:

easy solutions
SPPL

Strictly as per the New Choice Based Credit System Sylabus (2019 Course)
Savitribai Phule Pune University w.e.f. academic year 2021-2022

Cellular NetworkS
(304192)
..

Quick Read Series

Semester Vi - Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

:

'EPE144A Price 105/

TechKnowledge
Publications
 Cellular Networks (304192)
(Semester VElectronics and Telecommunication Engineering) (SPPU)

may be reproduced,
Copyright o TechKnowledge Publications. All rights reserved. No part ofanythis publication
or by any means, including
copied, or stored in a retrieval system, distributed or transmitted in form
photocopY, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission or tne

publisher

or otherwise, be jent, resola,

his book is sold.subject to. the condition that it shall not, by the way of trade
in any form of binding or cover
hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent
condition being imposed. on the
other than which it is published and without a similar,condition including this
SUsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above.

Edition 2022

Pakistan, Sri Lanka and designated

This edition is for sale in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal,
is unauthorized by the
countries in South-East Asia. Sale and purchasé of this book outside of these countries
publisher.

Published By
TECHKNOWLEDGE
. PUBLICATIONS
Head Ofice
.
***
Printed@

I/2Ashtavinayäk IndustrialEstate i B/5, First floor, Maniratna Complex, Taware Colony,

Near Pari Company Aranyeshwar Corner, Pune 411 009.

Maharashtra State, India
Narhe, Püne; Maharashtra State, India.
Ph:91-20-24221234, 91-20-24225678.
Pune 411041 :

Email: info@techknowledgebooks.com
Website: www.techknowledgebooks.com
.'

Subject Code 304192

Boek ce ERE144
 Table of Contents
-'-.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Wireless Channel CN-1 to CN-16

Chapter 2 Orthogonal Frequency

Division Multiplexingg CN-16 to CN-31

Chapter 3 Introduction to Mobile

Communication CN-31.to CN-41

Chapter 4 Wireless System Planning CN-41 to CN-50

Chapter 5 Wireless and Mobile Technologies
and Protocols and their
Performance Evaluation CN-50 to CN-66

Chapter 6 Performance Analysis Issues CN-66 to CN-74

: ,

.
.1
 Syllabus
Unlt I
Introduction of Wireless Channel:

Introduction,Free space propagation model, Ground reflection scenario, Hata model and Receiver- Noise
computation. Channel estimation techniques and Diversity in wireless communications.

Unit II
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing:
Introduction, Motivation and Multicarrier basics, OFDM example, Bit error rate for OFDM. Multiple-Input
Multiple-Output Wireless Communications : Introduction to MIMO wireless communications, MIMO
system model and MIMO-OFDM.
.

Unit I1I
Introduction to Mobile Communication
Introduction to cellular service progression, Cell geometry, Overview of cellular mobile and Ngwork
architecture, Cellular radio system design, Frequency assignments, Frequency reuse channels, Conceptof
cell splitting and Cell sectoring, Significance of handover in celular systems with handoff algorithms and
roaming.

Unit IV
Wireless System Planning:

Link-budget analysis, Tele-traffic theory, Tele-traffic system model and steady state analysis.

Unit v

Wireless and Mobile Technologies and Protocols and their performance evaluation
5G Architecture, Wireless local area
Introduction, Wireless and mobile technologies, LTE-advanced,
-

network and Simulations of wireless networks.

Unit VI
Performance Analysis Issues:
Significance of information theory Interference
Introduction to network coding. Basic hamming code and
Connection admission in mobile
suppression and Power control. MAC layer scheduling and
communication.
 Cellular Networks
Chapter 1: Introduction to Wireless Channel
Q. 1 Define wireless communication. State some 4.It is easy to add new users without any
examplesof wireless communication additional wiring.
systems 5. Wireless communication is possible even if
A the user is moving.
Wireless communication , 6.Using wireless LANs or wireless
as communication between computer and
Wireless communication is defined the
peripherals avoid .wiring and improve
communication by radio waves. The term wireless
reliability.
explains the
communications other than the
broadcast communication, between individualsQ.3 Write a short note on
: Wired and wireless
networks.
who often use portable or mobiie equipment
Ans. :
Examples
Wired network:
Some of the wireless communication systems are Anetwork is defined as the collection of
as follows computers, terminals, servers and various
1. Wireless LAN. Components connected to each other, to allow
2.Cordless telephone. 3easy flow of data and use of resources.
3 Walkie-Talkie. Fig. 1.1 shows a wired network in which various
Pagers. devices are interconnected with wires.
AC remote control. Server

6. TVremote control.
7. Cellular phones.
8.Satellite communication systems. Mre
a.2Explain the need ofwireless communication.
Server Pnnter
Ans.
The wireless communicationis needed because of,
the reasons mentioned below:
1.Long distance communication is difficult
using wired media due to the length of wire,
maintenance problems etc
Wireless
.
0.921) Fig.1.1:A wired network
network:
A wireless network is defined as the collection of

computers, servers, terminals and various other

2. One user to multiuser communication system
becomes complicated using wired media.
This becomes easy with wireless links.
3. Broadcasting applications such as radio, TV
etc are possible only through wireless
a
communication due to large number of
users. Wired communication is not possible
for such application,
ecas:s0lutions
.
components, connected to each other by wireless
links instead of connecting wires.
Wireless networks use radio waves to connect one
device in the network to the others. All the devices
in a wireless network can be moved within the
range or coverage area of the network.
.
.

.
 Networks (Sem. CN-2
Cellular 6/E&TcSPPU)
This makes the wireless networks extremelyReflection :
portable In wireless networks air is used as a Another important effect is ofradiosignals which
medium to transfer the dáta. takes place if the size of the obstacle hil
A computer needs to have the wireless network building) is much larger than the wavelerigth of

card to bea part of a wireless network. It wilI have erddlo SIgnals (Fig.1.3(6).
the same functionality, as that of a wired
fa wave
propagating radio hits an object thesize
which is very large as compared to its
computer but its speed will reduce. iof wavelength then the wave gets reflected by the
Q.4What Is LOS communication ? object.
Ans. Buiding
Radio
of sight in the space wave propagation is
.Linedefined as the straight path between transmitting
slgna

antenna and a receiving antenna, when Reffected radlo

unobstructed by the horizon as shown in Fig. 1.2. 9lgnal
Line ofsight

Receiving9
(G-2446)Fig. 1.3(b) :Reflection
Transmitng
antenna antenna The example of such a large object is a large
building, furniture, wall, a hill etc. The phase shift
between the incident and reflected wave is 180
(-2976) Fig. 1.2: Concept of line of sight The reflected signal is not as strong as the original
Q.5 List and explain different radio propagation
one because the object absorbs some energy.
mechanism with suitable example. March 20 In big cities, the reflection helps signaf
Ans. transmissionwhereno. Iine of sight
Radio propagation mechanisms communication is possible.
1. Blocking or shadowing. Refraction
2. Reflection. It is defined as the change in direction of radio
3. Refraction. signal when it passes obliquely froma medium of
4. Scattering. lower density to the other medium. of higher
5. Diffraction. density That is why radio signal bend towards
Blocking or Shadowing: earth. eiin
At very high frequencies the radio frequency The.refraction takes place when the two mediums
signal behave like light. Hence small obstacles like" involvedhave diferent densities. This is because
wals, trees, cars etc. can block the signal.
the velocity of
radia signalsis inversely
Blocking or shadowing is defined as the extreme proportional to the density of medium.
form of attenuation of radio signals due to large
The principle of refraction, is illustrated in
objects. (See Fig. 1.3(a).
Radio Fig.1.3(c).
waves Buikding
Alr Radio
wavo
Dense
Shadow zone medüm
with slgnal
(-2447 Fig. 1.3(c): Refraction
Scattering
Blocking and reflection happen when an obstacle
G2446)Fig. 1.3(a): Blocking or shadowing
islargein size.
eSCast:Soleiions
 Cellular Networks (Sem, 6/E&TC/SPP
CN-3
But scattering of.a radio signal takes place if the Radio
signal
object issmall in size (typically equal to or smaller
Ha
than the wavelength of the radio slgnal (See
Fig. 1.3td)
(G-2443Fig. 1.5 : Diffraction
Sma
objec Rado A propagating wave
signa
gets diffracted when it hits an
object or surface which cannot be penetrated,
and has sharp irregularities ie. edges.
Therefore it is very difficult to preisely predict the
(G-247) Fig. 1.3(d): Scattering signal strength at any given point.
Thescattering of an EM wave takes place when
At the edges of such object, the incident wave
wave travels through a medium containing
the
many objects which are smaller than the bends and starts propagating indiferent
wavelength of the wave. directions.
The examples of such objects are lamp posts, This is known as diffraction. The diffracted waves
street signs etc. Due to this phenomenon, the are present throughout the space and even
wave gets scattered in several weak outgoing
behind the obstacle.
signals.
Scattering is also produced by rough surfaces, The diffraction of a wave takes place when the size
small objects, or other irregularities in the channel of the object is comparable with the wavelength
In order to ensure a proper functioning of devices of the wave.
in such an environment, the radio network design Due to diffraction, a wave can reach places behind
must utilize the correct methods of deployment
(placement.and antenna selection) to minimize the object where it could not have otherwise
this effect. reached.
Fig. 1.4 illustrates the three propagation The amount of diffraction is dependent on the
mechanisms for EM waves, reflection, refraction frequency of the wave being diffracted. It is more
and diffraction. for low frequency waves.

