaching in IES, GATE & PSUs HO: 204, II Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Abids, Hyderabad-500001, Ph; 040-24750242, 24750263, 24750437, 24752469. CONSISTENTLY TOP RANKS IN IES All INDIA 15" RANK 26 TIMES IN GATECopyright © ACE Engineering Academy 2015 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, digital, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. 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Email: aceenggpublications@gmail.comElectrical Circuits & Networks Syllabus Kirchhoff laws, mesh and nodal analysis, network theorems, sinusoidal steady state analysis of single phase and three phase circuits, resonance, transient response of RL,RGRLC circuits for different inputs, two-port networks, Two element network synthesis [ swvo. iP Name of the Chapter Page No. 01 | Basic Concepts a on -31 02 | Circuit Theorems | 32-48 03. | Transient Circuit Analysis | 49-72 | me | AC en : a 73-101 05 TwoPort Networks : : j 102 - 122 06 | Three Phase Circuits 123-132 | [ 07 Graph Theory 133 - 146 a ee eee 08 | Synthesis of Passive Networks | 147-1584.1 Mechanism of Electrical Energy Flow through the Conductor and the Ohm's Law @ = Ag" ion, imeaobile, farger in size ¢= Free electron + The four best conductors are Ag Cu? Au? ar? vy db le 2¢ 2 3e° + Silver is the best conductor because mobility of the free electron in a silver conductor is several times to that of other conductors, so its conductivity is very high ie. the conductivity of any material is mainly a function of free electrons mobility within that material © Generally in any conductor, there are 10"° go 10° atoms/unit volume (ie. unit cell) and hence, there are 10% to 10° clectrons/unit volume in a silver conductor very rich in free ie. every conductor is electrons. Whenever generators are connected to the transmission lines (basically conductors), electrical energy will be launched axially, which results’ in axial electric field (a perpendicular magnetic field) and hence, axial current density along the length of the conductor. E —_ Anclectric dipole When a conductor is subjected to an axial electric field, the force exerted by the field on each free electron is given by ) e=- 16x 10°C Since ‘e” is negative, the direction of force is in the direction opposite to that of ‘E’ and hence, there exists a net electron motion (i. charge motion) in the direction opposite to that of ‘E’ The amount of charge flowing is given by q=ne C ie q()=n(te C n= The number of free electrons crassing a reference cross section area ‘S', a variable quantity due to large number of free electrons within the conductor (so called random variable) The time rate of flow of these electric charges (ie. free electrons) is nothing but the electric cumrent ie, 4 dt Georg Simon Ohia found that there is a direct proportionallty between the potentéat difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant efectric current. This relationship is known as Ohm's law.ACE Engineering Academy Since ‘q’ is negative, the current direction is opposite to that of charge motion (i.e. free electrons motion) ie, in the direction of “E* + The current per unit cross section area is nothing but the current density resulted within the conductor i. ib Since ‘S’ is a scalar, the direction of ‘is in | the direction of ‘i’ i.e. in the direction of F = B-e(N) q =ne(C) Observation: e AETS Pl a>ataqt sit sit linearly + AsE=0=F=03n0=03q=05i=05 J=0. ice, all the free electrons are at rest Definition of Olim’s Law: According to Ohm, there exists a linear relation between the applied electric field (E) and the resulted cunrent density (J) by J = E]=oE- Basic Ohm's law in Field theory form 6 = Conductivity of the material ie. conductor. J-ECharacteristices -3 Electrical Circuits ition: Ohm's law ie a linear J-E relation is valid only when the proportionality constant o is kept constant i.e temperature is kept constant. Example: 1.1 What happens to the conductivity o of all the conductors, if the temperature increases beyond room temperature? ‘Sok: When the temperature increases from room temperature (ie. 27° ot 300°), free electrons will acquire extra thermal energy at higher temperatures, which results increase in collisions among the free electrons and hence, net free electron mobility (je, carrier mobility) falls, so conductivity decteases. Example: 1.2 Why voltage drop occurs in any practical conductor whenever it cartes electrical energy? Sol: As ‘E’ increases, there exists an increase in collisions between the free electrons and immobile positive ions (larger in size), which results fall in the drift velocity (vs = HE m/s, w = average mobility of free electrons inm’/V-$, E = external electric field in Vim) and hence oss in Kinetic energy (K-E = jad (), m= 9.11 x 107 kg), this loss in. energy will be dissipated in the form of heat energy, which results in voltage drop across the conductor. Example: 1.3 The charge delivered by a constant voltage source is shown, Determine the current supplied by the source ata)t= {sec b)t=3 sec RSS tat | cd | New Dei | Beer | Bhan | Vay |Viapina | Tia | Pe [Chena aNtits: nly ept the ond om ree ‘ey its ee ‘on so zal Sol: Basic Concepts (mc) Observation I + AsE=0 = =0 (since all the electrons are at rest) = Vy= 0 KE=0= P=0 Wim’ + We) A (5,0) (0, 0) . 2 5 te) i sma | hao a TAT FB eee) Slope of AB = . =5mA [t=1 to 2see] 10-0 Slope of BC =. 3.33mA [t =2toSsec] Amount of power dissipated within the conductor P=J-E(A‘m? Vim) Vo p=on.e AY m P=cE Wim P = Power density ie. power dissipated per unit Volume (unit cube) within the conductor due to resistance effect of the conductor, Due to this effect, the conductor gets heated up. Or + AsSE=0=J=0=P=JE=0Wim' So, when no energy flow through the conductor => no voltage drop across the conductor + Sinee B= and J = ? as‘ and ‘S’ are scalats, the drop polarities are same as electric field ‘E? polarities and the current direction is same as current density ‘J’ direction. Conclusion Whenever a conductor is carrying electrical energy, currents through all the three passive lumped R, L, C will always flow form Positive (+ve) to Negative (-ve) terminals (ie. from High level to Low level). Historical | © Actuallym, the opposition (by immobile positive ions) for electrical energy flow (ie. free electron motion) through the conductor is continuous or distributive in nature, but practically, we can approximate this single distributive opposition into three lumped ESSER AN) tas | oad | New Dai | era | anevar | Vinavads | Visapaam j Tropa | Pune [Gena]@ vist Fata Electrical Circuits oppositions called resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C) for lower frequencies (ie. up to IMH2) + Magnitudes of these lumped R, L, C are function of length (1), crosssection area (S) and conductivity (6) of the conductor, + Interconnection of these lumped elements (R, L, © is nothing but 2 lumped electric circuit, Network theory is used to analyse only these lumped electric circuits at lower fkequencies (i.e. up to IMHz). «At higher frequencies (i. above IMHz), we cannot approximate distributive elements into lumped elements and hence, no lumped electric circuit, so no Network theory. Here, Field theory approach is used directly on distributive conductors. + Field theory approach of solving distributive | electric networks is valid for all the frequencies starting from zero (ie. 0 Hz => DC). 1.1.1 Getting Started: ‘There are two Scenarios we will encounter in. Network theory Scenario: {a the presence of Active Sources Jn the preserice of sources, all the three passive lumped R, L, C will always absorb energy. Whenever they are absorbing energy, currents through them will always flow from Positive (#ve) to Negative (-ve) terminals (i. from High level to Low level), Scenarto2: In the absence of Active Sources In the absence of sources, stored energy in the memory elements (L and C) will be delivered 10 the memoryless resistances. Whenever L and C elements ate delivering energy, currents through them will always flow from Negative (-ve) 10 Positive (+ve) terminals (ie. from Low level to High level). As the resistor always absorbs energy, current through it will always flow from Positive (+ve) to Negative (-ve) terminals. Example: 14 What is the basic difference between Network and Circuit? Sol: Circuit > Loop or Mesh ie. a closed path Interconnection of circuits is nothing but a network. Eg: Network is like a building, where as the cirouits are like rooms in a building. ag | 1.2. Passive Lumped R, L, C Elements and Ohm’s Law 1.2.1 Resistance (R) Since I= oF. v=Ri] + Ohm’s lew in Circuit theory form where R= ae Ohm = Q = Resistance parameter of the conductor. | Limitation + Ohm's law ie. a linear voltage and current relation is valid only when the proportionality constant ‘R’ is kept constant ie, the temperature is kept constant. * As temperature increases = 17, ST, : =almost constant, 6 so RT. «© R=Ro(l+art) Where, = temperature coefficient in/ °c, positive forall the conductors EAD) tn | Da | New Dei | Bent | Bhneovar | Viyawas | Viskbapam j Tipe Pane [Chena] sytits ork ta the Oat ten Basic Concepts t= temperature in °c, So, tT => Rf forall the conductors. _i l m © R=—-s05—-_*, oS RS Q-m? =(Q-my'=O'm" = Uimor Sim, + Resistivity or Specific resistance =p -1 RS Q-m’ =(Q-m). ol om Since V=Ri 3 form of Ohm’s law where G= 1 =mho=O R = Conductance parameter of the conductor. Since i= 4 dt da], yo — 4" form of Ohm’s law {at Electric power (P) pa aw _ dw dg dt dq dt [P= Vi] (W) = Instantaneous power. ie. p(t)= vit). i() (W) Electrical energy (W) Since wep = dW=P dt it (W) = Instantaneous power. ie, p(t) =() RW) p=vi-v. R cw Rl (W) = Instantaneous power. L 2 ie. plt)= *o) i) W=fpag w=fiRdt o ye and W= [a0 ARSE | opt New Di Beng | Bhubanerar | Vievad | Ving | Ta | Pane [Chea]Observation So from the characteristics, resistor is a linear, passive, bilateral and time-invariant in v - i plane (these are possible only at a constant temperature, where length (D,crosssection area (S) and conductivity (0) are kept constant ic. ‘R’ is kept | constant). | 1.2.2 Inductance (L) Electrical Circuits E When a conductor is wound like a spring, then it is said to be a coil. The coil will exhibit ideally inductance (L) and practically some leakage resistance (R), which is modelled in series with the inductance. When a time varying current is. flowing through the coil, a time varying magnetic flux will be produced (by Faraday’s law). The total flux produced is w= No (Wb) Where, N= the number of turns = flux per tum ie. W ()=N.O(t) (Wb) This total flux produced is proportional to the current flowing through the coil ieyeisy=Li Where, L= Inductance parameter of the coil. The voltage drop across the coil is ay = —* | By Faraday’s law. v= SP By Faraday’s law ¥ dy. y= SLi : at i re v dt di= svat L p= LEO = Instantaneous power. It ed ipl | NorDei | Btn [ iar Win |Vnkonaoan [Tams PaiGoad] Op- ACE seuits ® nib CBs Basic Concepts pring, = 1.2.3. Capacitance (C) ee W= [pat 1p di w-fuf jaw i-M a \ dt dt wing p= = $e) wy netic 3 q=v aw). Since W= [p dt) Where, w=[ Sie at\2 C= Capacitance parameter of the conductor. 