SOIL MECHANICS IA-EECQ 3171

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Dr. George Okwadha

 Soil water
• All soils are permeable and this allows water to flow freely
through the soil’s interconnected pores between the soil
particles
• The pressure of the pore water is measured relative to
atmospheric pressure
• The level at which the pressure is atmospheric (i.e., zero) is
referred to as the water table (WT) or phreatic surface.
• Below the water table, the soil is assumed to be fully
saturated although there could be some entrapped air
• A perched water table can occur locally contained by soil of
low permeability above the normal water table level
• Below the water table, the pore water may be static or may
be seeping through the soil under a hydraulic gradient
 Soil water Cont’
• Bernoulli’s theorem applies to the pore water but
seepage velocities in soils are normally so small that
velocity head can be neglected.
𝑢
• Thus, ℎ = +𝑧
𝛾𝑤
𝑣2 𝑝
• (Recall, H = + +𝑧, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = 0, 𝑝 = 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ω = 𝛾𝑤 )
2𝑔 ω
• Where
– h = total head
– 𝑢 = pore water pressure
– 𝛾𝑤 = unit wt. of water
– 𝑧 = elevation head above a chosen datum
 Permeability
• Permeability of a soil is the ease with which water
flows through it.
• The flow of water through a soil is important
because it helps the engineer solve problems
involving
– The rate at which water flows through the soil (i.e
determination of the rate of leakage through an
earthdam)
– Compressibility (e.g. determination of the rate of
settlement of a foundation structure)
– Strength (e.g. evaluation of factors of safety of an
embankment)
 Permeability Cont’
• Darcy in 1856 showed experimentally that fluid’s velocity, 𝒗
of flow through a porous media is directly proportional to
hydraulic gradient,
– Thus, 𝒗 α i ; Where i = hydraulic gradient (head loss per
unit length)
• Provided that hydraulic gradient is less than 1, flow of
water through a fully saturated soil is linear, one dimension
and Darcy’s empirical law applies and is given by
– 𝒗 = 𝑘𝑖 ⇒ 𝑞 = 𝐴𝒗 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖; Where
• q = volume of water flowing per unit time
• A = Cross sectional area of the soil corresponding to the flow q
• k = Coefficient of permeability
• i = hydraulic gradient
• 𝒗 = Discharge velocity
 Permeability Cont’
• The coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity of
a soil is a measure of the ease with which water flows
through it
• The SI units of k are the units of velocity (m/s)
• The coefficient of permeability depends on the average size
of the pores which is in turn related to the
– Distribution of particles sizes
– Particle shape
– Soil structure
• The smaller the particles, the smaller the average size of
the pores and the lower the coefficient of permeability
𝑉𝑣
• For a given soil, k is a function of void ratio, e=
𝑉𝑠
 Permeability Cont’
• For a stratified soil deposit, permeability in flow
parallel to the direction of stratification is higher
than that for flow perpendicular to the direction of
stratification
• The presence of fissures in a soil deposit results into
much higher value of permeability compared with
that of unfissured soil deposit
• Coefficient of permeability also varies with
temperature upon which the viscosity of water
depends.
 Determination of Coefficient of permeability
• Laboratory Methods
• (a) The Constant-head permeability test
– This is used to determine the coefficient of permeability
of coarse-grained soil and in accordance to BS 1377 part
5, 1990.
– The soil specimen is contained in a perpex cylinder of
cross-sectional area A underlain by a coarse filter or wire
mesh
– A steady vertical flow of water under a constant head is
maintained through the soil and the volume of water
flowing per unit time, q is measured
– Tappings from the side of the cylinder enable the
hydraulic gradient (ℎ 𝑙) to be measured.
 Determination of Coefficient of permeability Cont’
• Laboratory Methods Cont’
• The Constant-head test
Cont’
– Then from Darcy’s law
𝑞
– q = 𝐴𝒗 ⇒ 𝒗 =
𝐴
= ki
𝑞𝑙 𝑞
–𝑘= =
𝐴ℎ 𝐴𝑖
𝑣
–𝑘= ⇒ 𝒗 = 𝑘𝑖 Area A
𝑖
– A series of tests should be run
each at a different rate of flow
– Prior to running the test, the
system should be free from
any air to ensure 100%
saturation
 Determination of Coefficient of permeability
• (b) The Falling-head permeability test
– This is used to determine the permeability of undisturbed fine-
grained soils
– The length of the specimen is L and the cross-sectional A
– A coarse filter is placed at each end of the specimen and a
standpipe of internal area a is connected to the top of the cylinder
– The water drains into a reservoir of constant level.
– The standpipe is filled with water and a measurement is made of
the time (t1) for the water level (relative to the water level in the
reservoir) to fall from ho to h1.
– At any intermediate time t, the water level in the standpipe is
𝑑ℎ
given by h and its rate of change is given by −
𝑑𝑡
– At a time t, the difference in total head between the top and
bottom of the specimen is h. Then, applying Darcy’s law
Determination of Coefficient of permeability
• The Falling-head 0
permeability test
– Volume change is given by
𝑎𝑑ℎ 𝐴𝑘ℎ
– − = =𝑞
𝑑𝑡 𝑙
ℎ1 𝑑ℎ 𝐴𝑘 𝑡1
– -a ℎ𝑜 = 𝑑𝑡
ℎ 𝑙 0 1
𝐴𝑘
– -a[𝑙𝑛ℎ]ℎ1 ℎ0 = 𝑡
𝑙 1
𝐴𝑘
– -a (lnh1 – ln h0) = 𝑡1
𝑙
𝐴𝑘
– a (lnh0 – lnh1) = 𝑡1
𝑙
Sample
ℎ0 𝐴𝑘
– a ln = 𝑡1
ℎ1 𝑙
𝑎𝑙 ℎ0
– k = 𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑡1 ℎ1
2.3 𝑎𝑙 ℎ0
– k= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐴𝑡1 ℎ1
 Determination of Coefficient of permeability
• Ensure 100% degree of saturation is maintained
• A series of tests should be run using different values
of ho and h1 and/or standpipes of different
diameters
• The reliability of laboratory methods depends on
the extent to which the test specimens are
representative of the soil mass
• More reliable results can generally be obtained by
the in-situ methods
Example 1
Example 2