Q.6 Explaln the concept of fading. State different

reasons for fading.
Reflected slgnal
Ans.
Definition:
Direct 3ignal
Fading is defined as the variations or fluctuations
Scattered 1
inthe signal strength at the receiver. The ISI, delayY
Ditfracted gnal
sgnal Rocelve spreading and continuous movement of the
Iransmite sender and receiver result in signal fading.
G-2095) Fig. 1-4: Reflection, refraction and scattering The fading of any type, takes place due to the
Diffraction : interference between two waves which follow
Diffraction is very similar to scattering. As shown different paths to travel from transmitter to
in 15, in diffraçtion, the radio waves get
Fig. receiver
deflected at the edges of a large object and will Thus fading takes place due to multipath
travelin diferent directions. reception of the signal.

eS3ST-5oltioas
 Cellular Networks
(Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
Due to different path
lengths, the two
undergo different signals will
phase shifts 2. CN4
At the receiver It can take place due to interference
the vector sum waves arriving between
place of. them will by different
take or paths. number of
Therefore alternate hops.
cancellation 3. Due to interference
will take place and reinforcement
if the path difference waves between the
asa/2. as
is large and sky waves. ground
Such fluctuations 4. Due to fluctuations
are therefore more ionosphere layers.
of height or density
occur at lower likely to in
wavelengths or
Types of fading: higher frequencies.. 5. As the fading
is a frequency selective
1.: Shortterm the signals very close process,
fading to each other
The quick changes frequency domain in the
will fade to a different
taking place extent.
signal power is in the received
The receiver
known as short
term fading. .
The AM signal very
is
has to continuously badly distorted
changing signal strength. adapt to the such a frequency due to
selective fading,
signal is not affected The SSB
2. Long term tosuchanextent.
fading:
The variations average, One way to counteract
the problem of fading
over a long in received signaf power
timeis known as long term
to use space or
reception system.
s frequency diversity
Flat fading: fading. The otherway,
automatic gain is to use the
A received control (AGC) for
radio signal is said the receiver.
flat fading if to have undergone Q.7. State the merits and demerits
the channel bandwidth greater Communication. of Wireless
the signal bandwidth. is than Ans.
Flat fading channels Merits:
are also known as the narrow
band channels. 1 No wires are required to be used.
1 1
In flat, fading. all. 2 Wireless transmission
the frequency components a larger coverage
signal fade in the same in a areathan that of wired has
proportion simultaneously transmission.
Flat fadirngis also called as
Frequencyselective fading: , non-selective fadinig.
1
3 Wireless media has
Mobility
large bandwidth.
" **

In frequency selective fading, different frequency Increased reliability.

components in the received signal undergo Rapid disaster recovery.
unequal fading. Lower cost.
If the channel bandwidth Demerits :
is less than
bandwidth then the frequency selectivethe signal
Small objects such as walls
fading will can obstruct the
takeplace. signa.
Different reasons
forfading 2. Weatherconditions such as rain, fog,
1. The fading can take place due to interference moisture can increase signal attenuation and
betveen the lower and upper rays of disrupt the communication.
sky the
wave. Q. 8 What are different wireless media ?

su-s0tions
 F Cellular Networks (Sem,
6/E&TC/SPPU) CN-5
Ans. The first generation of wireless mobile system was
Wreloss media implementedin 1980's
The modulation scheme used was frequency
Radio modulation (FM).
wave

Long form of AMPS is Advanced Mobile Phone

Microwave
System. It is one of the leading analog cellular.
Infrared
system in North America.
It makes use of FDMA "(Frequency Division
Satelte Multiple Access) to separate channels in a link.
Features of First Generation:
G-119) Fig. 16: Classification of wireless media
Table 1.1 presents the features of first generation.
Q. 9 State and explain various properties of RF
Table 1.1:Features of 1G systems
waves.
Ans. Si. No. Feature Value/ Description
Properties of RF waves: 1. Generation 1-G (19701984)
1 They can propagate through the buildings.
2. Technology Analog cellular.
2. They can travel long distances.
3. Standard AMPS
3. There is no need to physically align the
transmitter and receiver as RF waves are 4 Switching Circuit switching

omnidirectional. Frequency band 824-894 MHz

4. Many characteristics of RF waves are 6. Modulation FM

dependent on their frequency. 7. Data speed 2.4 kbps

The low frequency waves can pass through Multiplexing9
8. FDMA
very easily but their power drops drastically
with increased distance. Thus they cannot 9 Core network PSTN
travel longer distances. 10. Service Only voice or only messagee
6. On the other hand the high frequency waves Drawbacks 1-G
of Systems:
can travel longer distances but they are more
1. Poor.voice quality.
prone to absorption due to raindrops or they
get easily reflected by obstacles and the 2. No security.

interference problem is grave. Q.11 Explain the 2G cellular system and state its
Q. 10 Explain the 1G cellular system and state its features.
features and drawbacks. Ans.
Ans. 2G cellular system:
1G cellular system: The second generatlon of cellular telephony was
The first generation of cellular telephony was developed in order to improve the quality of
suitable only for voice communication using communication.
analog signals. Now cellular technology is in the The second generation was designed tor digital
fourth generation. voice.
One of the important first generation mobile -2G nenworks began to emerge around 1980's but
system used in North America is AMPS their actual implementation started by 1990's.
337-101ato3
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/ SPPU) CN-4

Due to different path lengths, the two signals will 2. It can take place due to interference between
undergo different phase shifts waves arriving by different number of hops

At the receiver the vector sum of them will take or paths.

place. 3 Due to
interference between the ground
Therefore alternate cancellation and reinforcement waves and sky waves.
will take place if the path difference is as large' Due to fluctuations of height or density in
as/2 ionosphere layers.
Such fluctuations are therefore more likely to
5 As the fading is a frequency selective process,
occur at lower wavelengths or higher frequencies
the signals very close to each other in the
Types of fading frequency domain ivill fade to a different
1 Shortterm fading: extent.
The quick changes taking place in the received 6. The AM signal is very badly distorted due to
signal power is known as short term fading. such a frequency selective fading. The SSB
The receiver has to continuously adapt to the signal is not affected to such an extent.
changing signal strength. way to counteract the problem of fading
7One
2. Long term fading is to use space or frequency diversity

The.variations in average. received signaf power reception system. The other way is to use the
over a long time is known as long term fading automatic gain control (AGC) for the receiver.
Flat fading : Q.7 State the merits and demerits of Wireless
A received radio signal is said to have undergone Communication.
flat fading if the channel bandwidth is greater than Ans
the signal bandwidth. Merits
1 No wires are required to be used.
Flat fading channels are also known as the narrow
band channels. Wireless transmission has a larger coverage
area than that of wired transmission.
In flat, fading all the frequency components ina
signal fade in the same proportion simultaneously Wireless media has large bandwidth.
: :
Flatfadimg isalso called as non-setective fading Mobility
Frequency selective fading : Increased reliability

In frequency selective fading, diferent frequency

Rapid disaster recovery
5.
components in the received signal undergo Lower cost .
unequal fading. Demerits L
If the channel bandwidth is less than the signal
Small objects such as walls can obstruct the
bandwidth then the frequency selective fading will
signal.
take place
Weather" conditions such as rain, fog.
Different reasons for fading:
moisture can increase signal attenuation and
1, The fading can take place due to interference disrupt the communication.
between the lower and vpper rays of the sky
Q. 8 What are different wireless media ?
wave. .

@ 04SV Solutions
 R.Cellular Networks (Sem,6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-5
Ans. The first generation of wireless mobile system was
Wroless media implemented in 1980's.
The modulation scheme used vias frequency
Radio
wave modulation (FM).
Long form of AMPS is Advanced Mobile Phone
Microwave
System. It is one of the leading analog cellular.

Infrared
system in North America.
makes use of FDMA (Frequencý Division
t
Satale Multiple Access) to separate channels in a link.
Features of First Generation:
(G-119) Fig. :
1.6 Classification of wireless media
Table 11 presents the features of first generation.
a.9State and explain various properties of RF
Table 1.1: Features of 1G systems
waves.
Ans. Sr.No. Feature Value I Description53|
Properties of RF waves Generation 1-G (1970-1984)
1 They can propagate through the buildings. Technology
2. Analog cellular
2 They can travel long distances.
Standard AMPS
There no need to physically align the
is
4. Switching Circuit switching
transmitter and receiver as RF waves are
omnidirectional. 5. Frequency band 824-894 MHz

Many characteristics of RF waves are 6. Modulation FM

dependent on their frequency. 7. Data speed 2.4 kbps

S. The low frequency waves can pass through
8. Multiplexing FDMA
very easily but their power drops drastically.
with increased distance. Thus they cannot 9. Core network PSTN
travel longer distances. 10. Servie Only voice or only message
On the other hand the high frequency waves
Drawbacks of 1-6 Systems:
can travel longer distances but they are more
1. Poor.voice quality.
prone to absorption due to raindrops or they
2. No security.
get easily reflected by obstacles and the
interference problem is grave. Q.11 Explain the 2G cellular. system and state its
Q. 10 Explain the 1G cellular system and state its features.
features and drawbacks. Ans.:
Ans.: 2G cellular system:
1G cellular system: The second generation of cellular telephony was.
The first generation of cellular telephony was developed in order to improve the guality of
suitable only for voice communication using communication.
analog signals. Now cellular technology is in the The second generation was designed for digital
fourth generation. voice.
One of the important first generation mobile 2G networks began to emerge around 1980's but
system used in North America is AMPS. their actual implementation started by 1990's.
csy-s0taic9
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/E&TC/ SPPU)
CN-6

he second generation mobile systems are digital Table 1.3: Features of 3G systems
systems and it has the following. types of
Sr.No Feature
Edrure Valuo/ Description
developments
1
Generation 3G (2001)
1.IS-54 (TOMA) in 1991
2. Technology BroadbandIP, FDD, TDD
IS-95 (CDMA) in 1993.

3.IS-136in 1996.
. Standards CDMA, W-CDMA, UMTS.