1 ;oo- w= lhe “4 2 ®) i= Foy) = Instantaneous energy tv aS i-c2 A othe Total energy. dt ice, the energy stored in an inductor at any instant will depend on the current flowing coil. through the inductor at that instant. This is the total energy stored by the inductor from infinite past (— >) to the present time ‘t’. y-i Characteristic Observation So from the characteristics, inductor is a linear, passive, bilateral and time-invariant in y - i plane (these are possible only at a constant temperature, where length (), crosssection area (S) and conductivity (6) are kept constant i.e, “L? is kept constant). p=Cy: . (W) = Instantaneous power. It w= faded) We fof we a) Since W = [pdt (’) We so" W= Instantaneous energy = Total energy. ry | Bindbneswar | Viyavada | Vinkapamam | Trupad | Pune [ChewsObservation So from the characteristics, capacitor is a linear, passive, bilateral and time-invariant in q ~ v plane (these are possible only at a constant temperature, where length (J), cross section area (S) and conductivity (6) are kept constant i.e. °C’ is kept constant) 1.2.4 Refation between voltage and current in Lane C elements vet fy phe dt dt v=v, +¥; So, the relation between voltage and eurtent in an inductor is linear and hence di oa)” 5° form of Ohm’s law Electrical Circuits @ Similarly Ly 7 isp J vdt}+ 6” form of Ohm's faw c: isc dt ay, 4 ey, ie iti, Vv, +¥, So, the relation between voltage and current in a capacitor is linear and hence — 7" form of Ohm’s law Similarly J : fiat | 8 form of Ohm's law EES) a Nae ten Vina | Vicia Tiga [ae [Ga 5“cuits Engineering Academy 9 Basic Concepts + So Ve I, provided ‘2’ is kept constant. | So Ve & Ie only when ‘C’ is kept constant ive. temperature is constant and also at a Re V_ =Zyly|Zq =RO constant source frequency ‘a’, where Ze is constant. 1.2.5 Relation between Network theory and Electromagnetic theory So Va & In only when ‘R’ is kept constant | = Energy density ie, energy stored per unit dc emperatlte 1s Couan volume {unit cube) in magnetic field ina, within the conductor due to the inductance effect of the conductor. Lay We=50v v= feat) wezer() ] |= Bnergy density ie, energy stored per unit | volume (unit cube) in electric field So Vi 1. only when “L’ is kept constant within the conductor due to the i.e. temperature is constant and also at a ee constant source frequency ‘c’, where Z, is capacitance effect of the conductor. nstant. ° “ Observation So, due to resistance, inductance and capacitance e effects of the conductor, energy loss will occur in the conductor i.e. only part of the transmitted as source energy will be received by the load Example: 1.5 When a resistor R is connected to a current source, it consumes a power of I8W. When the same R is connected to a voltage source having same magnitude as the current source, the power absorbed by R is 4.5W. The magnitude of the current source & value of R are oa] ERENT) tac ope [New Dan Benn Hina | Vinod) Vinkapaman | Twat | Poe (Cie210: Electrical Circuits xv R Sol: xa(t R ¥R=18W (R4,5)R=18W 180, 45 a R=! 20 Vas xx2 =18 XY =9>x=3 1.3 Types of Elements ‘There are ten types of elements (ie. five pairs) as follows 1, Linear and Non-linear 2. Active and Passive 3. Bilateral and Unilateral 4, Distributed and Lumped 5. Time invariant and Time varying Definitions + A two terminal element is said to be linear if for all time ‘tits characteristics is a straight line throwgh the origin, otherwise it is said to be nonlinear. + An element is said to be active if it delivers a net amount of energy to the outside world, otherwise itis said to be passive, + An element is said to be bilateral if it offers same impedance forthe different directions of same current flow, otherwise it is said to be unilateral. V4 G-) In other words, fora bilateral element, if (, v) is on the characteristic then (~i, ~v) must also be on the characteristic, then only same voltage for the different directions of same current flow and hence same impedance ice, for a Bilateral element, symmetry w.r-t origin exists, An element is said to be time invariant if for all time *Y, its characteristics do not change with time, otherwise it is said to be time varying. 75 boy Fig. A time varying element characteristics [ESR pa earn | nes] Wig | Vpn Ta Rc [Ohl] Obs: The pass Not: said chat acti slog SorACE ircuits 4 Engineering Academy Basic Concepts Observation ie, V=Vs forall ‘1 The above characteristics also represent a linear, passive and bilateral element. Property: In an ideal voltage source, load voltage is Note: The resistors, inductors and capacitors are | independent of the load current drawn. said to be passive if and only if R 2 0, L 2 0 and C > 0 (ie. nonnegative slope of the v-i | Note: Inherently all the sources are nonlinear in characteristics), otherwise they are said to be | nature, since their voltage and current relation is active ie. R<0,L max vurrent flows | zero resistance => total current flows 1.4.2 Dependent or Controlled Sources KV; : KV COKE DK lh vevs vecs cvs ecg * CCvs ete Linear controlled sources (with Non-linear respect to the controlled controlled varile, wot with respect to the source voltage and current relation) + With respect to controlled variable only, the dependent source are said to be linear, active and bilateral, The presence of these elements GRE 2 i Nee Daa Megas | Bhtancvar | Vipanade | Vinay | Topi | Pane [Chena] PAAACE Zireuits Engineering Academy Basic Concepts makes the network a linear, an active and a oy : At a given time ‘t, is same for all bilateral. a + Controlled sources are said to be sources ice. branches active elements in the presence of at least one a independent source, then only controlled | WDE BT HE variables are non zero and hence their | ie. sum of entering charges is equal to sum of 7 magnitudes are non zero. leaving charges. nt is a Properties 5 Kirchhof’s Laws 1. KCLapplies to any lumped electric circuit, it does not matter whether the elements are linear, non-linear, active, passive, time ‘There are to laws proposed by Kirchhoff varying, time-invariant ete, ie. KCL is KCL: His always defined ata node, independent of the nature of the elements connected to the node. There are two types of nodes in network theory Ex: a. Simple Node: It is an inter connection of only two branches b. Principle Node: It is an inter connection of at least three branches, ov Definition (= 1, 005 simum “12a lumped electric circuit, for any of its nodes L and at any time ‘t’, the algebraic sum of branch ¥s currents leaving the node is zero” J of, Here, R, L, C are linear, passive, bilateral, , time-invariant elements and i(t) is a non- i fi linear, active, unilateral, time varying element. és 2. Since there is no accumulation of charge at , any node, KCL expresses conservation of KE charge at each and every node in a lumped By KCL= ¥ Leaving currents = 0 electric circuit. S-i-bththtis= KVL: It is always defined in a loop or mesh ne ees ie. ima closed path linear i.e., sum of entering currents is equal to sum | Definition rolled of leaving currents, “Ina lumped electric circuit, for any of its loops 2 Since and at any time ‘t’, the algebraic sum of branch dq dq, dq, _ day, day, d voltages around the loop is zero” ¥) the 5 HL Mey, Se, ds es P active dt dt dt dt dt dt | nents Chennai] EGE Si isa nD ‘Bengers | Bhubanesar | Viayamada | Viakhapattam | Tirgpal| Pane [ChennaiOrt Fia 4: Electrical Circuits Picky Va- Vi = we 4 ei ae RQ © joc ByKVL =) ¥ Branch voltages =0 => V-Vp-Vi-Ve=0 | as y Since V = and i Sin series current is q It same and hence charge flow is same through all the elements Properties 1. KVLis independent of nature of the elements | (linear, non-linear, present in a loop. active, passive etc.) 2. KVL expresses conservation of energy in every loop of a lumped electric circuit. 1.6 Nodal and Mesh Analysis Techniques * KCL + Ohm’s Law = Nodal Analysis «KVL +Ohm’s Law= Mesh Analysis Conclusions 1. The above techniques are network solving procedures, valid only for lumped electric cirouits (where KCL and KVL are valid) and that too at a constant temperature (where Ohm’s law is valid), 2. Nodal and Mesh procedures are independent of each other, since KCL and KVL are independent of each other. 3. Ohm's law is a function of nature of the clements (eight different forms of Ohm’s law), where as Kirchhoff’s laws are independent of nature of the elements. 4. Ohms law is defined across an element, that element can be lumped (R, L, C) or distfibuted (J = 6 E), whereas Kirchhoff's laws are defined to only for lumped electric cireuits (one is at a node and another is in a loop or mesh). 5. Ohm’s law is not applicable for active elements like Sources (Generators), since the voltage and current relation is non-linear. It is applicable only for linear passive elements like R, L, C, where the voltage and current relation is linear. 1.6.1 Nodal Analysis vo) Rs Steps: 1. Identify number of nodes. 2. Assign node voltages w.r.t, the ground node, whose voltage is always equal to zero. 3. By using KCL first and Ohm’s law next, write the nodal equations. Node’ | Benglurs | Bhulanesvar| Vinawads | Viakhapstar | Tina | Pane [Chenaircuits Basic Concepts (where Node 2: vendent : iL are we v)> of the vot) Ohm’s | sare ict it+ ig, =0(ByKCL) 4 1 at, that cf{w,-v)+— oe ae wer ahoff’s alectric ae (by Ohm’s law) > © active vo RR c v ic +-—_{}-— + tet node, “Th dj CSS oy Ohm’s law, where current flows from + to ~) By KVL =v) + ve~¥2=0=9 Ve=¥2~ vi . od 80, ig =C Fs -W) Node 1: yo wy al > -i(y+2L4c4yv,-v<0 32 Nodal ie GCG (61-¥2)=0 9D (by KCL and Ohm’s law simultaneously) a (by Ohm’s law, where current n flows from + to -) By KVL v,-ve~ v= 09 Vo=Vi-V2 d 80, ie =C (4 -¥.) Example: 1.6 «What is the value of i? [So] SRSA Tia iar Nea ep | Wat] Vinh Va Tra] Pe che]Electrical Circuits Mesh 3: (: | o >i, a Note: Ina single branch, the branch current is equal to the mesh current and in a common branch, the branch current is equal to the difference of mesh currents. Mesh ae Apply KCL at Node | : © v(t) ve v,-V, . tint) 4-94i, . Ov watt. Mesh @) Va, =Rais 1 Ye, =Rais Byk a, i wal paid) So, i same -Vi- Va, ~V()- VR, =0 (by KVL) qo. Proof HE Gy -ig)-Ry ig WO Rs iy at By Kt (by Ohm’s law) > D ef Mesh 2: (: ‘| Exan nai Find Steps: | 1. Identify: number of Meshes. | ; 2. Assign mesh currents in the clockwise | (is) direction, wart. Mesh @) 3. By using KVL first and Ohm’s law next write Vp, = Rv(ia in) the mesh equations. | ~ Vz, -Ve-Vi=0 iyderabad | Bhopal | New Delhi | Benyalura | Bubaneswar | Vizyawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai ragACE Ireuits rash Baten 7: Basic Concepts (by KVL) Sol: Meshes | and 3 will form a supermesh, Retiriy-£ fi at-L4 ¢,-i,)=0 Writing current equ tion for supermesh, c a? rent is ey 0 Ib=7 vtesetsee (i) mon (by Obm’s law) > Applying KVL to the other path of the ‘0 the Fes supermesh, his]? Mes (: >i 7-1) -3(h- hb) = 0 a ee Applying KVL to Mesh 2, Leh) 2k-3(h-h)=0 h- 6h +35 =0 (iil) wart. Mesh ® Solving equations (i), (i) and (i : W=9A Va, = Ri (i -i2) h=25A ByKVL= Vy, ~Vp, =0 = [0=0 Dane po] Current through the 3-Q resisior= Ip ~ I So, ir = i(t) > () (as both currents are in the =25-2 : =05A same direction) D ay Proof By KCL > -i(t) + i) =0 | Se ae | «Two elements are said to be in series only > =i 90) when currents through the elements are same and two elements are said to be in parallel Example: 1.7 only when voltages across the elements are : 4 same. Find the current in the 3- resistor. + Impedances in series and admittances in parallel we can add. I vy, (Chennai ‘Bhopal | New Deli Bengaur | Bhubaneswar | Vinyavada | Viapatnam | Taupat | Pune | Chennal]Voltage Division Principle V=Zeq-E (by Ohm's lav) 1 -_v Za, +2; v1 (by Ohm’s law) Cheek | ByKVL3V-Vi-Vi=05[ VitW2=V) 218: Electrical Circuits Current Division Principle V = Zo] (by Ofimn’s law) = j-24,| 242, 1= © (by ohm’s taw) Zz, Zy +2, es Z, b= (by Ohm's law) 2, Check ByKCL=-I+l+h=0 ATA vice ¥ Let / knoy Obst IfZ; So, will 0 per Dg | cnr] Ww | Vn |Top ae el]TE oc y-t&, C+C, 1.7.1 Star (¥) - Delta (A) Transformation and vice versa Let A- network be given ie. Z, Z2 and Z are known, Observation IfZ, = Zp = Z=Z, then Z4=Zp=Ze og 3 So, for the balanced case, A to Y transformation Will reduce the impedance by 3 times. 