2.3 𝑎𝑙 ℎ0
k= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐴𝑡1 ℎ1
 Field (In-situ) Methods
• There are two methods commonly used
– Well Pumping test
– Bore hole test
• Well Pumping test
– This involves pumping out water from a main well in an
aquifer and observing the resulting drawdown surface of the
original horizontal water table from at least two observation
wells.
– When a steady state of flow is reached, the flow quantity and
the levels in the observation wells are noted.
– An aquifer is a permeable formation which allows a
significant quantity of water to move through it under field
conditions
 Well Pumping Test Cont’
• An aquifer may be confined or unconfined • When a Well is sunk into a
• Confined aquifer homogeneous aquifer – WT in the
– is one in which groundwater table Well initially remains horizontal
remains entrapped under pressure
greater than atmospheric by overlying
impermeable strata
– It is also called an Artesian aquifer
• Unconfined aquifer
– is one in which groundwater table is
the upper surface of the zone of
saturation, and it lies within the test
stratum
– is not overlain by any confining layer
but has a confining layer at its bottom
– It is also called ‘free phreatic’ or non-
artesian aquifer
 Other types of aquifer
• Perched Aquifer
– It is a special case of an
unconfined aquifer.
– occurs when an
impervious or relatively
impervious layer of
limited area in the form of
a lens is located in the
water bearing unconfined
aquifer.
– the water storage created
above the lens is perched
aquifer and its top layer is
called perched water
table.
 Other types of aquifer Cont’
• Leaky or Semi-confined aquifer
– Truly confined aquifers are rare
because the confining layers are not
hundred per cent impervious.
– Leaky aquifer therefore is an
aquifer which is overlain or
underlain by a semi- pervious layer
(aquitard) through which vertical
leakage takes place due to head
difference.
• The permeability of the semi-
confining layer is usually very small as
compared to the permeability of the
main aquifer.
• Thus the water which seeps vertically
through the semi-confining layer is
diverted internally to proceed
horizontally in the main aquifer.
 Well pumping test Cont’
• Start pumping water out from the well - the Well gets
depleted
• Consequently, the WT is lowered resulting in a circular
depression in the phreatic surface referred to as
Drawdown Curve or cone of depression
• In pumping out tests, drawdowns corresponding to a
steady discharge are observed at a number of observation
wells
• Pumping must continue at a uniform rate for an adequate
time to establish a steady state condition in which
drawdown changes negligibly with time
 Well pumping test Cont’
• Assumptions made with Well pumping test
– The aquifer is of infinite extent, homogeneous with
uniform permeability
– The flow is lamina and Darcy’s law applies
– The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in the
vertical section
– The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer
– Natural ground regime affecting the aquifer remains
constant with time
– The flow velocity is proportional to the tangent of the
hydraulic gradient (Dupuit’s assumption)
 Well pumping test Cont’
Main
• Derivation of coefficient of Well
Observation
Wells
permeability for a confined q
aquifer
WT
– For a confined aquifer, the WT
thickness H, the cylindrical area
through which seepage takes Impervious Strata h1 h2
place is given by 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻
– Where r is a variable and H is a Confined Aquifer H
constant. Then r1
𝑑ℎ
– 𝑞 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖 ⇒ 𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑘 Impervious Impervious
𝑑𝑟 r2
– Integrating gives
𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 ℎ2
– 𝑞 𝑟 = 2𝜋𝐻𝑘 ℎ1
𝑑ℎ
1 𝑟
𝑟2 𝑟
– 𝑞𝑙𝑛 = 2𝜋𝐻𝑘 ℎ2 − ℎ1 2.303𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟2
𝑟1 1
𝑟
𝑞𝑙𝑛 2
⇒ 𝑘=
𝑟1
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ2 −ℎ1
– 𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ2 −ℎ1
 Well pumping test Cont’
• Unconfined Aquifer Main
Observation
Wells Initial water
• Consider wells located on a radial q
Well
table
line at distances r1 and r2 from the
centre of the well WT
• Let respective water levels relative
to the bottom of the stratum be h1Water table
and h2 during pumping h1 h2
• At a distance r from the well, the
area through which seepage takes
place is given by 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ where r1
Impervious
r and h are variables. Impervious
r2
• Applying Darcy’s law
2
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ q (𝑙𝑛𝑟2- 𝑙𝑛𝑟1) = πk (ℎ2− ℎ12 )
• 𝑞 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖 = 𝐴𝑘 = 2πrhk
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑟2
• q = 2πkhdh q 𝑙𝑛 2
= πk (ℎ2− ℎ12 )
𝑟 𝑟1
• Integrating 𝑟
𝑞 𝑙𝑛𝑟2
1
𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 ℎ2 k =
• q 𝑟1 = 2πk ℎ1
ℎ𝑑ℎ 𝜋 (ℎ2− ℎ12 )
2
𝑟 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒒 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝟐
𝒓
ℎ 2 ℎ2 k = 𝟏
• q[𝑙𝑛𝑟]𝑟2
𝑟1 = 2πk[ ]ℎ1 𝝅 (𝒉𝟐𝟐− 𝒉𝟐𝟏 )
2
 Well pumping test Cont’
• Derivation of coefficient of Main Observation
Well Wells
permeability for an q
unconfined aquifer
– The figure below shows a WT
Well penetrating an
unconfined aquifer
h1 h2
– The analysis is based on the
assumption that the hydraulic
gradient (i) at any distance r
from the centre of the well is r1
Impervious Impervious
constant with depth and is r2
equal to the slope of the
𝑑ℎ
water table. That is, 𝑖𝑟 = ,
𝑑𝑟
where h is the height of the
water table at radius r
(Dupuit’s assumption)
Example 1
Example 1 Cont’
Example 2
 Bore hole Tests