Switching CircuitPacket switching

4 GSM (TDMA)
Frequency
Out ofthese the GSM (Global system for mobile 1.6 GHz to 2.5 GHz

communications) is by far
band
the most consistent 26
standard. 2.5G and 2.75G are the upgraded 6. Data speed 2 Mbps
versions of 2G. 7 Multiplexing CDMA
Features of 2G Systems 8. Core Packet network
Some of.the important features of the 2G-mobile network
systems are as follows: Services High speed data, voice, video
Table 1.2: Features of 2G systems
10 Handof Horizontal
Sr. No Feature ValueDescriptíon 3Gstandards:
1Generation 2-G (1990) The well known examples of 3G systems are:
Technology Digital Celtular Technology 1 W-CDMA.
Standard CDMA, TDMA and GSM 2 CDMA-2000. 3. TD-SCDMA
Switching Circuit Packet switching Q.13 Explain the 4G cellular system and state its
applications and features.
Frequency band 850-1900 MHz (GSM
Ans.
Data speed 9.6 kbps. 4G cellular system E

-
7Multiplexing CDMA, TDMA . The 4G wireless systems were designed to fulfill
BModulation the requirements of International Mobile
Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-A) using IP
9 Core network PSTN
Ontemet Protocol) for all the services
10. Services Digital voice, data and SMS
Applications of 4G
facility

11.Handoff Horizontal
The 4G is developed to support the QoS and data
rate requirements of the advanced applications
Q. 12 State any four features: of third genèration such as
3G) standard systems and list various 3G Wireless broadband access.
1 standards. 1
Ans. 2. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS9
Features of Third Generatlon 3. Video chat.
:'
. .1
Some
, -
of the important features of 3G mobile 4. Mobile TV.
systems are as follows
5. HDTV.

SCasy-solutions
 FCllular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-7
6 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) St.No. Feature Value/ Descrlptlon
7. Voice and data.
Standard Yet to be finalized-
8. Other services which need large bandwidth.
Switching Packet
In 4G systems, an advanced radio interface is used 5. Frequency 15 GHz
with Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Data speed 1 Gbps
(OFDM), Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
Multiplexing MC-CDMA, LAS-CDMA, OFDM
and the link adaptation technologies.
46 standards also includes Long Term Evolution
. Core Intemet
(LTE) and 1EEE 802.16 (W-Max). network

The 4G systems. provide very high data rates 9. Services Interactive mutimedia, Voice
over P, Virtual reality
compared to 3G.
Augmented reality, 10T ete.
But the major problem with 4G systems is security
i0 Handoff Horizotal and vertical
because of its 1P address system.
Features of 4G Systems; a 15 What are the advantages and applications of
The important features of 4G mobile systems are 5G cellular system.
as follows Ans..
Advantages
Table 1.4: Features of 4Gsystems
Following are the advantages of SG:
Sr. No. Feature Value / Descrlpton
1 5G technology can gather all .networks on
1. Generatio 4G (2010) one platform
2. Technology IP-Broadband,WFi, MIMO It is more effective and efficient
Standard Wi Max and LTE 3. 5G technology will provide. a huge
4. Switching Packel switching broadcasting data (in Gigabit),which will
5. Frequency band
2 GHz-8GHz Support more than 60,000 connections,.
Data speed 4. 56 is compatible with
50 Mbps the previous
generations
7. Multiplexing MC-CDMA and OFDM

8. Core network 5.It can offer. uniform, uninterrupted,.and

Intemet
consistent connectivity across the world.
S Service Dynamic Information Access
Appllcations
10. Handoff Vertical
The 5G.techhology can be used in the following
Q. 14 State the features of 5G cellular system.
Ans.:
applications : .

1. Entertainment and multimedia

Features of Fifth Generation;
2 Internet of Things Connecting everything
Table 1.5: Features of Fifth Generation
3.Smart Home
Sr.No. Feature Value Descriptions Logistics and shipping
Generation 5G (2020) 5. Smart cities:
6.Smart farming.
2 Technology www, IPv6 7.Healthcare and mission critical applications
 Cellular Networks (Sem.6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-8
8. Drone operation
The reflection: and scattering
Security and surveillance occursfrom
buildings, trees, and other obstacles along the
Q 16 Explain the concept of multipath radio path.
signal
Opagatlon.
Q. 17. Explain the concept of multipath fading.
Multpath Propagatlon: Ans.
When
Concept of multipath fading
the electromagnetic: waves leave the
Due to this the radio waves
transmission antenna, they do not only follow
the
arive at a mobile
receiver from many. different directions, with
direct path from transmitter to receiver
different time delays.
Instead they undergo reflection refraction
and. Due to. different path lengths, each signal
in from various objects
scattering undergoes a different phase shift while reaching
such. as tall
buildings, hills etc while travelling. the receiver. The net signal strength at the receiver
is equal to the vector sum of
Dueto this, multiple copies of the same EM signal all these signals.
are produced which are small in strength and have With a moving receiver the signal strength at the
different phase shifts as compared to the direct receiver fluctuates continuously. This is known as
wave as shown in Fig: 1.7. multipath fading as shown in
Scattered Fig. 1.8.
signal
Transmitter Building

Direct
signal

sanal Refected signal

:Mobile receiver . DIstance (m) or time (s)i
(0-903 Flg- 1.7: Concept of mullpath propagation (G-2807) Fig. 1.8: Fading/ Multipath.

Thus the transmitted signal gets propagated via The effects of multipath propagation can
be
multiple roots while travelling from transmitter to reduced, by using some specia processing

r
receiver. This is called as multipath propagation. techniques such as equalization and antenna
diversity.
The power of the signal received by a receiver is a.18 With necessary equations explain free space
.
, . awaysless than the, power of the signa!
propagation model in detail.
transmitted by the transmitter. Ans.
This reduction in the signal strength is known as Free space
propagation model :
attenuation and it is due to various factors. This model is used for predicting the received
The signal reaching a receiver follows multiple signal strength when the transmitter and receiver
paths instead of just the direct path betweena have a clear Line-Of-Sight (LOS) path between
them as shown in Fig. 1.9.
transmitter and a receiver as shown in Fig. 1.7.
This is called as the multipath reception.
aSareliro Free space
propagaton
It takes place when a receiver receives the direct
path transmitted signal along with the reflected Ssrth
and scattered versions of the same signal. station
(G-2622) Fig. 1.9: Free space communication
Btasy-solations
 FCcllular Networks (Sem.
6/E&Tc/SPPU)
The examples of LOS
communication are Ans. CN-9
1 Microwavecommunication
The two ray model.
is also called as
2.Satellite communication reflection model ground
or two ray ground reflection
Function of the model: model and it is asshown
in Fig. 1.10.
The function of the free-space model Transmiter)
is to predict
the received signal strength as a function ELOS EroT ELos*E,
separation (d) between the transmitterof the
and R(Receiver)
receiver.
Frlis Free Space Equatlon:
The. free, space power 0.
received.by a receiving TinanmmnaannInaainaninmITTIT
antenna is given by Friis
frees space equation as
follows G-2824) Fig.
110: Two ray ground reflection model
PG G.2 It considers the direct path as well
P,d) (4m) d* L as ground
reflected path between
the transmitter and
receiver.
4rnd (1) This model gives accurate results in predicting
Where,
large scale signal strength over long
P (d) distances.
Received power,
Assumptions
P Transmitted power
G

G Transmitter and receiver 1The earth's surface is fat, and the maximumn
antenna gains distanced between the transmitter and
receiver (T-R) is only a few tens of
d T-R separation in m, km.
2. The total E-field at
L System loss factornot related the receiver EtoT ÍS vector
sum of direct line-of-sight
TO propagation component
ELos

Wavelength and the ground reflected component Fg

The valueof Lis greater than or equal to 1. 1.
3.Let h, be the height of the transmitter and h,
The gain of an antenna is related be the height of the receiver.
: to its effective
area Ae with the following expression, Expression for total received E-field:
G ATAg f the free space E-field is V/m)
(2) E at a distance do
from the transmitter then for d d, the E-field is
Where
**
and given by,

Carrier frequencyin Hz, E (d,y 2Ca

The losses L(L21) are generally corresponding to
the attenuation due to transmission line, filter
osses, and antenna losses.
If L 1there are no losses in the system.
*
.
Where, E (d, ) = represents the envelop of

E-field ata distance d frøm the transmitter.

The direct wave travels a distance d' and reflected
919 Derive an expression for a ground reflectlon
model assuming distancebetween transmitter
wave that travels at a distance d" before reaching
and recelver antenna is very large compare to the receiver.
heights of the,antennas.
eASV s0lutions
 T(Transmittér)
The E-field produced by the direct component at
ELOs
the receiver is given by,
R(Receiver)
Fos(d,t) (2)

And the E-field produced by the ground reflected 77777U77TTunn aiuynNUnnnnn

wave is given by.

(3

The laws of reflection in dielectrics states that,

4
and Eg= TE 5) Method of images to find the path
(G-2813) Fig. 1.11

E (1+t) 6) difference between the line-of sight and ground

reflectedpaths
Where t is the reflection coefficient for ground
And the time delayt between the arrival of these
Assurme that the E-field polarization is perfectly two components is given by;
horizontal and a perfect ground reflection
(-1, E
=
0), to obtain the total E-field Eror (d, 2T fe
(12)
'

t)at the receiver as follows,

For large values of distance d, the difference
EronlEos+ 7) between the direct path distance d and ground
from
Substituting values of Eos and F reflected d' becomes very small.
path

Equations (2) and (3) we get Therefore the amplitüdes of Eios and E are
virtually identical but there will be a phase
difference between them.:That means,
8)
.
The geometry Fig. 1.11 "shows the use of (13)
of
method of images to find out the path diffeience
A between the direct. and the ground reflected The value of. received electric field at time t
paths as follows: canbe evaluated as
cos
The path difference A is,

hh.d-V -h+
A=d-d-th,+ ro d t dCos
COs 0 14)
9
If d > (h then simplify the above
h, )
expression using Taylor series approximation to
get
Fro ct 2-0
A d'-d'= .(10) 20-
Also the phase difference , between the two
Fig.

how
1.12 shows the phasor diagram that shows
to combine the electric field components of
E-Fld compororts is girob line-of-sight, ground reflected waves to obtain
total received E-field,
da .(11)

@icST-30Ios
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-11
1

Q.21 State varlous outdoor propagation models.