219: Basic Concepts | Let Y - network be given i.e. Za, Zp and Zc are knows Zi Z {Ree Observation 12, =Z So for the balanced case, Y to A transformation will increase the impedance by 3 times, Example: 18 Find an equivalent resistance between A and B. 45Q | 130 Sol: Converting the two delta networks formed by resistors 4.50, 30 and 7.5Q into equivalent star networks, we have 40 30. Soo] TREAD yi pd Nov Daa Dentin |Bhabaneer| Vad Vetgatan | Tpal | Pane [Ohewal]®. _ACE 120: Electrical Circuits ye en So, a resistor in series with an ideal current Ne a547543~ source can be neglected in the analysis i.e. the pa 15x3 load current is independent of R; value, We i ERs say cannot omit this resistor in power calculations, since Rs #0 , es “ 2ST S4+7S43 vy The simplified network is shown in Figure v 42 09 ~ B a a Here Ry + A 2250 2250 violation of KVL. nes So, a resistor in parallel with an ideal voltage \ yy?" sa source can be neglected in the analysis i.e. the 30. load voltage is independent of R, value. We cannot omit this resistor in power calculations, ‘The network can be simplified as follows : ¥ 5.82 since— #0. B 8 A 2252 2950 2252 g Rg = 7452 ff LW oS 1.8 Equivalent Circuits wart Active Sources ByKVLS i -=05 |=) Byki So, two ideal current sources are connected in series only when their magnitudes are equal, otherwise violation of KCL, which results in the unstabitity of the system and L, hence, physical connection is not possible i Here R, #, the circuit does not exist. Similarly, for since violation of KCL. (EGRET ected [Bord | New Dati | Beare | Hhnear | Vayaned | Vila Tapa | Pue [Ciens] nas© ACE - Engineering Academy :2L: Basic Concepts parallel connection of two ideal voltage sources, violation of KVL. | By KCL -10+10+i=01=050¢ ByKVL> V:+Vi-V=059V=Vi e . Source Transformation Technique 10V) o i | Mt . ‘Ve. the © It is a simplification technique, which ue, We eliminates extra nodes present in the network lations, and it is applicable only for practical sources. * It is impossible ts convert an ideal voitage } source into its equivalent current source and | vive versa, since violation of KVL and KCL (as there is no resistance in the circuit) y, ! 1204 Me . By KVL + 10-10-V=0=>V=0> RL eee ae [8 8 ere a +0V- 4 ba + Vs | {| © ‘The above circuits are equal only wart. : performance, but the elements and 7 connections point of view, they are not equal BYKCL= ~i)-ip$i=0= i=ip tin + Source transformation is applicable even for nected dependent sources, provided the controlled ce are : variable must be outside the branches, which : where the source transformation is applied ie m and under any circumstances, controlled variable bleice. wae \ ve | branch should not be disturbed, otherwise the yy, for f controlled source magnitude will effect. Rae | ea New De Daw bane | Vinrvads | Wega | Trot | Pane (Chid gh OE atey 122t Electricai Circuits @ the power, otherwise it will absorb the Example: 1.9 power. Use source transformation technique to determine | * Sources can deliver power or they can absorb current I. power (in order to protect KCL and KVL in a the network i.e. to ensure the stability of the network), whereas the passive elements will always absorb power, since current will enter 402 at the positive terminal in the respective R, L, C as the sources are present here). An of perfor subtr: differ 200 7 Propertiés: J + This theorem depends on the voltage and \ current product in an element, but not on the type of element (linear, non-linear, active, passive etc.) i.e. independent of the nature of ° the elements (like KCL and KVL) + Tellegen’s theorem expresses conservation of power (energy) in every lumped electric circuit. Note: While verifying Tellegen’s theorem, do not ° | disturb the original network given for evaluating voltages and currents in each and every element of the network (ie, Source transformation i technique is not applied on the network) Sol: 101, 1.16 Power Calculations by Tellegen’s Theorem Example: 1.10 Elect Verify Tellegen's Theorem for the circuit shown below. } Definition + In an arbitrary network, algebraic sum of powers at any given instant is zero, ie. the power delivered by somie elements is equal to lov tha E52 the power absorbed by remaining elements | present in the network 7 n Mathematically, |S) Vx ix | Sol: Po, = 12W (delivered) - Pag = 8W (absorbed) Where b= total number of branches. Pig =2W (absorbed) + When current enters at the -ve terminal of Poy =2W (absorbed) an element, then that element will deliver Since Pat = Pats ; Tellegen’s theorm is satisfied ee) Eerenits 123: Basic Concepts b the For an ideal op amp, Ay = 2 => Vig=0 =V,-V2=0=[Vi=Ve absorb ive. for an ideal ap amp, voltage at the non- VL in inverting terminal is equal to voltage at the ee ‘An op amp is an active circuit element designed to inverting terminal. enter perform mathematical operations of addition, For an ideal op amp, Rj => and Ro = 0 RL, e and on the active, cure of sion of lectric do not uating lement nation shown subtraction, multiplication, differentiation and integration. wl . division, Va + Electrical equivalent of a practical op amp By writing KVL at the input side, | = Vj-Vie-Va=0=> | Vig fo= AvVia = Vy = Dev] ok bo Vo Avie oko * 2 WER. Since R;= >, input current accepted by the ideal op amp is always equal to zero and hence, it is possible to write the nodal equations at the input side of an ideal op amp. As Ro = 0 = there exists an ideal voltage source at the output side of an ideal op amp and the current through it can be any value i.e. un-known, it is impossible to write the nodal equation at the output side of an ideal op amp. Hyderabad | Bhopel | New Delhi | Beng | Bhubaneswar | Vinynda | Vishapamam | Tara | Pune [Cheasmgrraramoercenan Ol 02. 03. 04, (GRE) ea | ew pn | str] Win | Vink | Tee ie [Gh Class Room Practice Questions LEVEL-1 Questions) In the circuit shown in the given Fig., the current I through Ry is (IES-EE-94) Zima eH ov mv 7 td Fig, (2A (b) zero ()-2A (d) 6A Two coupled coils with Ly=L2= 0.6H havea coupling coefficient of K= 0.8. The turns “2 is (WES-EE-94-13) ol ratio @4 (2 (05 In the delta equivalent of the given star ~ connected circuit Z gx is equal to (IES-EE-95) Ne ‘oa. 09 ® @400 (b) (20 +j10) 0 (5+) (Jo (4) (10+ 30) 2 Two inductive coils with self ~ inductances L; and L> are magnetically coupled in series Of 07. » (b) L, +L) -2M,— 2 opposing and in parallel aiding respectively. ‘The mutual inductance between the coils is M. The equivalent inductances in the two cases are respectively (ES.EE-96) L,L,-M? L,+L,-2M LjLy-M? @L,+L, +2M, L,+L,+2M L,L,-M? L,+L,-2M iL, -M? L, @) +L, +2M,—! ia L,+L)+2M (© L,+L,-2M, The coupling between two magnetically coupled coils is said to be ideal if the coefficient of coupling is (IES-BE-96) (a) zero (b) 0.5 @l @2 For the network shown in the Fig., what is the voltage across the current source I? (IES-EE-08) @V-RI (©) Zero ()V+RI (@RI-V What is the current through the 2 resistance for the circuit as shown below? av (IES-EE-09) oy Fig 08. [ av tkACE Engineering Academy 1251 Basic Concepts en (@SA (b)4A (a) 0.5 CE? (b) CE* tively. (3a (2A (20 (a)3 CEP oe (08, In the below circuit, V; = 40 V when R is | 12, The value of resistance R shown in the given £96) 100. When R is zero, the value of V2 will be figure is ASRO-06) (IES-EC-00) « (3.50 ‘oan a wo yk, ve jon W250 + [ wy WW @0 "> ne R ae ‘i = 200 " (450 -| J 13, ‘The equivalent capacitance across ‘ab’ will , be (ISRO-06) ie he eae (a) 40V (b) 30. V. -— (20 @10V oe 0 ie tically 09. For the equivalent circuit shown in the given i ifthe figure, the values of Rap and Rac are 7 E-96) respectively (ES-EC-O1) ‘led | (@) 0.2pF (6) 0.1pF (©) 0.5uF @o shat is 14. Three resistors of 69 each are connected as ; is shown in the following fig. The equivalent 3-08) B resistance between X; and X is (ISRO-07) x | ay (a)5Qand15Q — (b) 15 Qand 302. ()30Qand5Q — (d) 20 Qand 350 _ (@)20 (b) 40 10. é has the dimension of | (IES-EC-02) sa 120 () time (b) capacitance 15. An inductor of inductance 0.1H, carrying (©) inductance (@) resistance | current of 6 amps will store energy of 2a (ISRO-09) w U1. A capacitor of capacitance C is charged by (@) 6 Joules (b) 36 Joules £09) connecting it to a battery of em.f B. The (©) 18 Joules (@ 3.6 Joules capacitor is now disconnected and | reconnected to the battery withthe polarity | 16- An ideal voltage source will charge an ideal reversed. The heat developed in the capacitor (MWS) connecting wires is (IES-EC-12) (a) in infinite time (b) exponentially (©) instantaneously (4) linearly ‘TGocos] EESSESRERRRNRYATRNND Hest opr [Nove [Benn | Btansar | Vinod | Vision (Tropa | Rie [OhoACE ‘Engineering Academy 126: Class Room Practice Questions 17. A series circuit has 3Q, 10 and 202 and oo 2VDC in series. If 100 resistor is replaced (LEVEL? Questions by open circuit then current in the circuit is 7 (EPDCL-12) | 01, ‘The number of tums of a coil having a time (a) zero (b) increased constant T are doubled. Then the new time (©) decreased (@) constant constant will be (UES-EE-92) (a) (2T 18, An ideal current source has zero (AT @T/2 (a) intemal conductance (SPDCL-12) (b) intemal resistance 02. Current having wave form shown is flowing ( (6) voltage on no load | in a resistance of 10 ohms. The ( (A) ripple | average power is (IES-EE-92) ‘ 19, Three resistances of 1 ohm, 2 ohms and 3 ohms are connected in delta, These 06. 