• Read and make notes on bore hole tests

 Seepage
• Seepage is the flow of a fluid usually
water through a soil under a hydraulic
head
• A hydraulic head must exist between two
points for a difference in hydraulic head
to exist
• A hydraulic head is the sum of the
elevation head and pressure head of water
 Flow net
• A flownet is a graphical representation of two-dimensional
steady-state groundwater flow through aquifers.
• Construction of a flownet is often used for solving
groundwater flow problems where the geometry makes
analytical solutions impractical.
• A flow net is composed of a flow line and an equipotential
line
• Flow lines and a equipotential lines are perpendicular to
each other
• Flow lines and equipotential lines are infinite
• A flow line can be demonstrated by a dye dropped on the
saturated soil surface
• The dye will trace a path followed by flowing water
 Flow Nets Cont’
• That is, each drop of water that
goes through the soil follows a
flow line
• An equipotential line is a line
joining points of equal total
head
• Properties of a flow net
1. Flow and equipotential
lines are smooth curves.
2. Flow lines and 4. No two flow or
equipotential lines meet at equipotential lines start from
right angles to each other the same point.
3. No two flow lines cross
each other.
 Flow net cont’
𝑘ℎ𝑁𝑓
• Seepage, 𝑞 = , where Nf is no. of flow lines, Nd is number of
𝑁𝑑
equipotential lines, k is coeff. of permeability and h is head causing
flow

• For example, from the figure above, Nf = 5, Nd = 11

𝑘ℎ𝑁𝑓 𝑘ℎ5
• 𝑞= = . Given k and h, seepage can be computed.
𝑁𝑑 11
 Flow net example