Ans.
Outdoor propagation models:

Outdoor Propagaion Models

Egdo

1. Longly-Rioe
G-2825) Fig. 112: Phasor diagram

The electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d 2 Durkin's Model

from the transmitter is,

3. Okumura Model
V s9,-1
4. Hata Model
r .(15) PCS Extension to Hata Model
5.
Eor( d2-2c0s6 .16)
6. Mdeband PCS Micrccel Model
Solving using trigonometric identities we get
7.Walfisch and Bertoni Model (WBM)
Exor () sin
E-fieldfor the two ray ground reflection model.
47
This is the exact expression for the total received . 22
(G-2830) Fig. 113 :Outdoor propagation models

Discuss the Okumura's prediction

with necessary equations.
method

Q. 20 State advantages and disadvantages of two Ans.:

ray model. Okumyra's prediction method
Ans.: The Okumura propagation model is suitable for
Advantages large cell coverage with distances up to 100 km in
The major advantages of the two ray model are as urban areas, and it can extrapolate predictions up
given below: to 3 GHz
1 It is a useful propagation model, because it Use this model for effective base-station antenna
considers both the direct path and the heights in the range from 30 m to
ground reflected propagation path between 1000 m, whereas the effective mobile receiver
the transimitter and receiver to calculate the antenna height is taken as 3.m.
path loss.
The Okumura propagation modél is very acurate
2 It can predict the large scale signal strength
in its predictions and is used by computer
for large values of d in the mobile systems
simulation tools.
and for the LOS microwave channels.
Disadvantage; A simplified version of the Okumura path loss
model, for propagation in an urban mobile
Themajor disadvantage of the two ray model is
environme is expressed as followS
givenbelow
Loo(d8) = L, (d8)+ am U.r)-a-a-2a
1 This is an oversimplified model and errors
are introduced due to the fact that the ..(1)
effects offactors like buildings, terrain profile Where is the free-space propagation path loss
L4

etc. are not considered while calculating the expressed in dB

signal strength. am represents the median attenuation relative to
free space,and is a function of f and t
Gaasy-solutions
 CN-12
Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Te /SPPU)

theeffective base station antenna height (h) Where,

is to MHz
gain factor, which varies at a rate of 20 dB/decadef Frequency in (MHz) from 150 MHz 1500
as
andexpressed mathematically follows: h Effective transmitter (base station) antenna
a 20 log (0.00S * h 2) height ranging from 30 m to 200 m.
Note that the above expression is valid for the hEffective receiver (mobile) antenna height
range1000 m>he 30 m. ranging from 1 mto 10 m.
Next, a is the effective mobile receiver antenna d Tx-Rx separation distance inkm
height (h,) gain factor, which varies at a rate of a (h) Correction factor for effective mobile
10dB/decade for heights less than 3m, and it is antenna height that is a function of the size ot tne
mathematically expressed as follows coverage area.
(0.33 x h) for 10 m h 3m antenna.correction factor a (h) for
a20 log The mobile
by.
B) small to medium city Is given
log f-0.7) h..(1.56 log f 0.8)
dB
And a#
10 log (0.33 xh) for h s3 m a (h)= (11
..(6)
4 city is
ac is the correction factor gain which depends on And the value of a (h,) for large
dB forf 300 MHZ
the type of environment (suburban
area, open a (h) 8.29 (log 1.54 h.1.1
area), water surfaces, isolated, obstacle, etc.
a (h)3.2 (log 11.7S h,)4.97 dBfor f 2 300 MHz
The Okumura model prepared based on the data
collected in different terrains with specified system Modity the standard Hata formula of Equation (5).
parameters. 2 as follows to calculate the path loss in süburban
The. standard deviation bètween the measured
7

area
path loss and predicted path loss using this model
L(d8) L (urban) -2 log 8 5.4 8)
isabout 10-14 dB. use in cities with
This model is ideally suitable for in open rural areas, the standard
For path loss
many urban structures but not many tall building Hata formula is modified as follows,
structures. .The Hata propagation model is based
L (dB) L (urban)4.78 log f18.33 log f-40.94
on the Okumara model: . -
Q. 23 Discuss the Hata model.
Ans. Q.24 ith the help derlvatlon explaln the concept
Of channel estimatlon in wirefess systems.
Hata model:

.
-

The.Hata model is an empirical formulation. of the Ans.

graphical path loss data obtained from theChannel estimatlonin wireless systems:
range Consider the wireless channel model given in
Okumura model. It is valid in the frequency Equation (1), where h is the flat-fading channel
from 150- 1500 MHz only. coefficient
model Hata presented the propagation loss
In this y yk) hx(4)+ n(k) (1)
in the urban area in the form of a standard this expression, y(k) represents the output or
formula and provided corection equations for its
In
response channel, x(k) is its input and n(k) is
of the
application to other situations. the channel noise
The standard formula for median path loss in Obtafin the estimate the symbol
(k) of
urban areas is given by the following equation. 1
xk from y) simply as &(k). = vy ). This is
furbar) rae) - 59.55 26.16log13.32 fog h
- a (h)+ (44.9-6.55 log h) log d 5 known as the zero-forcing recelver, in wireless
:system.
es Casy-saluttons
 F.Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-13
This shows that in order to detect the transmitted
Intuitively then, a reasonable estimate
symbol x() at the receiver, we must know the h of h can
be derived as a minimizer of the cost function
channel coefficient h". as
follows:
Definition of channel estimation:
h arg min {0 (1)-hx(p) (1)¥
The channel estimation is defined as the process h
+
° (2)- hx (2)
of computing the channel coefficient "
h* at the
wireless receiver which is an important procedure
in every wireless communication system.
k= 1
A. popular .scheme for estimating the wireless
channel is with the help of transmission of pilot or E(h)
training symbols The above minimization is aimed at finding the
Pilot symbols are predetermined fixed symbols best estimate of h which corresponds to the
which are transmitted over the wireless channel. lowest observation error (h) and therefore it is
The pilot symbols are known to the wireless termed as the least-squares estimate.
receiver. The most convenient way to minimiz the eror
The receiver observes the outputs corresponding function (h), is to differentiate it and set it equal
to the transmitted pilot symbols and with the help to zero.
of knowledge. of the transmitted pilot symbols, Differentiate the error function to get,
L
estimates the unknown fading channel coefficient. dE) z 2 ()-hx () (*)
This procedure for pilot-based channel estimation dh k=1
is as follows: Equate the differentiated error function to zero to
Let the transmitted L pilot symbols be denoted get
as x (1), x (2), .() for the purpose of
0 x (k)-6x0)
channel estimation. k=1
Let the corresponding received outputs be y(),
y2).. PL), ie, each y), 1 s ks D is the h .2)
output corresponding to the transmitted pilot
symbol x()
=1k
In this way, compute the channel estimate h of
The channel model for these received pilot the fading channel coefficient h.
symbols is given as follows: This is the desired expression for the channel
y (k)= hx(k)+ n (k coefficient estimate.
In order to simplify the derivation, assume that all Q. 25 Explain the concept of diversity reception in
the quantities y(k), (K), n (k) and the
channel wireless systems.
coefficient h are real. Ans.
Due to the presence of the noise term n (k) in Diversity reception In wireless systems
the
above system, it is clear that y (k) hx (k) for anyk. Diversity reception is used in order. to minimize
the effects of fading.
Thus, we have to determine an estimate of h from The theory of diversity lies at the heart of all
the noisy observation samples y (k). modern .wireless communication theory and
technologies.
 '

,
CN-14
Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/ SPPU)

the best tool available combat the

to It is a powerful communication receiver technique.
t is by farmultipath fading in.a wireless channel Diversity requires no training overhead because
effects of ensurereliable communication. does not require training
and thereby the transmitter
sequence There are a wide.range of diversity
Diversity techniques can be employed in such
implementations:
Scenarios to substantially improve the reliability of very practical
wireless communication, while reducing the
BER
Many diversity implementations are
they provide significant link improvement
The principle of diversity reception is based on the andsome additional cost.
with
fact that the signal at different points on the earth random nature of
Diversity techniques exploit the independent
or different frequency signals do not fade radio propagation by
searching or at
simultaneously uncorrelated signal paths for
east highly
There are two fundamental types of diversity Communication.
diversity.decisions
reception systems Practically, the,receiver makes the transmitter.
unknown to
1 Space diversity system that decisions are
diversity system
and one radio path experiences a deep fade, another
2Frequency If strong signal.
: independent path can have a
1. Space diversity more than one
n this systemtwo or more receiving antennas
are On order to select one path from
instantaneous and average SNRs
which are paths, both thé
used. They are placed at points improved.
separated by about nine or
more wavelengths at the receiver can be by as much as 20 dB
improved
Receivers equal to the number of
antennas are They can be always
employed. The output stage of all the
receivers is to30 dB. already seen the two types of fading-
made common. : We have and large-scale facing.
AGE
the signal, the that mall-scale
As all the receivers receivestrongest
from the receiver with the signal at concept of microscopic diversity
receivers. Q. 27 Explain the systems.
moment is used to cut off all the other : reception in wireless
strongest receiver is
Thus, only the signal from the
passedtothe common output'stage. Microscopic diversity reception
models are the models
2Frequency diversity 1
The small scale or fading
on the.similar principle of. the that characterize the rapid
fluctuations of received
his system workS signal istransmitted very short distances or
space diversity.The signal strength over either
or three different
simultaneouslyat two veryshoirttime durations.
mobile radio0
frequencies
by different receivers :These models are useful for the
received
Qut of the signals different frequencies, only the COmmunications.
which are tuned to moves over à short
strongest signal at a particular frequencyY
is A mobile station, when
to the small scale fading.
distance, gives ris
Selected. is multiple
or three frequencies: for Main cause of small scale fades
Due to the use of two in the area of
more bandwidth is reflections from the surroundings
transmitting the same signal
spectrum is wasted. the mobile.
required andthefrequency results
system is used only Small-scale fading for narrowband signals
Therefore frequency diversity . signal strength
when it is not possible to use the
space diversity. in a Rayleigh fading distribution of
in aver small distances.
Q. 26 How do diversity techniques help can be used
Improvlng SNR? The microscopic diversity techniques in order to
signal
1 AnS
to exploit the rapidly changing
: occurrence of deep fades.
prövide wireless link prevent the
Diversitytechniques
improvement ät low cost.
0aSy-s0lutions
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-15
The small-scale fading in Fig. 1.14 reveals that if Diversity techniques
two antennas are separated by a small part of a
meter, one can receive a null signal while other
receives a strong signal. Polanzation