1 resistances are to be replaced by star i connection as shown in the figure below, 1 ‘maintaining the same terminal conditions. R tool \zm | 03. When all the resistances in the circuit are of one ohm — each, the -—_ equivalent ( resistance across the points A and B will be ( c (ES-EE-92) Be 07. ¢ The value of highest resistance in star will 7 be (SPDCL-12) A Ss ‘ 1 1 @z ohm ©); ohm | @ ohm (@)I ohm a 2 Fig (a1Q (0) 0.52 20. The equivalent inductance of the below (2a (15a given circuit at the terminals P - Q is A {SPDCL-12) | 04, ‘Two coupled coils connected in series have : Pp an equivalent inductance of 16 mH or 8 ‘ ‘mH depending on the interconnection. Then : a Ban the mutual inductance M between the coils ; : is GESEE-%4) 4, nm 7 (a) 12 mH (b)8 V2 mH " a ea a aH (4 mH (2 mH AI HN en |e Vale Gem)OvetSinan sstions 227: Basic Concepts 05, The v ~ i characteristic of an element is shown in the figure given below. The N ‘ e element is (IES-EE-02) R atime y w time Ly 1E-92) @IA ()2A a i (3A (4a 09, The current in a coil changes from SA to LA Towing {@) non ~ linear, active, non-bilateral in 0.4 second. The induced voltage is 40 V. The (b) linear, active, non — bilateral ‘The self inductance in henry is E92) (©) non-linear, passive, non ~ bilateral (ES-EE-12) (@) non - linear , active, bilateral ay 2 ©4 @l0 06. In the circuit shown below, the value of Vs | 19. For a series and a parallel circuit, the is 0, when I= 4 A. The value of I when Vs equivalent total value of certain parameter X 16 V, is (ES-EE-03) is given by aa ae Ke=X,+X2+Xy+Xat..+Xn Where X; is the ith value of the parameter and X. is the equivalent value, and n is the number of elements. The parameter X can be (ES-EE-A2) noe ® seit % current i" (©) volta ower oon @6a ()8A a , i E92) OWA Ons | 11, What will be the value of Xc so that the . circuit is non inductive? (ES-EC-91) 07. Consider the following circuit: Which one of the following statements is bi correct? (IES-EE-04) so 2a Fe 2a (@25 (b) 5.0 1 --A+ (©) 10.0 ) 20.0 Loy d a oF 12. A de supply of 35 V is connected across 2s have ® at jinear 6002 resistance in series with an unknown dor 8 () active anc ne resistance. The voltmeter having a resistance a. Then ea Poel of 1.2kQ is connected across 6002 ea (@) active and non-linear resistance which reads 5 V. Then the E94 ; ES-EC- ) 08, The black-box, N contains resistors and unknown resistance EE a independent sources. If 1= 3 A and 1.5 A (so! LT for R= 0 and 2.Q, respectively, then what is (720 (@24kQ the value of for R=10? — (IES-EE-05) x [hen a | Bhopal | Nev DER] Begin | Bins [ Vids |Win | Tp] Rin [CheQ rnin Class Room Practice Questions 13. The equivalent resistance between the terminal points X and ¥ of the circuit shown is (IES-EC-94) 150, AWW v 10 B50 AWM 300 00 180 139, x Fe (2) 150 ohms (b) 45 ohms () 55 ohms (d) 30 ohms 14, For the circuit shown in the given figure, the voltage Vas is (IES-EC-95) 8 teioy saw sa sa 100 — aA Fie (@6v ov ()25V @40V 15. The total power consumed in the circuit shown in the Fig,, is (IES-EC-97) (a) 10W ()16W RW @2w 16. 17, 18. 19. For the circuit given, what is the expression for the voltage v? (IES-EC-05) ‘The current through the branch AB in the Fig. shown is ES-BC-11) A 20, 8 22 49 0A) 20V Fig. (@) 10 A, from A to B (b) 10A, from Bio A 0 (20, from B to A The resistance of a parallel circuit consisting of two resistors is 120. One of the resistance wires breaks and the effective resistance becomes 180. The resistance of the broken wire is (ESRO-2006) (a) 480 (b) 18 (0) 360 (240 An inductance of 1H is realized using air core with 100 turns. What will be the inductance if the number of turns are doubled GSRO -2009) @ 1H (b) 0.5H (2H (@) None of these @ ' 21 22. 23, (ESET estat | hogar | New Dati | Bengakra | Bhbanesvar | Vinranad | Viekapamnam | Tupat | Pune |OheanaiACE tions Engineering Academy 1295 Basic Concepts ssion 39, What is the value of € such that equivalent | 24. In the.circuit shown which of the following 05) capacitance across x ~ y is SF statements is NOT correct? a MM we Lo @ ne ' - a pe Bn tril db. 9 “nae ¥ UL (GENCO-2012) 3 ; SRO -2013) (2) The cireuit has a super mesh (a) the @sa WO) a 10 cay @ x0 | OL. Ans: (@) ce of Sol: 1006) it 420-301 | 420-301 23, Two resistances R; and R, gives combined 120 60 resistance of 4.5 ohms when in series and 1 3.5-0.251+7-05 - ohm when in parallel, The resistances are 7 _ 105 g air (VSP-2011) W0S= 1.751 T= Fe =6A > the (a) 2 ohms and 2.5 ohms are 4 ohms and 0.5 ob 1009) (b) 4 chms and 0.5 ohms (©) 1.5 ohms and 3 ohms (d) 5 ohms and 0.5 ohms ipderabad | Biol | Now Debi | Benn | Bnanewar | Visavad | Vina | Tapa | Pave [Ober]02. 03. Sol: 06. Sol: Sol: 08. Sol: 130: Class Room Practice Questions Ans: (¢) When R = 0, V; = V2 = Vas shown in Fig. — = 7 Writing the nodal equations v-60 V, V-100 oe 0 Ly 10 10° 30 osu = O6H 3V 180+ 3V+V—100 _ 30 Ni:Np V=280, V=40V 09. Ans: (a) Ans: (4) s = Sx10 + j10x104 jlOxs Rg = 222) + Ox1-S)4 L523) Zag =§ | 9 | =52 = 045150 _ 19, p00 5 Similarly, R, 150 Ans: (c) For series opposing 10. Ans: (a) = Li +l,-2M L i For poamal ‘aiding Sol: & has the dimensions of resistance. _ LL- “b+, -2M | 1. Ans: (c) Sol: The heat developed in the connected wires is 2 Ans: (0) 2CE The coupling between two magnetically coupied coils is said to be ideal if the | 12 Ams: (a) coefficient of coupling is 1 Sot R, =6+ 8 TRA Ans: (b) 1-30 Voltage across the current source bead TR =V+ Voltage across R= V+RT Rea 1 Ans: (d) | a} 6v—v=20 Volts > v=4 Volts | (R+7) | 4 so (7 =o a a _ ha = 5224 a ik (Gl R47 Ans:(a) _—50(7) wa 209 IBR +42, wv 2. SAR+168 = 350 R=352 7 a 102 e A tov) 13. Ans: (b) |. Sol: The circuit can be redrawn as fe | aia | Bhopal | Nev De Began | Bianewar | Vive | Visipaam | Tiel] Rae [ican] 44. Sol: 15. « Sol: 16. iiaires is 14. Sol: 16, 17. O.1pF vp" OBE, elyk OE Under balanced condition Coq = 0.05uF + 0.05 uF = 0.1pE Ans: (a) Circuit can be redrawn as Req = 6/1616 =20 Ans: (@) Sok: Energy stored by Inductor = ; Lr = 1.6) =18) 7 Ans: (6) An so QO 200 WW lr aw 131: Basic Concepts Sol: When 100 is replaced by open circuit | Ho a wy Current through circuit is zero because no closed path for current flow 18, Ans: (a) ~( Level-2 Key a 02.(c) 03.(0) 04.(d) 05. (@) 07.{@) 08.(6)_ 09.(¢) 10.4) 12.4) 13.@) 14.@ 15.() 17. 18.(€) 19.(¢) 20.(6) 22.(0-) 23.(0) 24.(@) 25.(0) 01.(b) 06. (6) 1L@ 16.) Tp | NTs hr We | Vint | TP Chel]Circuit Theorems {Leon Charles Theveni (187-1926) Necessity of Theorems: Find the current in the 1-Q resistor using super In a complicated network with several soutees, | position theorem, nodes and meshes, if the response in a single element is desired, then network theorems are used . 2.1 Superposition Theorem (SPT) Definition: The ci av * In finear network with several independent | Sol: sources, the response in a particular branch when all the sources are acting simu!vineously is equal to the linear sum of yo individual responses calculated by taking one aw indey.2"dent source at a time. + All the ideal voltage sources are eliminated from the network by shorting the sources, all the ideal current sources are eliminated from the network by opening the sources and do not disturb the dependent sources present in Step I: When the 3-A source is acting the network. alone 22 32 Prope Yr hi « This theorem is applicable only to linear 12 av : networks ie, the networks with R, LC, et ie ei transformer and linear controlled sources as elements, | is By current — division formula, res} ‘+ The presence of dependent sources makes the 7 alsc network an active and hence SPT is used for : both active as well as passive networks. Eu Step II: When the 1-A source is acting Example: 2.1 alone Fir : ine Leon Charles Thevenin developed the famous theorem, Thévenn's theorem which made a possible o calculate currents in i more comolex electrical circuits and to reduce complex circuits into simpler circants called Thévenn's enivalet circuitsThevenin 76) alone ieting weting ‘ents in its. 133: Circuit Theorems 20 3 The circuit can be redrawn as shown: 8 i |. i no (oeeee| By current ~ division formula 2 o.66A(L) V=Ix-= 241 Step IV: By superposition theorem, eel =1.334+2+0.66=4A (1) Homogeneity Principle Wis the principle obeyed by all the linear networks Definition: In a linear network, if the excitation is multiplied with a constant ‘K’, then the Fesponses in all other branches of the network are also multiplied with the same constant K. Example: 2.2 Find all branch currents if source voltage is Increased to 60 volts in the circuit below. 20V 40 Fig Sol: First calculating the current in each branch. 2A 4 2A 40. 2A, So here, the excitation is multiplied by °3° and hence the responses ate also proportionally multiplied by ‘3° A 30 gq 42 6A “fs Note: When multiple sources are present, Superposition theorem to be applied first and later Homogeneity , principle i.c., whenever Homogeneity principle is to be applied always ensure only one source in the network. 2.2 Thevenin’s Theorem Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two- terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source V,, in series with a resistor Ry, where Vy, is the open circuit voltage at the load terminals and Ry, is the input 6A a iyderabad | Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Viayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Cherinal234: Electrical Circuits or equivalent resistance at the load terminals | Procedure when the independent sources are tumed off. Le killed in fh Re Tinear L ay Twoterminal | . es Nir a 7 £) Vy R eVa . circuit N eR, =Ve(* aoe Ry. Re Le, | 0 Exan f Find 2.3 Norton’s Theorem Ther Ra, Z I Norton’s theorem states that a linear two~ 1 Ye hoy t BR R, terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent || y | ER= RRS 3 circuit consisting of a current source Ty in parallel with e resistor Ry, where Iy is the short circuit current through the load terminals and Ry is the ) input or equivalent resistance at the foad | | (Va terminals when the independent sources are | BY ohms Taw. I= | aT ia tumed off. i killed. Sol: Vu Linea at [ Rp YY 1] n= Ba -| A rwornial | Re Dy $m f,) Bete URatRL eMm Em gp, sii : Cases. in Thevenin’s theorem (Norton’s theorem) based on Sources Case I: All are independent sources: Vix, Ra Properties + These theorents are applicable only for linear | Case 2; At least one independent and one networks ie. networks with R,L,C, dependent source: Vix, Isc transformer and linear controlled sources as elements, + Presence of dependent sources makes the network active and hence these theorems are used for both active as well as passive networks Case 3: All are dependent sources: Vis = OV, Isc = 0A, but Ra #0 EEE) yeaa | Det | Benga | Bhubaneswar | Viayavada ; Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai i_ ACE Engineering Academy 135: Circuit Theorems Writing V7, equation , 1 420) -T)-Vin=0 ome ye 7[h=0a Vn=4-2-31)=4-2(4)=12V Step Il: Calculation of Rn Replacing the voltage source by a short circuit and the current source by an open oe : circuit, Ra —_i¢,, Thevenin’s equivalent = Norton’s equivalent > Example: 23 20 30 Find the current through the 1-Q resistor using M Thevenin’s Theorem. a | IA no k I R, Bh 20 30 - ‘WA cane wo 1 (Nay Step II: Calculation of 7 #0 i A Sol: Step I : Calculation of Via Lt bv 2 7 1A 7 2 ga 9 20 wean on’s NN WM Abe Example: 2.4 1 ys Qw Find the curtent through the 10-9 resistor using au So Norton’s theorem. 