II I
IV III
9
V 1
2 8
3 7
4 5 6
 Solution
4.8𝑥10−3 𝑥0.01𝑥 4−1 𝑥5
• Seepage, q = = 8.0𝑥10−3 per
9
unit widthm/s
 Effective Stress
• A soil can be visualized as a skeleton of solid
particles enclosing continuous voids which contain
water and/or air
• Stresses encountered in practice are carried by
individual solid particles and water since air is
highly compressible
• These stresses are caused by external loads applied
to the soil and also by self-weight of the soil
 Effective Stress
• The volume of the soil skeleton Soil mass
as a whole can change due to
rearrangement of the soil
particles into new positions with
a corresponding change in forces
acting between them.
• Actual compressibility of the soil
skeleton depends on the Voids space (Air and/or water)
structural arrangement of the soil • Shear stresses can be resisted
particles only by the skeleton of solid
– Saturated soil – water must particles by means of forces
escape from voids developed at the interparticle
– Dry or partially saturated – contacts
Air in the voids is compressed
 Effective Stress
• Normal stress may be resisted by the soil skeleton through an
increase in the interparticle forces
• For a fully saturated soil – water filling the voids will also
withstand normal stress
• The principle of effective stress which applies only to fully
saturated soils (After Karl Terzaghi-1923) therefore has 3 parts
– The total normal stress, (σ) on a plane within the soil is the force
per unit area transmitted in a normal direction across the plane
assuming that the soil is a solid (single-phase) material
– The pore water pressure (or neutral stress), (u) is the pressure of
the water filling the voids space between the solid particles. It is
the same in all directions.
– The effective normal stress (σ’) on the plane is the stress
transmitted through the soil skeleton only
– Therefore, σ’ = σ - u
 Effective Stress
• Fig. 3.1 explains the principle of
effective stress
• When a normal force P is applied to
a soil mass over an area A, it may
be resisted partly by
– interparticles forces and
– the pore water pressure
• Interparticles forces are random
both in magnitude and direction
throughout the soil mass
• At every point of contact on the • The normal and
wavy plane XX, the interparticle tangential components
forces may be split into normal and are N’ and T
tangential components respectively
 Effective Stress
• Then the effective normal stress is interpreted as the
sum of all the components of N’ within the area A,
divided by the area A. That is,
𝑁 ′
𝜎′ =
𝐴

The total normal stress is given by

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
• If the point of contact is assumed to between the
particles, the pore water pressure (neutral stress) will act
on the plane over the entire area
 Effective Stress
• Then, for equilibrium in the direction normal to
plane XX
𝑃= 𝑁 ′ + 𝑢𝐴