Recelved
Frequency
powerdBm ,

Small scale
fading
-30 Jne

Space

50 Large
Scale fading Selectve

60 Feedback

m Maximal to
rato combining
Distance rom transmter

(G-2678) Fig. 1.14: Two types of fading Equal gain

mitigate small scale fading effects

A receiver can
G-2828) Fig. 115: Types of Diversity Techniques
by choosing the best signal at all times, this is
known as antenna or space diversity The functionality of each diversity method is
different.
a. 28 Explain the concept of macroscoplc diversity
reception in wireless systems. A common goal of all diversity techniques is to
Ans. : decrease the large scale fading effects observed in
the multipath receiver cireuits.
Macroscopic diversity reception
Large scale fading is caused by shadowing. The
shadowing occurs due to, variations in both the
.
Ans.
29 Explain the Space diversity technique briefly.

terrain profile and the nature of surroundings. Space diversity technique:

The received signal in deeply. shadowed The space diversity technique is also known as
conditions, can improve the average signal-to antenna diversity.
noise ratio on the forward link This type of This is one of the most popular diversity technique
diversity is known as called macroscopic diversity. used in the wireless šystems.
In the macroscopic diversity technique, the Fig. 1.16 shows the block diagram.of a space
mobile takes the advantage of large separations diversity technique. 3
1 Vañable;
between the serving base stations. gain
This technique is useful at the base station
receiver.
The base station can improve the reverse ink
win Antennas Switching
the use of the base station antennas separated in (1.2.n) oglc Output
space. In order to improve the reverse link, a base
demodulators
station selects the antenna with the strongest
signal from the mobile.
Fig. 1.15 shows the types of the Diversity
techniques.
G-2829) Fig. 116: Block diagram of space diversiy
,
es1S1-5alatons
 E&Tc/ SPPU). Disadvantages bandwidth.

.
Networks (Sem. 6/ extra use of
Cellular 'nnumber of t needs
receivers due to
consists of many
diagram
The blockwith separategain values G, G G.G, 2. t
requires
channels.
antennas demodulators are multiple Advantages
demodulators. The diversity wlth
timo
and a set of
generatethe
required output Explain
Q. 31 andDisadvantages.
Usedto
frequency diversity information is
concept of Ans. technique, the
30 Explain the systems. diversity spacings that
Q. reception in wireless In the time repeatedly at exact time
transmitted the mobile
coherence time of
Ans. reception wOuld exceed the
Frequency s diversity technique is several
diversity channel signals for
information in in this repetition of
carrier frequency. This leads in the
An on more than one fading
conditions.
transmítted more than the independent
are separated by channel. times with diversity branch
the
Thefrequencies achieve
Hence it is possible information is transmitted for
the mobile to
coherence bandwidth of other and will
same
uncomelated with each signals, when
Thesewill be slots.
šamefades. differenttime technique is used in the spreadis
notexperience the channels are, the diversity
uncorelated The time receiver
In case of simultaneous fading will be the systems where RAKE
spectrum CDMA
oCupancy of individual fading probabilities reception.
multiple ofthe used for the replicas in time by
technique is applied in the receiver can align the transmitted
Frequency diversity line-of-sight links are
The RAKE
replicas of the
multiple
microwave fields whenever
demodulating experiences a
they carry several
chaniels ina signal. Here, each replica.
CDMA
used. In LOs links,
frequency division
multiplex mode (FDM) particularmultipath delay. in time,
diversity
RAKE receiver can
align the replicas
fading in frequency the at.
There can be deep resulting As
the original signal formed
tropospheric: propagation and itcan better estimate

Ä
due to
.
refractioris of the signa
N. protection
radio licensee provides 1: switching, one
protection
the receiver.
Advantages:
Simple hardware is
needed.
Switching. In 1N can be used
frequency is idle. 2.Multiple diversity branches
a stand-by basis
idle frequencyis available on
An order.to provide frequency diversity
switching Disadvantages:
spectrumisrequirede
in any one the N other carriers being
of
used on More frequency
of diversity
for linkr-Fach-frequency (carrier) carries depending on the number
the sames trafficis
independent traffic The appropriate branches.
when diversity frequency, larger
Switched to the backup frequengy In case of small diversity
,ISrequired 2.
buffer memory is required.
Advantage
allows several diversity branches.
It
Frequency Division Multiplexing
.'. . Chapter 2:Orthogonal

a. 1Explaln single-carrier communication system. information. Hence information in the form of

is carried by only one single RF
carrier.
bits

Ans.:
Single-carrier communication system: This system uses a single carrier for the entire
baseband bandwidth of B.
In a single carrier communication system, a single
radio frequency. carrier is used to cary the
sOS-50fUtions
 Cellular Nctworks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN
Therefore, the symbols are transmitted as symbol Each sub-band is represented by a subcarrier.
X(0) from 0 st<T, symbol from Tst 2T, X) As shown in Fig. 21, the subcarriers are placed
at
X2) from 2T 3T and so, on, frequencies (-,-B/N, 0, B/N, ..).
St ie, a.single
symbol transmitted every T 1/Bseconds. Example
Symbol time T:
ifthe bandwidth B = 256 kHz with N 64
If bandwidth B
a 2W available for subcarriers then the bandwidth per sub-band is
atir
communication,where W is the one-sided equal to 256/64= 4 kHz
bandwidth, or the maximum frequency, then the The frequency spacing between the subcarriers is
symbol.time T for a single carrier communication also 4 kHzZ
system,is given by,. Implementation of multi-carler transmission system:
T 1/B -Consider thesubcarrier at.the frequency
Symbol rate:
If the symbols can be transmitted at intervals of iwith--1si«
1/8 seconds each. Then, the symbol rate is given is the data transmitted on the i" subcarrier,
If X
by then the signal s() corresponding to the
subcarrier is given by,
Symbol Rate .(1) =Xe?mi(@n
Si (t) = Xe ..2)
Such a system is called asa single-carrier Where,
communication system.
st)isubcarrier signal
Q.2Explaln multi-cárrier communication system X data transmitted on the i"subcarier
with its implementatlon.
Ans.
f subcarriercentre frequency
Multl-carrler communicatlon system
eRt= subcarrier
Equation (2) shows the process of data
Multi-carrier communication system
is a method modulation over the i" subcarier.
of transmitting data by splitting it into several
There are a total N data streams and the N
components,and ending each of these
components over separate carrier signals. different data symbols X are modulated over the
* N different subcarriers
with centre frequencies f.
Thus this system usesmore
more than one carriers
Fig.
a. 3 Write a short note on multicarier
2.1 shows theconcept of Multi-carrier transmission.
communication system. :
Ans. '
Subcarmer
Sub-band -
N MCM Transmltter:
Spacin9
SuNcameS. 8IN)-
3 .
The block diagram of MCM (Multicarrier
modulation) transmitter is as shown in Fig. 2.2.
.: .. Ccmposte
signal
Senalo Bank
parallel
Symbolsconverter
pf Adder To ***
modulato chenrel

(N2-1)B.2
N 2BNN
(N/2) B
N.
N -1687Fig. 2.2: Multicarrler modulation transmitter

Total avallable
MCM transmitter consists of a serial to parallel
bandldth B
converter, bank of modulators and an adder.
(0-168 Fig. 2.1: Multi-carier.concept Serial to parallel conversion is used to transmit N
As shown in Fig. 21, the total bandwidth B is information symböls in parallel. Thus there are N
divided into N sub-bands each of bandwidth B/N.
numbers of data streams.
eas1-30latons
 **.