5a | | | | Removing the 1-Q resistor from the oS network, 102 (pq SISO Writing the current equation for Meshes 1 and 2 ae b=1A desi] ERSEERRTBNETETAD ipdecdad | Dati | Boyles | Bhutanese | Visawada | Vinktapatam | Trpal| Pane | ChanaACE Eagan 236: Electrical Circuits Sol: Step I: Calculation of Isc Applying KVL (o Mesh 1, 2-1-0. (1) =2 Meshes 2 and 3 will form a supermesh. Writing current equation for the supermesh, b-h =4... me) Applying KVL to the supermesh, 5h -15h=0. ) Solving equations (1), (2) and (3), 1=2A, h=-3Aand h=1A Isc=h-h=2-(3)=5A A 5 Step II: Calculation of Ry Replacing the voltage source by a short circuit and current source by an open circuit. Ry=1 || (5415) =0.95 0 Step HII: Calculation of I, SA =5x. =0.43A 10+0.95 G 2.4 Maximum Power Transfer ‘Theorem (MPTT) Properties * This theorem is applicable only for linear networks i.e. the networks with R,L,C, transformer and linear controlled sources as elements. + The presence of dependent sources makes the network active and hence, MPTT is used for both active as well as passive networks. + This theorem is applicable only when load is variable, otherwise ( i.e load is fixed) choose the minimum intemal impedance of the source, which results in maximum current through the fixed load and hence, a maximum power dissipation across the load. Under Variable Load Conditions 2.41 Rs and Re: Rs W@ 1) FR (SGOT) trceraad | Deh | Bento | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai137: Circuit Theorems = RstiX9 @ pS WT] Fropepe R, +R, + j(X,+X,) Be R iY VR +R) 4K 4X 2 2 oP VAR ARR ARR | pyre Rew) a, RtR, linear 6 IR eryt p= _¥ER.__(w) SLC, ap (Ro+R,)' +X, +X.) es ae For MPT =< , 2.4.2.1 Only ‘Ry! is a variable es the 2d for R, Q] eB NIU, +R) OG A PIR, AR ARTF a, (RAR HO XT v2 vad is Sw -Miw e noose aR, AR orMPT <0 F the P4ei= Pass (By Tellegen’s Theorem) f 7 met paths | . RSE al ‘mum =P.Rs+FRi lai-rs = RL=yRs+&s +X.) @ VE Ve “oR, Yan, a er tb a : mae URL = YRS +S #XLP vi | Useful Power AR, tgs | Total Power V2.2 ~——«| 2.4.2.2 Only ‘Xi? is variable Ry N= 50% a _ VER AR) +% +X,).0-R, 206 +X] aX, (RS ARY +% +X,)'F So the efficiency of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is atmost 50%, ForMPT, 5 L Sy RB [Deen [ta |Wirvaa | Vda | Ta | Pe | OhlQn8Same 138: Electrical Circuits =X,+X,=0 Pra P | x,4x,-0 2423 Both R, & X simultaneously In this case, both the conditions Ry= yR+(X,+X,)) & Xs +X=0 are valid at atime >R,=Rs Xt =-Xs So, Zi = Rit iX, =Rs—jXs are varied Pat =Pl non, XL =X, ayy? =o (Ws wR," y aR 2.43 Zs and Re: E5=(Rst Xs) Q —c+ WOO] 3" Ld Itis a special case of 2.42.1 with X,= 0. ie Z, =Rx only when X, So for MPT R= YR3 +(X, #X.)"| x.-0 Vv Ry= [Rs jXs | Ri=|Zs|Q 1 ————— 1 ] Pas =P I : lag = RP 4x? Bxai % n < 50% (neater to 50%) ve sho: figu Reciprocity Theorem Jn 4 linear, passive and bilateral network, the ratio of response to excitation is constant even though the source is interchanged from input terminals to output terminals. Sol Fig(@) J Fig (b) 1,_L| ie. pu = constant | h Vv Vv, 24 ) Hyderabad | Delhi | Bengalura | Bhubaneswar | Viayavada | Visakhapatnam j Tirupati | Pune | Chennai]cuits Qos 139: Circuit Theorems rties ' 3x4 _ 40 Pretkis theorem is applicable only for linear, Rar 4t3Id= 44 = 8 passive and bilateral networks, ie. networks » with R,L,C and Transformer as elements, so vw called reciptocal Networks. Raa «The presence of the dependent sources makes « the network active and hence the reciprocity theorem is not applicable, so called the Non- br deted eaten + Any branch in a linear network can be Nie Soa a eee ao finite current I substituted by a different branch without shown in figure (b) by using the data given in disturbing the voltages and currents in the figure (a) below 30 40 entire network, provided the new branch has the same set of terminal voltage and current 4a as the original network. & the + Ina linear network any passive element can even be equivalently substituted by an ideal ee eS 10 Fig (a) voltage source or an ideal current source, provided all the other branch currents and | voltages are kept constant. This is possible Lt fas 20v only when the original passive element and the substituted active sources absorb same Fig) ee Sol: First calculating the current in each branch | = [Lo of figure (a) given 1 I an 32 49 N Re| N V=RI . cee 42, 2A _ henna GE) iyderabad | Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar Now interchange the position of excitation and then determining the response as below 3a 40 lw Where V = RI Py=Py=Pi= V.I=RLI=F-R (W) (abs.) Properties This theorem is applicable only for linear networks ie. the networks with R, L, C. jayawada | Visakhapamam | Tiupai | Pune | ChennaiACE Engineering Academy 140: Electrical Circuits transformer and linear controlled sources as The equivalents of the a- branch (Ri) are Prop elements. shown below in four different ways by « T + The presence of dependent sources makes the using ohms Law. a network active and hence substitution a aoe ayy c theorem is used for both active as well as d e : 2” 4a T passive networks. 2A . 24 fF $30 aa(})i6v it Example: 2.6 82 C4 )aahiev ; Use substitution theorem to represent the load resistance R,, for the circuit shown below atleast hiv ey in four different ways. 7 l Exar " bh pd be b Int a theo and «a 2.7 Milliman’s Theorem (or) R40 Parallel Generator Theorem 40v" T é By Millman’s theorem, we can replace ‘n’ Sol: number of parallel Thevenin’s equivalents into a Sol: For any bilateral network, if the voltage | Me Thevenin's equivalent, across any branch along with the current through that branch are known, this branch can be replaced by any combination of elements so that the voltage across the chosen branch and the current through the | chosen ate identical with those of the previous branch. Let us find the branch equivalence of Ry a 62 +. ' R=4af lov From figure, it can be written as In the above case, if polarity of the source “Vy is reversed, then ‘V2’ is replaced by ‘-V3’ in Vy =IRL=4x4=16V | the expression V! (RSET oy eid | Deni | Bens | Dhutanesvar| Vayda | Vikiapaar | Trt | Pune | Chenal)AC reuits © i iy 41: Circuit Theorems &) are properties source, V_ and a series resistance, Re by ys by This theorem is applicable only for linear using Milliman’s theorem, aah ey networks ie. the networks with R,L,C, transformer and linear controlled sources as clements. «The presence of dependent sources makes the network active and hence Millman’s theorem is used for both active as well as passive networks. Example: 2.7 In the network shown in Fig., using Milliman’s theorem, or otherwise find the voltage between A and B, 509 4 B sv [ao 292 hoa LJ da 100. | ‘The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2 50 _ 100 ViGi+V,G, _ 50 20 G46, iy 50 20 =4 ee ee © ‘Sol: The given circuit is shown in Fig. 1, where into a 40 Q across 50V can be deleted . Principle of Duality B _. + Two linear circuits are said to be duals of one son 3200 another if they are described by the same nal characterizing equations with dual quantities interchanged. Oey im + Network ard its dual are same only with respect to the perfortnance, but the elements a and connections point of view, they are not Fig. equal. B — Dual Pairs rn Resistance > Conductance G Inductance | <> Capacitance C aa 0a Impedance Z <> Admittance Y 2 Voltage v > Current i : Voltage source ¢> Current source A Node © Mesh Fig.2 Seriespath © Parallel path source Vaa is found by reducing the given circuit Open circuit — <> Short circuit V2" in to the left of BA into a single voltage | KCL © KVL | Thevenin © Norton Chennal iyderabad | Delhi | Bengalura | Bhubaneswar | Viiayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai}(ACE Engineering Academy 242: Electrical Circuits Star network © Delta network Rid) © Gv) pao oe ch dt dt ie 1 a i(pdt OF Jycat + The number of mesh equations in the original network is equal to the number of nodal equations in its dual network and vice versa. + ‘N’ nodal equations principle nodes. The following steps are involved in constructing the dual of a network : 1. Place a node inside each mesh of the given network. These internal nodes correspond to the independent nodes in the dual network. 2. Place a node outside the given network. The extemal node corresponds to the datum node in the dua! network. 3. Connect all intemal nodes in the adjacent mesh by dashed lines crossing the common branches. Eiements which are the duals of the common b:cnches will form the branches connecting the corresponding independent node in the dual network, 4. Connect all intemal nodes to the external node by dashed lines corresponding to all external branches. Duals of these external branches will form the branches connecting independent nodes and the datum node. 3. A clockwise current in a mesh corresponds to a positive polarity (with respect to the datum node) at the dual independent node. 6. A voltage rise in the direction of a clockwise mesh current corresponds to a current flowing towards the dual independent node. Example: 2.8 Draw the dual of the network shown in Figure. represents (N+1) et R Sol: (a) Place anode inside each mesh. (b) Place a node outside the mesh which will correspond to the datum node. Connect two internal nodes through a dashed line. The element which is dual of the common branch (here capacitance) will form the branch connecting the ~—_corresponding independent node in the dual network. Connect all internal nodes to the external node by dashed lines crossing all the branches. The dual of these branches will form the branches © @ connecting the independent node and datum, SUSE ED aca | Det Bengt | Bhbanesvar | Vizwada | Viekbopatam | Tie | Pe | Chena] ol @) 02.cuits the ssing these ihes, and Class Room Practice Questions OL. The equivalent circuit of the following circuit is (IES-EE-92) v 3V i" 3R b b O oa @ 1 3V Vv R/3 RI3 b b 02. If the combined generator and line impedance is (5 + j 10) ohm, then for the | maximum power transfer to a load impedance from a generator of constant generator voltage, the load impedance is given by which one of the following (IES-EE-02) (b) (5 -j 10) (5a ( (5+ 1.2 O6+j)Q 05. Superposition theorem is not applicable for (IES-EE-02) (a) voltage calculations (b) bilateral elements (©) power calculations (@) passive elements A voltage source having an intemal impedance of (8 + j6) ohms supplies power toa resistive load. What should be the oad resistance for maximum power transferred to it ? (1ES-EE-04) (a) 8 ohms (b) 6 ohms (c) 10 ohms (@) Vi0 ohms A load is connected to an active network. At the terminals to which the load is connected, Ry = 100 and Vy = 60¥. Then maximum power supplied to the load is (IES-EE-10) (&) 90W @low (a) 360 W (60 W The maximum power will be transferred from a voltage source to a load when (IES-EE-12) (a) the source impedance is half that of the load impedance (b) the source impedance is equal to that of the load impedance (©) the source impedance is twice that of the load impedance (@) both source and load impedances must be zero A source having internal impedance of (9 + j12)Q is to deliver maximum power to a resistive load. The load resistance should be (IES-EC-10) (b) 122 (219 @99 (15a a aa [Bhopal | New Delhi | Bengalura | Bhubaneswar | Viayavada { Viekhapauam | Twp | Pune ‘Chemai]08. 