𝑃 𝑁′
= +𝑢
𝐴 𝐴

𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎 = total stress
𝜎 ′ = effective stress
𝑢 = 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
• Note that 𝜎 ′ is the vertical component of forces at solid-
to-solid contact points over a unit cross-sectional area
 Effective Stress
• Considering Fig. (a) at point A
– ⇒ 𝜎 = 𝛾ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2
h1 Unit Wt = 𝛾 – ⇒ 𝑢 = ℎ2 𝛾𝑤
GW – Where 𝛾𝑤 = unit wt. of water
h2 Sat unit Wt = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 – 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = saturated unit wt of soil
A
B • But 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
• 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2 − ℎ2 𝛾𝑤
• 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾ℎ1 + ℎ2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 )
F2 F1
x
• 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾ℎ1 + 𝛾 ′ ℎ2
• 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 ′ = effective or
No seepage
submerged unit wt of the soil
(a)
 Effective Stress
h
• Considering Fig. (b) at point A
Water level,
– ⇒ 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2
h1 water – ⇒ 𝑢 = (ℎ + ℎ1 +ℎ2 )𝛾𝑤
– Where 𝛾𝑤 = unit wt. of water
– 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = saturated unit wt of soil
h2 Sat unit Wt = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
A • But 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
• 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2 − (ℎ + ℎ1 +ℎ2 )𝛾𝑤
• 𝜎 ′ = ℎ2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) −ℎ𝛾𝑤
Flow of water • 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾 ′ ℎ2 − ℎγ𝑤
Seepage occurring ℎ
• 𝜎 ′ = ℎ2 (𝛾 ′ − γ )
ℎ2 𝑤
(b)
• 𝜎 ′ = ℎ2 (𝛾 ′ − 𝑖γ𝑤 )
• 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛾 ′ = effective or submerged
unit wt of the soil
ℎ
• 𝑖= , is hydraulic gradient
ℎ2
 Effective Stress
• If the hydraulic gradient is very high, (𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝛾𝑤 ) = 0 and
effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 0
• That is, there will be no contact stress between the soil particles,
and the soil will break up.
• This situation is referred to as the QUICK condition or failure
by heave.
𝛾′ 𝐺𝑠 −1
• For heave, therefore, 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐𝑟 = =
𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
• That is, for heave to occur, (𝛾 ′ − 𝑖𝛾𝑤 ) = 0
𝛾′
• ⇒ 𝛾′ = 𝑖𝛾𝑤 ⇒ 𝑖 =
𝛾𝑤
• Where 𝑖𝑐𝑟 = critical hydraulic gradient
• For most sandy soils, 𝑖𝑐𝑟 ranges from 0.9 to 1.1 with average of
about unity
 Effective Stress
• Effective vertical stress due to the self-weight of the soil
Consider a soil mass having a horizontal surface and with the
water table at surface level.
The total vertical stress (i.e. the total normal stress on a
horizontal plane) at depth z is equal to the weight of all
material (solids and water) per unit area above that depth, i.e.
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑧𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
The pore water pressure at any depth will be hydrostatic since
the void space between the solid particles is continuous, so at
depth z, 𝑢 = 𝑧𝛾𝑤
Hence, the effective vertical stress at depth z will be
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 ⇒ 𝜎𝑣′ = 𝜎𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑧𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑧𝛾𝑤 = 𝑧(γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 − γ𝑤 )
⇒ 𝜎𝑣′ = 𝑧𝛾 ′ where 𝛾 ′ is the submerged or buoyant unit weight
of the soil.
 Effective Stress
• Effect of capillary rise
– The water table is the level at which pore water pressure
is atmospheric (i.e. u = 0).
– Above the water table, water is held under negative
pressure and, even if the soil is saturated above the water
table, does not contribute to hydrostatic pressure below
the water table.
– The only effect of a capillary rise, therefore, is to
increase the total unit weight of the soil.
– Both total and effective vertical stresses will therefore be
increased by a constant amount but the pore water
pressures will be unchanged.
 Example 1
• For the soil profile shown A
below, determine the total
4m Dry sand, γ𝑑 =14.5 kNm-3
vertical stress, pore water
pressure and effective B

vertical stress at A, B and C 5m

Clay, γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 =17.2 kNm-3

C
• Solution
Point σ (kNm-2) u (kNm-2) σ‘ = σ-u (kNm-2)
A 0 0 0
B (4)(γ𝑑 )=(4)(14.5) = 58 0 58-0 = 58
C 58+γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 (5) = 58+ 5(𝛾𝑤 )=5(9.81)= 144-49.05=94.95
(17.2)(5) =144 49.05
 Example 2
• A layer of saturated clay 4m thick
is overlain by sand 5m deep. If 0m
51
the water table is 3m below the 3m
Sand
surface and the saturated unit 5m 71.4 91

Depth
weights of the clay and sand are
Clay
19 and 20 kNm-3 respectively. σ'
Above the water table, the unit 9m
-3 108.1 167
wt. of sand is 17kNm . Plot the
A plot of Stress distribution with depth
values of total normal stress and.
effective stress against depth.
Depth σ (kNm-2) u (kNm-2) σ‘ = σ-u (kNm-2)
(m)
3 (3)(γ)=(3)(17) = 51 0 51-0 = 51
5 51+γ𝑠𝑎𝑡 (2) = 51+ 2(𝛾𝑤 )=2(9.81)= 91-19.62=71.38
(20)(2) = 91 19.62
9 51+40+(4)(19)=167 19.62+(4)(9.81) = 167-58.9 = 108.1
 Example 2 cont’
• The alternative calculation of effective normal
stress, 𝜎 ′ at depths 5 and 9m is as follows
– Buoyant unit wt. of sand, 𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = 20 − 9.81 =
10.2kN/m3
– Buoyant unit wt. of Clay, 𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = 19 − 9.81 =
9.2kN/m3
– At depth 5m, 𝜎 ′ = (3)(17)+(2)(10.2) = 71.4kN/m2
– At depth 9m, 𝜎 ′ = (3)(17)+(2)(10.2)+(4)(9.2) =
108.1kN/m2
 References
• Craig’s Soil Mechanics, RF Craig, 6th Ed
• Elements of Soil Mechanics, GN Smith and
Ian GN Smith 6th Ed
 End

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