N-18
Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/ SPPU)
passed on to the bank of demodulators or
It is
The modulator modulates i data stream onto the
correlators and the data is converted back to serial
thsubcarrier.
fromparallel, forming a symbol stream.
Adder will make the sum all the modulated Demodulation Process
subcarriers At the receiver, the Individual data streams are
: Sum of all such subcarriers forms a composite isolated from the composite signal s (t).
signal which then would be transmitted on. a
The receiver receives the signal yt) as
channel. y (t) s (t 2Xe
Modulation Process: demodulation process
At receiver, for simplicity of
Consider the different modulated signals s()
we asšume that the noisé absent.
is
corresponding to the N different subcarriers. side of
It can seen that the right-hand
be
The composite signal st) is formed by the Fourier series
equation (4) is indeed
superposing modulated signals at the transmitter representation s(t),
corresponding to the
and the various
and is given by, fundamental frequency fo (B)N
st s Xrepresenting the Fóurier
coefficients.

multiples of the
Substitute the value of si (t) from equation (2) we All the frequencies :iNare
get,
fo
fundamental frequency
s(t) E XePtt
To extract X (Fourier coefficient corresponding to
(4) process similar to
thefrequency f fo followas,.the
over calculate the Fourier series
This composite signal s(t) is then transmitted
N JritB/NE e
2 (B/N
the wireless channels. dt
data f yd (* dtN
Thus, in the multicarrier system, N different
N subcarriers in N/B
streams are transmitted over
dt
parallel

Q. 4 Write a short note on multicarrier reception.

Ans. N1o
Multicarrier reception:
is as shown in. * Ni8
The block diagram MCM receiver
i

Fig. 2.3. Xe dt
N infomaton
symbols
Bank. Serial
Parallel symbol 1668)
to steam
rom Repeaer correlators serial
o dt 0 fori * l, because
channel or
demodulators
converter We have usede
frequency
2.3: Multicarrier modulation receiver
(0-1688)Fig. this is basically integrating a sinusoid of
which is a multiple of the fundamental
It consists of a repeater, bank of demodulators Dfo
and parallel to serial converter. The received signal frequency fo over the time period Te
yt) applied to a repeater stage. At the receiver
is
As there are an integer number of cydes of the
end composite signals are amplified first sinusoid of frequency (0 fo this inteqral is
0.

Repeater is an that simultaneously

antenna This basically means that the different sinusoids
receives, amplifies, and transmits a signal. eP and emdo' are orthogonal
Cellular Notvorks (Sem.6/E&Tc/SPPU)
his property of orthogonality helps to extract the
different streams X modulated over the different
subcarriers
his property of orthogonality can besummarized
as follows,
N/8
/) 1
(0
Therefore,all the subcarriers, other than the
subcarrier are orthogonal to the subcarrier.
A coherent demodulation is.multiplying the term
with (and integrating it.
he coherent demodulation is the demodulation
With the carrier matched to the subcarrier
equencyN
Thus, the data modulated on the different
2 eliminated ISl is
Subcarriers X can be easily recovered by 3.
coherently demoudulating with each of the.| Disadvantages
subcarriers corresponding to
This transmission on multiple orthogonal
subcariers and the associated data recovery at the
receiver is called as Multi Carrier Modulation
(MCM).Jhe window.of time associated. with
detection of this multicarrier signal is given by,
This is basiclly the time period of interation.
Q.5 What are the advantages and disadvantages
ofMCM system ?
Ans.
Advantages
Consideratransmission andwidthof
B 1024 kHz This bandwidth B is much greater
thanthe coherence bandwidth B which is typically
around 250 kHz
The single-carier system experiences, frequeniy
selective fading and inter-symbol, interference as
thetransmission bandwidth 8B
Consider an OFDM system that, uses N
256
Subcarriers in the same bandwidth.
The bandwidth persubcarier is,
1024/256=4 kHz.
es 0351-solutons
CN-19
That means the subcarrier bandwidth of 4 kHz is
significantly lovwer than the coherence bandwidth
of 250 kHz.
Each subcarrier in OFDM experiences flat fading,
since
B
is no inter-symbol interference in the dat
There
transmitted on any of the subcariers in OFDM.
MCM eliminates the Inter-Symbol interference (s)
through parallel transmission by using multiple
narrowband subcarriers.
This results in avoiding distortion of the received
symbols.
The advantages of MCM system as follows
1 Each OFDM subcarrier experiences flat fading
Signal distortion is avoided.
MCM system suffers from a significant
disadvantage. Implementation of the bank of N
modulators and N demodulators with closely
spaced subcarrier frequencies is a challenging
task.
To overcome this problem, data transmission by
Frequency Division Multiplexing using the Discrete
Fourier Transform is used.
This technique, where the MCM signal is
generated by using the IFFT nverse FFTD
operation is known as Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing or OFDM.
Q.6 Write a short note on Orthogonal Frequency
Divislon Multiplexing (OFDM).
Ans.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing:
OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division
Modulation. It. is a wideband wireless digital
communication technique.
OFDM is a digital modulation scheme which can
be used for high speed video communication and
audio communication without any inter symbol
interference (S).
t has a high spectral efficiency. That means it can
accommodate a large number of users.
 Cellular Networks(Serm.6/ E&Tc/SPPU) CN-20

t is amultiplexing', multiple accessseheme whicha8 Deflne and explaln OFDM-PAPR.

has advanced features suitable for the fourthAns.
generation of wireless communication systems. Definition of OFDM-PAPR
It is mainly based on the DSP techniques. average power ratio (PAPR) is
Peak-to-peak
a.7 Define and explaln orthogonality. defined as the ratio of peak power to the average,
Ans. power of a signal. It is measured in decibels (dB).
Definition of Orthogonality: It is observed that PAPR occurs, in cornditions
Two signals are said to be orthogonal if they are where in a multicarrier system, the different sub
independent of each other in a specified time carriers are out of phase with each other.
intervaland do not interactwith each other. The sub carriers are different at every time instant
with respect to. each other and have
different
Transmit a number of orthogonal signals over a
common channel without interference and detect phase valies
value
them on the receiving end without interference. If allthe subcarriers attain the, maximum
output envelope shoots
-.. In FDMwe have different channels (signals). simultaneously, then the
appear in the
occupying different frequency bands with a guard
up suddenly: This causes a peak'. to
outputenvelope.
band in between to avoid any interference are a large
Similar to the OFDM system there.
between the adjacent channels.
number of independently modulated subcarriers
But this makes FDM a bandwidth inefficient very high as
system. i,
the peak value of the system may be
compared to the average value of the complete
The bandwidth efficieny improves considerablyif
system
we use OFDM technique instead of the simple OFDM signal PAPR
In LTE system, the value of is

.
FDM. approx. 12 dB.
In the orthogonal FDM (OFDM) the subcarriers
can be Q. 9Explain OFDM with IFFT
f f f etc. Are placed as close as they
placed theoretically in the frequency domàin. This Ans.
is shown in Fig. 2.4. OFDM transmltter wlth IFFT

The block diagram of OFDM transmitter with IFFT

isasX(0)
shown in Fig. 2.5(a).

WW NK
FrequencY
*Symbols
Sorlal
Parallel
comvorto
X(0) amplos
X(1) 1)
Npolnt
Paralel2r
sarnal
Convortep Tochanne
HNM x(N-1) LAEERx(N-1) LRALSAR

23. ae subearriers (0-1689)Fig. 2.5(a): OFDM transmltter with IFFT

-1334) Fig. 2.4:Orthogonal signals in frequency domain

The bank of modulators in MCM is replaced by
(principle of OFDM). IFFT block in OFDM.

Note that the subcarriers f etc

f2 are placed at The information symbols at the input are
the null points of all the other subcarriers. converted from serial stream into parallel stream.
Thisautomatically eliminates the interference Since we assumed that there are N subcarriers
among the adjacent subcarriers. allowed for the OFDM transmission, we name
Due to this type of placement of subcarriers, the them from 0 to N-1.
total bandwidth of the OFDM systemismuch less The serial to parallel converter takes the serial
than that of the conventional FDM system and can stream of bits and outputs N parallel
input
accommodate more number ofusers. streams (indexed from 0 to N-1).

aC11-alatioss
 Cellular Networks (Sem.6/ E&Tc/SPPU) CN-21

The N point IFFT modulates parallel streams ina restricted to. samples, from the same .OFDM
baseband fashion. symbol.
The output of IFFT block is then applied to the The samples y0), y(1),.., y(N-1) are given as,
parallel to serial converter to produce the OFDM
y(0) = h(0)x(0)+ h(1) x([N-1) +...+ hl1) x{N-L+1).
signal
Let st) is the MCM transmit signal. t is band.Ya) = h[0)x() + h{1) x(0) ...+ h{L-1) x(N-L+2)
limited to the total bandwidth B.

Nyquist sampling rate = B and y(N-1) h0)x(N-2) + h(1) x{N - 2) +..+ h(l-1)
Associated sampling time is T, = 1/B x(N-L)

Consider now signal From the above equations it is clear that, the
the composite MCM
EXiB/N output yln) is a circular convolution between the
channel fiter h (n) and the input x(n).
The sample at time instant T, = 4/B is given .
Hence this can be expressed as follows,
by, Received samples iy(0) y(1),.yN-1))
s(AT) *x () E x, ERdM W)
Ib(0). h(1).hfl-1),0..0-N M(O)x(1),.x (N-1

x() =EX 2a6) 1) Where N.indicates the circular convolution of

modulo N.
DFT
Therefore, the output Y can be given by,
Equation (1) shows that the sample x(p) is basically
Inverse
Y = hNx
the Discrete Fourier Transform (0DFT)
coefficient of the information symbols X(0), Taking the DFT of yln) at the output, we get,

X(1)....X(N 1) at the time point. H(k}X(k),0s ks (N -1) (2)

" Yk) =
In order to generate the sampled MCM signal, the Where,
Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) can be easily
Y(k) = N-point DFT of yln)
used.
X() = N-point DFT of x(n)
This method of generating the composite transmit
x(n) = IDFT of X(n)
signal through IFFT or IDFT reduces the comple
of implementing an OFDM system. Therefore, the DFT of the samples x(n) gives back
This method with 1DFT reduces complexity of the the original transmitted symbols X(n).
system as it eliminates the need for the bank of The coefficients H(k) indicates the DFT of the zero
modulators corresponding to the different padded channel filter,
subcarrier frequencies
h0), h1,.h(l-1), 0..,0
The generation of the MCM signal using the IFFT
operation is called as Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM). N-1)
Thus, Equation (2) represents the flat-fading9
Q. 10 How to avoid IS In OFDMI 7
channel across the kh subcarrier in the OFDM
Ans.
system.
If L2( 1),then inter-symbol interference can
be seen to be from x(N - 1). x{N - 2), .. ., Here Yk) indicates the output symbol, while Hk
x(N-L+ 1) indicates the equivalent flat-fading9 channel
Inter-OFDM symbol interference can be avoided coeficient.
with the cyclic prefix of appropriate length, ie.,
This is true for each subcarrier k, ie, for 0 s ks
2 (l - 1), and inter-symbol interference is
(N-1).

ecas1-solenoss
 Cellular Networks(Sem.6/E&TC/SPPU) CN-22
Thus in OFDM the conversion of the frequency-
selective fading channel into a
groupof
narrowband flat-fading channels takes place:

If a single carrier:communication system is

used YN 1)= H(N 1JX(N 1)
andthe symbols X(0), X(1 X(N 1) are directly
Fig. 2.6 shows schematic. representation
transmitted then the received symbol
yn) can be
of
conversion of the frequency-selective wideband
given by channel into Nnarrowbandlat-fading
Yn)=h{0)XO) +h{1)X(n-1)++ h(L1) subchannels.