09. ACE Roginbt The maximum power that a I2V DC source with an internal resistance of 20 can supply to a resistive load is (IES-EC-12) (a) 72W (b) 48W (@)24w (a) 18 Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws apply for (AEE-2012) (a) resistive circuits only (b) linear circuits oniy (©) nonlinear circuits only (@) both linear and nonlinear circuits In the circuit of fig below Ry is given by a (aMws) +] 22 3Q 0 4H Va a (a) 5Q ()22 (0)4Q (62 . Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to (a) linear networks only (b) non-linear network only (c) both linear and non-linear networks (@) neither linear nor non-linear networks (aMws) .. The Nodal analysis is primarily based on the application of (a) Obm’s law (b) Kirchoff’s current law (c) Kirchoft’s voltage law (@) Both (1) and (2) (EPDCL-12) . Maximum power transfer takes place at an efficiency of (a) 25% (©) 50% (SPDCL-12) (b) 75% (@ 100% Class Room Practice Questions 14, Superposition theorein requires as many circuits to be solved as there are (@) sources (SPDCL-12) (b) nodes (c) sources + nodes (@) sources + nodes + meshes 01. An ac source of voltage B, and an internal impedance of Z, = (R; + jX,) is connected to a load of impedance Z, = (Ri +j Xt) - Consider the following conditions in this regard. 1. X.=Xy if only Xi, is varied, 2. XL=-Xy ifonly X_ is varied 3. R= YR2+(X,+X,)', ifonly Ry is varied, |Z, |=|Z, | ,if the magnitude alone of Z_ is varied, keeping the phase angle fixed. ‘Among these conditions, those which are to be satisfied for maximum power transfer from the source to the load would include (IES-EE-93) (a) 2and 3 (b) Land 3 (©) 1,2and4 (a) 2,32nd4 02. IER, in the circuit shown in the given figure is variable between 20 © and 80 Q then the maximum power transferred to load Ry, will be Rg, _ (IBS-EE-95) e @ SW (0) 6.67W (b) 13.33 W (24W Q 04, ERS) ad |p| New De gn | Wher] Visas | Vishipanan | Ties | Pie Chea]ACE ions Engineering Academy 145: Network Theorems aany 3. In the network shown in the given figure, the Thevenin source and the impedance 2 across terminals A ~ B will be respectively (IES-EE-99) w2 02 ; A 06. Inthe lattice network, find the value of R for 't——° the maximum power transfer to the load. IES-EC-92) 5a a = ISV At : oA a 4Q' 70 2d to B K # R «). this (@) 15 V and 13.33 me 90 (b) 50 V and 152 e (©) 115 Vand 200 @5 (65 8 (9 (@ 100 Vand 25.0 L 07. In the network shown in the given figure 64. ‘The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Ris for currenti=OwhenE=4V, [=2 Aandi ; the given network is (IES-EE-01) =1A when E=8V, 1=2A, The Ee 20 Thevenin voltage and the resistance looking ngle into the terminals AB are (IES-EC-96) on 1A 20 . | ia fe < Ry | cs is : Resistors ould I es 9%) iv nly @1aQ (22 Fig. eo @4Q (@lafinity (a 4V,20 ()4V,40 the 05. Applying Norton’s Theorem, the Norton's (©8V.20 @8v,4n will valent circuit to the 1 th ls 8) sae Din the baler ciel is faving | 08 Which one ofthe following is applicable to equivalent curent source (y) and equivalent any storie of norne, aie stan ar passive, time-varying or invariant-as long, as msn a : ) Kirchhoff’ laws are not violated? 4a (IES-EC-09) ig (a) Tellegen’s theorem A (b) Reciprocity theorem + )2av 4A\ sag (©) Maximum power transfer theorem - (@ Superposition theorem ; b Fig i] RRR ai | aa [Neves itr Wir | Vina | Trae [CheaACE Engineering Academy 09. Thevenin’s equivalent resistance as seen from the terminals AB for the circuit is (ES-EC-12) (@) 1k. (©) 1000 () 100 (a) 19k 10. A voltage source V with internal impedance R + jX is driving such a load as to have maximum power transfer. Power transfer to load is given by (HMWs) Vi ve ve 0 ® R ® QR vt vy d) | ——|R o% o(ey Il, For the circuit shown in figure. The Thevenin’s voltage and resistance at terminals A and B respectively are 212 vy, 3k \——0A 4 (2) 8V and SkQ (b)8 Vand 10k (©) 4V and 5kQ (2)4 Vand 10kQ 12. For the circuit shown in figure a value of R (in © ) to which the voltage source would Class Room Practice Questions deliver 50% of the maximum deliverable power is, lo (10) y R @1 (0) 05 (0.25 3-8 13. The resistance which should be connected between terminals P and Q for maximum transfer of power from source to the combined load is (SPDCL-12) 1 i i ' i Combined load t 1 1 (a) Zero 0 (42 (b) 22 (@) infinity ohms 14. The Norton’s resistance of the circuit shown is 40. 1a Wi Ayo gov (t) 202 (2, Ry —_|_l|__ (GENCO-12) (32 (2092 @I7a (40 UE ad Fp New Das | Dept | harcvar| Woda | Vana | Toa | Poe [Choa Oo. a os 02 Sooad wn 2 = Kirchhoff’s current law is based on the law of (GENCO-12) (a) conservation of energy (b) conservation of charge (c) conservation of momentum (@) conservation of mass 16. Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws cannot be applied at (SAIL-13) (a) low frequency (b) constant temperature (6) linear circuit (@) High frequency Solutions LEVEL-1 OL. Ans: (@) y) b [R 7 | Fig] : a “Ss R = N@® 32= R R b as Fig2 Fe | | The equivalent circuit across the terminals a, | » is obtained by simplifying the circuit as shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 02, Ans: (b) Sol: For maximum power transfer, =(6-j1)Q Ont8 247: 03. Network Theorems Ans: (€) 07. Sol: : Superposition theorem is not applicable for power calculations as Power is proportional toVorl. 1. Ans: (€) L=VR2+X? = (64536 =100 Ans: (b) Ry= 100 =60V Vin Vo O [] Load Fig. 1 Referring to Fig. 1. Maximum power is supplicd to the load, when load is R= Ry = 102 © Maximum power = 1.? R, = 90 W 5. Ans: (b) Sol: When the source impedance is equal to load impedance maximum power will transfer to load. Ans: (9) 1, = (9 +j12)Q For maximum power transfer, resistive load, = JR? +X} =y9" +12? = 150 Ans: (a) Phe maximum power that can be delivered Ye _ (1 42) is P, ‘nan = 18 Watts 0 aR, RT 1 este | pat | New Da Bengt | Bhatansvar | Viewed | Viahapaam j Tia | Pe [henna]@ rat Fenty 148: Class Room Practice Questions . 09. Ans: (b) | 1. Ans: (@) 12, Ans: (d) : : ‘ 10. Ans: () 13. Ans: (¢) 14, Ans: (a) Sol: Ry is the resistance seen through load —— E terminals when all Independent sources are Level-2 Key = replaced by their internal resistance O1.(d) 02.(a) 03.(c} 64.(b) 05. (@) 06.(b) 07.(b) 08.(a) 09. (c) 10.(0) 1.@) 12.@) 13.) 14.(0) 15.(b) 22 40 & Ry 16.) Ra=4IG+1)=20 RR in [mee | apm TRO]@ © © (Chennai Laplace Transform Ap] Solving Steady State AC Ci 10 |_F) ) | Fo} ® | | oy 1 vw) | v@) | uty | ts RJ] oR | Ts LE { si t) [| 1s | 1 c|lte eu), waa SC Dag ke VO) _ e} - =v 2 V6)=Z0U8) 19) = 75 ees 2VO=F65 319)=YOVO arena yo=o 76) [ w | vo | RO ly R s~Q = | to : ce scu Pierre-Simo-Laplace (1749-1827) We can add impedances in series and admittances ia parallel. Example: 3.1 Find out the Laplace transform of the shifted gate pulse shown below. re) Khon y t bot Fig: A shifted gate function Sol: This shifted gate function can be synthesized with the help of two step functions as follows: Kuen Khe. F(A step function staring 4 ‘ lees ee : Fig2) step fonction staring ts xe. Kua, Kuieven) ft «| Fig: ent pe obtained By soberacing signal of Fig()) and) q Pierre-Sisnon, marquis de Laplace was a French mathematician and astronomer formulated Laplace's equation, and pioneered the Laplace transform vihich appears in many branches of mathematical physics.ACE 7 ‘Engineering Academy 150: Electrical Circuits The above waveforms show that the gate eben be pulse can be represented as, “S41 sal I a f(t) = Kfu(t—2,)-ut-t,)] ‘The driving point impedance Z(s) is given Afr(el= ek {ult—t,)-ult-t, J} a8, Kfdlu(t~t Jule} : x | by equatin. 5 Keen -e*) Introd + Tr pre Example: 3.2 inc Figure shows an inipedance whose voltage and | eee current are as shown ing ya ea) We know that Laplace transform of R ie, int i()=e*-e the value is unchanged fe Laplace an a in transform of capacitor is i Thus, the the y + above impedance appears to be series . Ww. v(t) = 10.4)-10v(t-2) Network connection of resistor and capacitor. ie ., K ‘ )=R+% ; R=10Qand c= res rc , The circuit wll be, 7 100 + Tt comin as oS Als co Sol: Let us first evaluate the Laplace transforms os Cs of v 0 ce (t) and i(t) Fig: Impedance of the network ig: Impedance of the netwo V(t) = 10 u(t) - 10 wt-2) cae aot By taking Laplace transform of above equation using standard transform tables, we ‘The current is given as, i(t)=e -e) Taking Laplace transform of above equation, we get, I [SSE Dats] Benin | Dect | Vise | Vipin | Tra [Pine |[Ghowal] EEcuits Transient Circuit Analysis cA. Ze=0 3C98C <—Ht+— 10389052, 90 SLC es i © aiven n 32,30 3C90C eon AA long time after the switching action (t->.0) is aera the steady state. In steady state, the inductor a behaviour is a short circuit behaviour and the o fe ee capacitor behaviour is an open circuit behaviour. 7 . } i.e. with in zero time Steady state or Drunked State Introduction: Whenever an independent D.C, source is ie, olace the eries + Transients in the system is because of the presence of energy storing elements called the inductor and the capacitor. Since the energy stored in a memory element cannot change instantaneously ie within zero time, (due to integrations of energy variables iz, and Vc) L and C elements will oppose sudden changes | in the system, which results in unstablity of the system due to severe oscillations, + When the network consists of only resistances (a memoryless system), no transients occur in the system at the time of switching, since the resistor can accommodate any amount of voltages and currents (v = Ri or i= v/R). + The transient effects are more severe for d.c as compared to ac and the transientfree condition is possible to only for ac excitations (at zero crossings of sine or cosine). 3.2.1 Behaviour of L and C elements at t = 0" and as t ~) co instants 9 ep =» 0 > Z=SLO la sc t=0' >S=0=>2, Zo= 23L>0.C connected to the network for a long time (i.e. ideally infinite amount of time and practically up to 5 time constants), then the network is said to be in steady state. In steady state, the energy stored in the network is maximum and constant, So energy stored in the memory elements is maximum and constant. Maximum & Constant ie Lit ; = iy = Maximum & Constant So, inductor will act as a constant current source in steady state Since V.