XnL+1) requencY
selectva Nnaband
Each. symbol X(n) will experience inter-symbol wideband fat fading OFDM
interference of (L 1) past symbols channe subchannels
Therefore, using OFDM, is possible to eliminate
it (O-1709)Flg.2.6:OFDM parallel sub-channels
the inter-symbol interference due to frequency
selective nature of the channel. Q.11 Explain OFDM transmitter with cyclic prefix.
The set of parallel flat-fading channels can
Summarized as
beAns.
OFDM transmitter with cycllc prefix:
Y (0) = H (0) x (0)
Fig. 2.7 shows the OFDM transmitter with Cyclicc
Y H1)X
(1) (1)
preiX.

XO)
. Samples
Symbols
Serfal
to
paralle
convertB
X(1)
FFT
to
Paralle
yclic
pre
CP
nserton
..
atrate B

To channe
x(N-1) x(N-4)
o-1710Fig. 2.7:OFDM transmitter with Cyclic pref
The information symbols are parallelized in N WiMax has total number of subcariers N 256,
differentsubstreams by using serial to paralle withabandwidth of 15.625 kHz per subcarier.
converter. Each. sub-stream will modulate a
separate carrier through theN-point IFFT = 15625 kHz
modulationi
modulation block,
A.cyclic prefix-is inserted whichliminates
eliminates the B N*15.625 256 * 15.625
inter-symbolaS) and inter-block interference (1B) B 4 MHz
This cycieprefix of length Leis a circúlar extension The subcarrier bandwidth is less. than the
of the IFFT-modulated symbol and it is obtained coherence bandwidth, ie, 8, = 15.625 kHz ««
bycopying the last L samiples of the symbol in B 250 kHz
S front of it 1.
The information symbols are back-serial So each subcarrier experiences frequency lat
converted, forming an OFDM Symbol that wil fading
modulatea high-frequency carrier before itsOFDM symboltime without CP
transmissionthroughthechannel. OFDM symbol time without CP is given by,
The
a.12 Explain various parameters In the design of a
OFDM system,
Xin3
4x 1064
us

The OFDM symbol time corresponding to the

WiMAX is a well-known 4 wireless stanidard.
, N 256 1FFTsamples is 64 us.
 FCellular Networks (Sem.6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-23
OFDM symbol time with cyçlic prefix
1.OFDM makes efficient use of the spectrum
The cyclic prefix used in the WIMAX is 12.5 %.of by allowing overlap
the symbol time.
OFDM divides the channel into narrowband
Duration of cyclic prefix 12.5% x Symbol time flat fading sub-channels, it is more resistant
12.5 tofrequencyselectvefadingas compared to
100 64 us
single carier systems
8 us OFDM eliminates ISI and IFI with the use of a
: Total transmitted OFDM symbol duration with cyclic cyclic prefix.
prefix is 64 us= 72 as.
s+8 Due to the frequency selectivity of the
Number of samples in the CP: channel, one can recover the lost symbols by
The number of samples in the CP is given by. using adequate channel coding and
uration interleaving.
Samples in CP
Sample time
5 Channel equalization in OFDM, becomes
8 uS simpleras compared to single carrier systems
1/B that uses adaptive equalization techniques.
8x 10x 4x 10 6. It is possible to. use maximum likelihood
32 decoding with reasonable complexity.
Length of the cyclic prefix 32 samples 7. OFDM becomes efficient to implement the
modulation and demodulation functions by
. Total number of samples 256 32 288
using FFTtechniques.
WiMAX OFDM symbol in terms of the regular.
8 As compared to single carrier systems, OFDM
samples and cyclic prefix is as shown in Fig. 28.
is less sensitive to sample timing ofsets.
Total number öf samples =288-
9. It provides good protection against co
channel interference and impulsive parasitic
CP32
samples
256 OFDM samples
noise.
Symbol duration = 64 us
Q14 What are the disadyantages of OFDM?
LcP duration = 8 as
Ans.
Total duraton 64 +8=72 us-
Thedisadvantages of OFDM are asfollows
(0-1713)Fig. 28: WIMAX OFDM symbol with cyclic prefx
1 OFDM requires RE power amplifiers with a
Loss in spectral efficlency high peak to average power ratio because it
The loss in spectral efficiency is given by,
has a nolse like amplitude with a very large
dynamic range.
Loss in spectral efficiency=ength ofthecyclicprefixL
efficiency= Totalnumber ofsamples 2. OFDM system is more sensitive to carier
11.1% frequency offset and drit due to leakage of
288 the DFT.

This loss in spectral efficiency is due to the 3. It is sensitive to Doppler shift.

insertion of the eyclic prefix. It needs linear transmitter circultry, which
Suffers from poor power efficiency. : *

Q. 13 What are the advantages of OFDM ?

It suffers loss of. efficiency caused due to
Ans.
cyclic prefix
The advantages of OFDM are as follows:

Cas1-3aliios
 Cellulár Networks (Sem. 6/E&TG/SPPU); : CN-24

Q.15 Explain the concept of Smart Antennas. In mobile communication systems, the base
station plays the. role of the, listener and the
Ans.
mobile equipment plays the role of signal source
Definition of SmartAntennas
Smart antennas are arrays of antenna elements The function of a digital signal processor
that change their antenna pattern dynamically in equipped with an antenna array is to adjust
order to adjust to the noise,,interference in the various'system parameters and to focus on the
channel thataffects the signal ofinterest required signal while cancelling out other
Principle of Smart Antenna' interferences
Fig. 2.9 shows the principle of smart antenna. The smart antenna systems can electronically
Aray anenna adapt. to the RF. environment Multipath
propagation is obtained through scattering and
reflection.
Aray
Outout Q. 16 Write a short note on functions of smart
:

antenna.
Ans.:
. Functions of a smart antennas:
Adaphve
sgna 1. Estimation of Directlon of arrival (DOA):
The smart antenna system computes the direction
of arrival of the signal.
Available
EOA is estimated using techniques like MUSTC
infomation
Fig, 2.9: Smart antenna system (Multiple Signal Classification), estimation of signal
(G-2 parameters rotational invariance
through
n smart antennas, the signals received at the
techniques (ESPRI) algorithms, Matrix Pencil
different antenna elements are' multiplied with
method or one of their derivatives. They involve
their complexweightsW finding a spatial spectrum of the antenna/sensor
The antenna selects the summed up weights array, and calculating the DOA from the peaks of..
adaptively. The smart antenna is also known as this spectrum.
adaptive array elements. 2. Beamforming Method
In order to transmit and receive the data Fig. 2.10 shows the concept of beamforming. This
adaptively smart antennas combine an antenna method is used to create the radiation pattern of
array with digital signal processing ability.
the antenna array. >*****
To adjust to the noise interference in the channel, Transmitter Receiver
smart atennas dynamially modify. their antenna
pattern. To
Data detector
Smart antennas combinesarray gain, diversity gain Beam Beam
foTner
and interference suppression to improve the fomer

Capacity of the wireless systems.

Improvedcapacity resuits in higher data rate.
In order to reduce the mu/tipath fading problems, Desired directons
smartantennas use multipath wave propagation. of transmission
recspton
Smart antennas work by using two antennas and a 2.10: Coñcept of beamforming
(G-2733) Fig.
signalprocessor.
They create antenna array by adding
Smart antennas can focus on individual signals by
constructiveiy the phases oi ine signais in the

. comparing thë signai strengths received by both

antennas.

0aSy-Sotuioas
direction of the desired targets/mobiles, and to
 Cellular Networks (Sem.6/E&Tc/SPPU)
nulliy the pattern of the targets/mobiles that are
undesired/interfering targets.
Q. 17 List the types of Smart Antenna Systems.
.
Explain Switched beam antenna.
Ans.
Types of Smart Antenna Systems
1.Switchedbeam antenna
2. Adaptive array antenna
Switched beam antenna
Definition
The antennas which forim the multiple fixed beams
with heightened sensitiviy in some particular
directions are known as Switched beam antennas.
It is extension of cell sectoring as each sector is
subdivided into smaller sectors.
Inthis configuration of smart antenna, a finite
number fixed, predefined patteins
of
combining schemes (sectors) are available.
Working
The switched beam antenna systems detect
signal strength; select from one of several
predetermined, fixed beams and siwitch from one
beam to other as the cellular phone (mobile)
moves throughout the sector.
The switched beam antennas combine the outputs
of multiple antennas in such a way that they
directional beams with high spatial selectivity.
Tofocus on an individual subscriber, switched
beam antenna system use some predefined
radiation patterns.
After detecting signal strength, smart beam
antenna system switches between thousands of
predetermined patterns tomatch the bést
communication link.
As the subscriber moves, the radiation pattern is
switched and the best is šelected.
. ,
Fig. 2.11 shows the basic mechanisim ofa switched
.beam antenna system, Individual,subscriber is
denoted bys. . '
0asTSoIutiens
CN-25
Intererer
(G-271) Fig.2.11: Switched beam system
In a splitting system, macrocells are divided into a
fewmicrocells.
Each microcell is equipped with different types of
preset radiation patterns.
When a subscriber. enters a macrocell, the
microcells with the strongest signals are
or
determined and the corresponding beam is used
for the maximum output power.
As shown in Fig. 2.11, the sector is filled with
predetermined patterns.
the subscriber enters into a specific area,
When
only the corresponding pattern is selected.
.
The system continuously monitors the subscriber
and switches from beam to beam for the best
output
.
form.18 .
Explain Adaptive array,antenna.
Ans.
Adaptlve array antenna
Adaptive array antennas are the most advanced
smart antenna approach as on date.
In this system, nultiple antennas are used both in
the transmitting and receiving side of a
communication link to adaptively optimize the
transmission over the channel.
An AAS system focus its transmit energy towards a
receiver, and while receiving, it can focus towards
the transmitter.
Beamforming technique is used in AAS.
Fig. 2.12 shows the basic principle of Adaptive
array antenna system.
 ****
Desired Advantages of AAS:
Usor
1 Increased coverage
O Interferer 2. Increased capacity
Antenna
aray 3 Costreduction
4: Improved link quality and reliabilitý
G-2719) Fig.2.12: Adaptive array antenna :
5. Increased Spectral efficiency
'y