= taboy, »0 =L>SC Similarly iow = Maximum & Constant, => Vo= Maximum & Constant So, capacitor will act as a constant voltage source in steady state. ave Since ie= C 2 i, 203 C30C Observatior The above discussion is valid only for de excitations /sources. What about AC excitations / sources? Ans:For AC, during the positive slope of the period, both L and C elements are charging al] (CREREEETRETETAD ead | Deli Benslara | Bhubencsvar | Viewavads | Vithapsinam | Tip | Pune | ChalElectrical Circuits [ie., storing the energy) and during the | negative slope of the period, they are discharging { i.e delivering the energy J, so the net energy observed over the period is zero, And hence, L and C elements are always present for a.c excitations / sources Blind approach: a + In steady state, Z,jLQ and Z, joc « For A.C, a6. And hence 2;=jOLQ (#0) and Z,=—L.a ( 20) ie. The impedances are joc finite and hence, L and C elements are always present for a.c excitations / sources. + Ford.c, @=0 and hence Z=023L9S.C Ze=aQSC9 OL L&C elements will dies for dec s [sources in steady state, ie, TI excitatio 3.2.2. Inductor cprrent at t = @ and at t=O" instants L i=t fy.oat Moos i (dt L =i, y+ fy.@at iff Odt At t-0° 7h") =1,.0)+ So, inductor current cannot change instantaneously i.e. with zero time for all the practical excitations. Simitarly the energy. ff v(t) = 8(t), then ic(0") = i(0") : foc. at So, inductor current can change instantaneously ie. within zero time for impulse voltage across it. Similarly the energy. More Specifically for impulse: V,() =8(t) = for -w << 0 le >i, (0 pM (thot =0A io a $0, EO}= 0 & 0’) = 41, 10°) lal “2 (i) f:,0)=21] pea Hyderabad | Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai 5ange {the dt ange for the ACE Engineering Academy 3.2.3. Capacitor voltage at t = 0" and at t = 0° instants 1 y+ ce dt Att=0"=> V¢(0")=Ve(0) + Ve")= V0) V| For all practical inputs [Be(0")=B(0) 3} More Specifically for impulse: ic = 8() = 0 for -oSt<0 SV) = = pa ov fees a 3.24 Equivalent Cireuits: Li it i ane o{— wo x 153: | Proof: ‘Transient Circuit Analysis uth Peat i, = ire ilk at |i=I, Proof: ByKCL, 14 . 1) “i+ pet =05i, aha dt By KVL «Classification of Transients: i) D.C Trai ts ii) A.C Transients 3.3, DC Transients 3.3.1 Source free circuits (ie. without independent sources) RL+Lb Source free RC3C->Vo ue RLC3Lhy aS (01) Both sens NGREREEERTEETND certad | Debi | Bens | Bhubaneswar | Vinyavada | Visabapatnam | Tuga | Pune | Cheam]i542 Electrical Circuits Property: In all the source free circuits, stored energies in the memory elements are maximum at t= 0 and as a function of time, these stored energies will be delivered to the memoryless resistances in an exponentially decayed manner and hence, the energy present in the network at steady state (> cx) is zero. 33.1.1 Sourcefree RL circuit For 20; ByKVL =Ve~ Vi=0 -rittzo = “Rio a aL f wa p-4 3(psB\i-o dt eT) Characteristic equation => D+ - =0 Itis like S=a. i(t)=Ke" for 0 i(0")=1, So, t= 0" = i(0") = ke => k =i(0")=1, R, = i(t) =e! Afordstso = it) =le” A for 0 th, Fort>0 a te vs R vor) 0 t (sec) typo tt= sec eR So the energy decay is 2 times faster than the Avt=0" ; Atesistive circuit current decay. | = V(0")=V, | =or = Ke? =v0y= 33.1.2. Sourcefree RC circuit So, t= 0" => V(0")=Ke® = K= v(0")=Vo v(t)=V, v Sts 7, | vi)=V, for0 Sts ek Vic, [— uw V,e* | V for 0 st V(t) =Ke®€ V for 0}~ Steady State 4 Period Period =] [REESE )edratad | Det | Benraura | Bhubaneswar | Viayavada | Viakbapamam | Tirupati | Pane | Chennai)@. 156: Electrical Circuits Example: 3.3 | Att=5r, ()=Vye* <$-0 @ i= 1 SPST is closed at t= 0 What is the fie Constant | Bel)=5-Cv*(00 = of the cient, za > © mit: : (9267 Sst | = Be (1) for0st (a4 (SERN tat a a alr] iene | Vay | Wp | Re | ChalACE , ., ts gineering Academy 187: Transient Circuit Analysis Example: 35 iO RaR ane 5a nt In the network of figure, the switch is initially at wie= 1 —u(t) the position 1. On the steady state having Rie reached, the switch is changed te the position 2, Find current i(t). Oi) = (@) none Ans: () R Sols co ‘41 Ww | Sol: At t = 0°, the network has attained steady- state condition. Hence, the inductor acts as a sC short circuit. sRC+1 Ri | a Since the inductor does not allow sudden change in current, i’ a Writing KVL equation for t >0, (Bl GERARD idea | Det | Bene | Biubanwar | Vinowada | Viakbapsinam | Trupad | Pane | Chena].Orne Facey 258: Electrical Circuits | @ The solution of this differential equation is. | 2 332 given by i(t)=4e? iG.)=4e'=148, -hetx3e 3.34 vol3.)=Ve(3)=4e' x 3=4.44 Att =3 Sys closed. 2 Qis SC. Current jumps to a higher value and then decays to zero quickly with a reduced time constant | For 3 L=0C> AsotoeaL=SC> Cc C Property: At these two instants, L and C elements will lose their significance and hence the nature of the circuit is resistive. Example: 3.7 In the network shown in figure, the switch is closed, Assuming all initial conditions as zero, 2 find i, “and? ato", dt dt y wo 1H 1ov>— “) L,, i Sol: 10V) ———wW—» i’) » | Att=0 i(0)=0 ; v0)=0 At t= 0°, the inductor acts as an open circuit and the capacitor acts as a short circuit. i(@’)=0 v0")=0 Transient Circuit Analysis Writing KVL equation for t> 0 10Q 1H dt 10x ‘ doo io= 1014s a loxt0* Att=0" 10=10i(0")+ S(r}so dif), ae) 10A/s Differentiating the equation (i), we get Example: 38 In the accompanying figure is shown a network in which a steady state is reached with switch open. At t = 0, switch is closed. Determine v,(0), v(0"), vo(0") and v9(0"), 100, WE V0) 200 volt) sw OF 100, a) ERRATA pace | Dans | Heart | Boabanvar | Viyovods | Voallupatan | Taopa Pune | Chal]160: Electrical Circuits Sol: At t = 0°, the network attains steady-state | Example: 3.9 condition, Hence, the capacitor acts as an | The energy stored in the capacitor is i ‘open circuit. 102. ! > | 200. 8a a 102 yoy 200 3ov-—— = +} + | Voy IWF 100 10. | 1 Bxa i 200 80. The Ve ie | cur ViO)=5V toa ne wave72 VO)=5V - i . Ve=4V ACC =0°, the capacitor acts as a voltage 1 i Energy stored = —-CV’ | source of SV. rey Stee 9 | 1 ; | VO)=SV =pxle(4P w= gw | ial Writing KCL equation at t= 0°, 33.2.2 With sources, Laplace transforms 109 approach of solving transient problems for 0< \ tSe. ig WS) R + + N vo Ve R we vA(9) R a wo Ly, ‘ 1-D , SP Ler 14 0.25 v,(0"°) = 0.75 ¥(0')=3V SUGGES cated | et Denar | habeas | Vnyovods | Viekpatam | Trane | Pune | Cheam)ACE 6 Engineering Academy 261: Transient Circuit Analysis 1G) Example: 3.11 4S) Tn the network shown in figure, the switch is es closed at t = 0, the steady-state being reached before t = 0. Determine current through inductor , of 3H. — Ve) s ) s-D S wt ) 20 en Example: 3.10 | | i ity The network below represents the equivalent of an inductor in Laplace domain. Determine initial | Sol: At t = (, steady-state condition is reached. current through it Hence, the inductor of 2H acts as a short circuit. S20 s-D Ans: Since Llp = 6V and L= 4H s 6 ‘ Solo= > => —-=12A . L Since current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, 1 i,(0")= 3A R i,0')=0 For t > 0, the transformed network is shown in figure. Applying KVL to Mesh 1, GRRE ec a awa | Bhatnser) Viva | Vekbapnan | Tra | Pane | Chena] le)ACE NI! Engineering Academy 262: Electrical Circuits 1 _41,(6)+1-2(5,6)-1,6)=0 > 5 22 (2+25)h,6)-21,()=144 ,° 3 a Applying KVL to Mesh 2, i : i L()=L- -2(1,(6)-1,())-21,(6)-3s1,(6)=0 5, i0(s+2) fo) =21,(5)+(4+35)L,(6)=0 v3) ‘Taking inverse Laplace transform, By Cramer’s Rule fe aon . et —fe) fort>0 p2s 14/4 2 5 1,6)=,== 2 st) Weds 2] Ose 2\ae3sy-4 | amples 312 | ~2 443s) For the network shown, determine the current i(t) \ ; when the switch is closed at t=0 with zero initial 27 ft - 9 conditions. me Qs +7542) asso loea) Yo—AWy— 1 SH 3+) St(t-1) » * 1) i ily, s(s+2) s+ 75 ales) By pattal — fraction expansion, Sol: The transformed network is shown in figure 16)=44 3.45 3 st) gt | wo) ‘ Se Applying KVL to the Mesh for ¢> 6, an 6 = -51(s)-"1(s)=0 will) 16) sisi)» S16 Se* SP 45548) sl [ESSAI aad | Devs j Henge | Dhubanesar | Vinyoada | Viskiapamam | Tovpa| Pane | Chena]fraction expansion, BoC ie 3 By partial 1 s6+3)s+2) $ s+ 1 {3)e+ aL, W-[egay gal Set set 3s+3 2842 » aoe. 6s Taking inverse Laplace transform, i= ful a sew Yu(t-1)- fort>0 3.4 Phasor Representation and its Ymportance in Steady State AC Circuit Analysis A Phasor is a complex number that represents amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. It is defined only for the cosinusoidal signals. All sinusoidal signals are converted into cosinusoids by subtracting 90° from phase. As a complex quantity, a phasor may be | expressed in exponential form, polar form or rectangular form. Since a phasor has magnitude and phase (“direction”), it behaves as a vector. V()=V,, cos(at +8) =RP [v0] ‘Transient Circuit Analysis =R?lv,c%e™| =RP [ve] V=Vae" > Exponential form of phasor representation =Vq.Zo —> Polar form of the phasor representation =Vp, (cos $+ sin 6)» Rectangular, d form of Phasor representation i() = Incos (at +8) 1=]yZ@ > Polar =[,e” — Expo. = In(cos® + j sin) —> Rect. eg: V(0)= 10 cos (2t+30°V 1) V= 10230" Polar = 10” Expo. = 10(cos30° + jsin30°)—> Rect. ) = 10] 2.4 j4) ie,phasoris a oes) representation of complex number eg: itt) = 10 sin (2t +30°)A. = 10 cos (2 + 30°-90)A =10.cos (2t- 60") A T=102-60° =10e" = 10 (cos 60° — jsin 60°) al [SSRN era | Det | Benga | Bhubaneswar | Vibyavada | Visklapamam | Tima | Pune | Chennal]164: Electrical Circuits , 1 = Natural response + Forced response. Lay Response up to St + Response after 5t h - ‘Tansient response+Steady state response. Yy=slu Z| iO = iu) + iss) i x DeP-D i()= Ke ' +ig() = Ke +i) R ior iss(t): vie V 5 - ROR VW=Ve io) i, L @ jal Q (s=ja) sin(ot+) oto | joc NWis ins Note: {Analysis of a.c in steady state is generally | yfethod (1): By Phasor approach carried out in the phasor domain ie. KCLKVL, Ohm's. law, Nodal, Mesh & | Transform above network into phasor domain, Soutce transformation are written only in the phasor domi. 2. Addition and subtraction operations of phasors are caried out only in the rectangular form, where as division and mulipiication operations of phasors are carried out either in polar or in exponential form 3.5 A.C. Transients 3.5.1 Steady State Response & Transient - Free | condition for RL, RC and RLC Circuits 3.5.1.1 Series RL circuit sin(ot*®) CS=CF+PL R =, + + VpZ0-90° *) joL 2 NWis in P-D V=2Z.1/ By ohm’s law in P.D By KV1 in P-D = V, 20-90" -RI- joLI=0 _V, 4. ae oue tan (=) Ral JR’ +(oLy ® (ol) >I= Ze ~tan“| ii 90° YR? +(@L)? KR =aZB =ae” i()=RPfle™ A = acos(at +B) 1oL = acos(iot +O ~ tan RESREAERAERD is cerabed | Dai | Benga | Bhubaneswar | Viayawada | Visakhapatam | Tiupati | Pune | Chennal] B®Transient Circuit Analysis = is(t) Method (2): By LTA VO) =Vm sin (ot + a X68) to Ve = ¥0) as ReSL H(jo) eas at stn VR? +(oL)? R =1(9)=HG)-V) > i= Vesinl ot + ~ tan a) VR +(@L)’ =in(t) iD = ie(t) + i) = Ke 4 Me sina + ta! 8) WRC 0) = 0A =i) IL =0=Ke"+ in 0-+@—tan 5) YR’ + (ol) = sil tax! Ecc (Ra@ly R) As K in(t)=0 > i = a(t) ie. A transient- free response. So, condition for transient - free response at t=0is Note: + — So, if the total phase of me at the time ob of switching is equal to tan”|"p”} then no transients will result in the system at the time of switching for sinusoidal excitation, + If the switch is closed at t = ty ,then the condition for the transient free response at t=tois ele} fat, +0 = tan” (2) any + If the excitation is V(t) = Vm cos (at + ©), then sine is replaced by cosine in the steady state response and hence ‘K’ is a function of cosine, oL_ + Suppose, @~ tan! =~ Suppose, @— tan! F== 5 =K=0>i,()=0 Si0=i,0 ic, A transient - free response pon wo (2) 4] arms + Inthe above cases if ‘ L’ is replaced by “C’ then t = should be replaced by t= RC QRS) cersina | Dens | Benga | Dhubanesar | Vipera | Vieklopawam | Taw | Pane | ChenACE rs CBs 3.5.1.2 Parallel RL Circuit i()= lasinfot + 6) eo 7 ina(t) by LTA: B 1S) 1S) _yygg) -(_desiredLt excitation L,” WO)R LO Ro sL (By current division in s~ domain) i@)=0=i,(0) K | ‘@L Fe vet) eo by Ohm's law Suppose © ~ tan™ * =0 2K =0>i,()=0 ol) 2 sin] © tan Sect i an 2 166: Electrical Circuits =i,= x(t) ie, A transient - free response aL) \ = tan" =| att=0 En R a} (same as series RL circuit) Ifi(t) =Iyc0s (ot +), then — = tan 24" at t=0 steel 2) 40) [ate tan att=ty 2) In the above cases if ‘L’ is replaced by ‘C’, then t = should be replaced by t =RC. Note: Transient - free condition is not possible for networks with both the energy storing elements ie. for RLC networks. Reason: $,S.=a + jB i) =ie(t) +100 =e" (K, cosft +K, sin Bt)+ ies(Q) Here by applying initial conditions i,(0°) and vc(0"), Ky is @ function of sine and Kp is a function of cosine (vice versa), hence no time will satisfy both K; and K. simultaneously to zero and so the transient term is always present in the complete response. Obs: So, the transient - free time (ty value) in RL, and RC circuits with A.C excitation will depend (SSRN cect | Dei | rng | Butanesmar | Vivavada | Viskhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai on the on th the n not 0 ot Ly) Exan For resp¢ Sol:167: Transient Circuit Analysis on the source frequency (0), its initial phase (¢), on the circuit constants (R, L, C values) and on the nature of the excitation (sine or cosine), but not on the maximum value of the excitation (Vi, or ly). Example: 3.13 For the network shown in figure, find the response v(t). Sol: The transformed network is shown in figure 20 —_s 53 4 vat TW By voltage-division formula, +1)s+2) By partial - fraction expansion , AstB. C Pace s+] 842 s=(As+B)(s +2) +C (+1) s=s* (A+C) +s (2A +B) + (2B +C) “s#2 Nh Comparing coefficient of s?, s and s°, we have A+C=0 2A+B=1 2B+C=0 Solving the equations, we get A=04,B=02,C=-04 043+ Yul= st +2 pee O iene) stat s+] g#2 Taking the inverse Laplace transform, i(t)=0.4cost + 0.2sint-0.4e™ for t>0 lerabad | Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Viayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | ChennaiO1 02. 03, 04. Class Room Practice Questions A square wave is fed to an RC circuit. Then (IES-EE-92) (a) voltage across R is square and across C is not square (b) voltage across C is not square and across Ris not square (6) voltage across both R and C is square (@)} voltage across both R and C is not square If the unit step response of a network is (I- ©") then its impulse response will be (IES-EE-97) @ ac tere a ote Maa" 7 A system finetion has a pole at s = 0 and a zero at $= -1, The constant multiplier is unity. For an excitation sin t, what is the steady-state response? -_(IES-EE-06) (a) V2 sin (t+45") (b) V2 sin(t~45") (©) sin(t-45") @sint Consider an L-R cireuit in which a current i = Se A is flowing. The voltage across the R-L circuit is given by (IES-EE-12) (a) 20" V i (b) -10e"V + (6) 100" V @se*V RB 4D v(t) LSin 05. The time constant associated with the capacitor changing in the circuit shown in Fig. is (IES-EC-96) be Je Fig. (6) 10 ps (425 us Su (@) 6 us (©) 15 ps 06. Time constants of R-L and R-C circuits are respectively: (ES-EC-11) R=10; L=1H and C=1F (a) I sec and 1 see (b) I sec and 2 see (6) 2 sec and 3 sec (4) 2 sec and 4 sec 07. Time constant of a series R-L circuit equals (ISRO-2006) (b) LR second (@ LR’ (2) LIR second OLR 08. A de voltage V is applied at time t=0 toa series RC circuit. The steady state curtent is (FRO) Vv v oy we O-— ze —¥ " VR? +C 09. For the network shown below, the switch K. is closed at t = 0. With capacitor uacharged, the value of current at t= 0" is (HMWS) PERG) [ot (New Da Beg | tsar | Vayavad | Vina Tapa | Pune (Gua169: ‘Transient Circuits Analysis = | L (©) geometric mean of the timonstants of the | reac individual coils a (@ product of the time constants of the 100v0ts = ie individual coils | 03. The response of an initially relaxed linear circuit to a signal V, is & * u(t). If the IV, (@) zero amp(b) 0.1 amp signal is changed to (v + 2) the (©) 0.01 amp(d) 0.001 amp z response would be (IES-EE-94) 10, The time constant of the network shown in 4 ura) figure is . ()~367 u() +280) (a) 2RC R (c) 4e™™ u(t) -8() (b) 3RC (@ Se u(a +280) RC Oy Ly | 04. A unit impulse voltage is applied at ORC . t= 0 to the RL circuit shown below while @- 3 i(0) = 1 A. What is the expression for i(t) ? (IES-EE-05) @e™ (156 01. Consider the following data: rer (TES-EE-93) @ We 1. Input applied fort te state voltages actoss the capacitor ? would include ES-EE-06) (a) 1,3 and4 (6) 2.3 and 4 (©) 2and 3 (@)2and4 ig 19 02. Two coils having equal resistances but 7 ine different inductances are connected in series al The time constant of the series combination Fig is the (IES-EE-93) . | (a) 1 Vand 1 V, respectively (a) sum of the time conf the individual coils (b) 1 V and 0 , respectively (b) average of the time conf individual coils, (c) O and 1 V, respectively (2) 9-and 0, respectively LD in ‘New Debi | Beagaluny | Bhibanesvar | Vinyawada | Viakbapeinam | Tirupat | Pane [Cheat270: Class Room Practice Questions 06. In the circuit, if Vo(0) = 25 V, the | expression for Ve(*) for t> 0 is (ES-EE-11) 09S OIF (a) Ve(t)=20 MV (b) Volt) =25 "VV (©) Velt)=20e'V (@) Volt} =25e7"'V 07. For the circuit shown below different time constants are given: 1.0.5 x 10° ms 2.2 10° ms 3.0.25 x10" ms 4.107 ms What arc the charging and discharging time constants respectively? 1k an | Hm R, ; Ka, I 05 pF : . 05 + Fig. @ 1,2 (6)2,3 1,3 (2,4 08. A step function voltage is applied to an RLC seties circuit having R = 20, L= 1H and C= IF. the transient current response of the circuit would be (IES-EC-95) (a) over damped (b) critically damped 09. (©) underdamped (@) over, under or critically damped depending upon the magnitude of the step voltage The time-constant of the network shown inthe figure is (ISRO -2007) (a)CR (b) CR? cR ©: 4 R oF ). The time constant for the circuit shown’ below is (ISRO -2009) na | OWE T 20 zo (@) 0.2 microsecond (6) 0.8 millisecond (6) 0.4 millisecond (4) 0.2 millisecond For the citcuit shown in the figure, the switch is closed at t= 0. After some time when the current in the inductor was 6A, the rate of change of cument through the inductor was 4A/see. The value of the inductor is (ABE-2012) (EEA erat | opal | New Dati] Benga | banca | Vina Visas | Tru» Pine [Chea]ACE agncering Academy Transient Circuits Analysis (a) 0.SH b) 15H ame ia i es 15, The current i(0°) and r in the circuit given : below are 12. In the circuit of fig given v(t) for t > 0 is given by (ABE-2012) T Lu(t) Li R i — (a)0,0 wo5 (@) Re'™® (b) Res 4 a5 © RG") — @ RO") 3.0 @3,3 2 22 13. In the circuit of series RL given in fig., V is given by (ABE-2012) | 16. In the given R ~ C circuit, the current + sint reaches its maximum value (SPDCL-12) 10 1H 1000, .~—-———v s | Cc. 1 SuF par ) 10 Vols T i (2) 2sint (b) 2cost | (©) sin(t+45°) — (@)_ ¥2sin +45") 14. In the circuit of fig shown steady state has (@) after 50 y.sec. of tuning on the switch § been reached with the switch open the (b) after 100 y.see. of tuning on the switch switch is closed at t=0 the current I at t=O" e : 2012) (6) after 1000 jusec. of tuning on the switch s (@) immediately after tuming on the switch 8 17. A capacitor C at time t= 0° with initial (a) 3/2 A (9) 2A (b) 9A (d) 4A, charge Qo acts as (a) short circuit (b) open circuit (o) current source (d) voltage source (SPDCL-12) DEGRA |e | New Dek Bear Bhabarenvar | Wsynads | Visapaman | Ti | Pe [Cea]Int and AC rep As 3 ACE @ Engincering Academy 72s Class Room Practice Questions i rope et 06. Ans: (a) See Sol: Time constant 01. Ans: (@) = {p18 fork —L citi Sol: Vc(t) rises exponentially during the rising, Oe ; charging half eycle and falls during the =CR~ 1 see for RE circuit discharging, falling portion of the adjacent . half cycle, va(t is also not square | 07. Ans: (a) . 08, Ans: (d) oe cee) aa Sol: Under steady state capacitor acts as a open Sol: u(t) —>1-< circuit 4 4 : ; yet fee < curreat is zero a(t) at u(t) — an (-e") zac". t>0 . Ans: (b) 0 ne 0 Sol: Capacitor opposes sudden change in voltage 7 At t=O" itacts asa short circuit ©. Ans: (b) Att=0", wai OIA so H(5) = 18+) G0) be _ 10. Ans: (@) +10) Oars Sol: Equivalent resistance seen through o capacitor terminals after switch operation, HGI)=1-j1 2R \HGDl=2, AtGy =~45 Ra = CRIM) = Steady state response = 1 [HGj1) sin ee enc ‘ (t+ ZAG) = V2 sin(t—45") “Time constant = RyyC =~ 04. Ans: (0) p< Sols Vq=Sex4= 206" | ( ——¢( Level? Key \ | Ne =} 566 2) 61.(4) 02.(6) 03.(6) 04.() 05. (0) a aoe 06.(@) 07.) 08.(b) 0%.(@) 10. (a) IL@ 12.0) 3.@ 14 15.@ | : 16.(@) 17.) 05. Ans: (a) Sol: t=RCR° 2y3=$0,0-8x 10°F . [acme yeraad | Bhopal |New Dai) Benga | Bhubaneswar | Vjayavada | Vithayatam | Tra) Pane [Obenna] |xe = Average and RMS Values of Periodic Signals Introduction: ‘An alternating waveform changes its magnitude and direction periodically. Figure shows various AC waveforms. v vi v ‘Many times, alternating voltages and currents are represented by a sinusoidal waveforms. A sinusoidal voltage can be represented as v=V, sin@ = Vin sin wt = Vmnsin 2nft = V,sin=t — T ‘Terms related with alternating Quantity: 1. Waveform: A waveform is a graph in which the instantaneous value of any quantity is plotted against time. Figure shows a few waveforms, 2. Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of an altemating quantity is termed as cycle. 3. Frequency: The number of cycles per second of an alternating quantity is known as frequency. It is denoted by f and is expressed in hecta(Hz) or eycles per second (c/s). Time period: ‘The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called time period. It is denoted by T and is expressed in seconds. L t=! f Amplitude: The maximum positive or negative value of an altemnating quantity is called the amplitude, Phase: The phase of an altemating quantity is the time that has elapsed since the quantity has last passed through zero point of reference. Phase difference: This term is used to compare the phases of two altemating quantities. Two alternating quantities are said to be in phase when they reach their maximum and zero values at the same time, Their maximum value may be different in magnitude, A leading altemating quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero value earlier as compared to the other quantity. A lagging alternating quantity is one which attains its maximum or zero value later than the other quantity, A plus (+) sign when used in connection with ‘the phase difference denotes ‘lead’, whereas a minus(-) sign denotes ‘lag’, V, =V, sinot V, =V,,sin(ot +4) Here, quantity B leads A by a phase angle 6. ‘Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta was an Italian physicist known for the invention ofthe battery inthe 1800s.