Beam forming allows directional SIgnaDisadvantages

transmission or reception without manually ofAAS:
steering the antennas Complex transceiver mechanism
Inthe beam forming, several transmitters are set 2Need of resource management
apart from each other. 3. Physical size of the antennas

All transmitters transmit the same signal with Q.20 State the features óf Smart Antennas.
different phase difference and delay.
The interference occurred in all the transmitters
can be used to guide a signat to a specific
dírection.
The signal processing algorithms are used to
locate and track the different types of signals, to
reduce the interference and maximize the required
signal reception. In an AAS, signals can be focused
simultaneously on many remote devices.
ASS controls the shape of these beams in such a
way. that the signal between the transmitter and
receiver is always maximum.
This system can increase link quality by combining
the: effects of multipath propagation and
exploiting different data streams from different
antennas.
a. 19 What are the advantages and disadva:tages
. of switched beam system and Adaptive array
antenna
Ans.
Advantages ofSBAs
1 Single or multiple fixed directional beams.
2. Simple algorithms are used for beam
selection.
3. Significant increase in coverage and capacity.
4 Lower installation costs and less complexity
Disadvantages ofSBAs:
. These antennas have non uniform gain with
respect to angle.
2. Locking into the wrong beam due to mult
path or interference.
3. Limited interference suppression.
@01T330io.s
Ans.
The imprtant features of the smart antennas
(antenna arrays) are as follows
1 Optimized radiation pattern.
2. They can be used for beam forming
(extremely directional antenna)
3. They are adaptable to changes in signal
power, transmissíon conditions and many
.
other signal propagation effects.
Smart antennas can provide the required
4
coverage.
Smart antennas reduce multipath fading and
other multipath propagation effects. .
6. Smart antennas are power efficient because
the inputs are combined, to multiple
elements in order to optimize the available
processing gain in the downlink
7 It improves the signal to interference rátio of
****
the received signals
With the help: of smart antennas, space
division multiplé access adopts to the radio
environment
The handset antennas of today's mobile phone are
omnidirectional in nature
Q.21 What are the advantages of smart antenna
systems 7
Ans.
Advantages of smartantenina systems:
The advantages of the smart äntennas (antenna
arrays) are as follows:
i in smarë antennas, iocüs on ine energy seint
out into the cell increases base station range
and coverage.
Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc SPPU) CN-27

2LowerPower requirements also allows
greater battery life and smaller/lighter
handset size.
3A Smart antenna can reduce the effective
delay spread of the channel, enabling higher
bit rates to be supported vithout the use of.
an equalizer, improved bit error
rate.
Smart antennas improves the capacity by
precise control of signal nulls quality and
mitigation
of interference combine to
frequency reuse reduce distance (or cluster
size)
A Smat antenna lowers amplifier costs,
powerconsumption.
Smart antennasare highly reliable.
.22 What are the disadvantages of smart antenna
SyStems,?
AnS.;
Disadvantages of smart antenna systems
The disadvantages of the smart antennas.lantenna
arrays) are as follows:
1
Cost :The cost of such a device will be more,
not only in the electronics section, but also in
the power.
. Size To make this method to be efficient
large base stations are required. This will.
increase the size.
3.Diversity diversity becomes a big problem
when multiple mitigation is needed. The
terminals and base stations should have
multiple antennas
a.23 What are the applications of smar antenna
3ystems.?
:
Ans.
a Q.24 State and explain different types of muti
antenna techniques ?
Ans.
Types of multi-antenna technigues
Following are the types of Multi-antennas:
1 SISO (Single-input Single-output)
SIMO (Single-input Multiple-output)
2
3. MISO (Muitiple-input Single-outpur)
4, MIMO (Multiple-input Multiple-output)
Single input Single Output (SISO):
SISOstands for Single Inputand Single Output As
shown in Fig. 2.13, it consists of one antenna for
transmission and one for reception.
3ransmitte Receive
Rx
(G2720) Fig. 2.13: SISO (Single Input Single Output)
SISO is a conventional radio system where neither
the transmitter nor receiver has multiple antenna.
Šingle Input Multiple OutputSIMO):
SIMO stands for Single input and multiple.
Outputs. It consists of one antenna for
transmission and multiple antennas for reception.
Here one signal is transmitted and two or more
are received. A typical SIMO structure is shawn in
Fig. 2.:14.
ransmitue sISO VRecevex
R
G-2720) Fig. 2.14: SIMO (Single input multiple output)
Receive diversity is used in the SiMO antenna
technique.

Applicatons of smart antenna systems While receiving a signal, the antenna can either
select the strongest signal or can join all the
1 Wi-Fia/b/g access points and clients
signals received in different antennas is known as
2. Mobile video receive diversity. As compared to SISO systerns
3.Mobile broadband/gaming SIMO systems provide more throughput with
4 Satellite/digital radio micro-diversity.

5 GPS Multiple Input Single Output (MISO):

6 3G Wireless In the MISO (Multiple-input Single-output)

WiMax antenna technique, multiple antennas are usedin
8. RFID the transmitter while a single antenna is used in
the receiver.
es casy-solutions

:*
-*
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
This is a comparatively new technology. MISO has
been a favorite as only multiple antennas need to
be installed in the base station (85)
A typical MISO structure is shown in Fig. 2.15.
Transmitt
Receiver
(G-772 Fig.2.15: MISO (Multiple input single output)
Transmit diversity is used in the MISO antenna
technique.
Transmit antenna diversity is a controlled diversity
technique which provides spatial repetition of
transmitted signals through different antennas.
A method known as STC (Space Time Coding) is
implemented at the transmitter with multiple
antennas.
STC allows the transmitter to transmit signals
simultaneously in. time and space which means
the data can be transmitted by multiple antennas
at different times repeatedly.
Multiple Input Multple Output (MIMOJ
MIMO consists of multiple antennas in both the
transmitter and the receiver.
They have capability of combining the SIMO and
MISO technologies. 'MIMO increase capacity by
using Spatial Multiplexing (SM).
A typical MIMO structure is showin in Fig: 2.15(a).
Recevar
fransiike
R a
(G-2723)Fig. 2.15(a): Multiple Input Multlple Output
a. 25 Explaln concept of MIMO w.r.t 4G technology
Ans.
Principle:
The Multiple-input Multiple-Output (MIMO)
system uses multiple antenna on both the
transmitter and receiver.
They have dua capablity of combining the SIMO
and MISO technologies.
They can also increase capacity by using. Spatial
Multiplexing (SM).
CN-28
The MIMO method has some clear advantages
over Single-input Single-output (SISO) methods.
The fading is greatly eliminated by spatial
diversity, and low power is required as compared
to other techniques in MIMO
MIMO systems are used to obtain high speeds
andthroughput.
Block dlagram:
Fig. 2.16 shows the block diagram of multiple-
input multiple-output system.
ransmi Recaiver
tter
TX (RX)
(G-2736) Flg. 2.16:Block dlagram of amultiple-input
multiple-output system
It consists of a' transmitter with N number of
transmitting antennas and areceiver with N
number of receiving antennas as shown.
The data stream at the transmitter (Tx) enters an
encoder, and the encoded outputs are applied to
N transmitting antennas. ,.
Multiple transmitting antennas transmit the signa
through the wireless propagation channel, which
is assumed to be quasi-static and frequency-flat.
The meaning of the term quasi-static is thatlong the
Cofierence tima. of the.channel.is. extremely.
due to which large riumber of bits can be
transmitted within this time.
Q. 26 How do we use space-time block code (STBC)
andspace time trellis code (STC)?
Ans.
We need to use the Space time codes (STCs). to.
maximize diversity, coding gain and throughputin
order to compensate for the channel fading and
decrease the bit error rate
There are following two types of space timecodes
used in MIMO systems
1 Space time block code (STBC) and
2. Space time trellis code (STTCQ
:1
FCelular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/ SPPU) CN-29
The space tine block codes (STBC) are transmitted Let b, bz b, are the r received symbols across
using a block structure. receive antennas, whjch can be stacked as
the r
It supports a simple decoding at the r-dimensional receive symbol vector and is
the receiver end.
With STBC the system can transmit multiple copies given by,
ofthe data over a number of antennas in orderto
improve the data transfer reliability.
b=
The space time trellis codes (STTES) are
the codes (o-1657)
that transmit multiple redundant copies of
convolutional or trellis code distributed over time Let
h is the complex coefficient representing the
fading channel coeficient between the f" receive
and a number of transmit antennás.
antenna and thej" transmit antenna.
The receiving antenna would reconstruct the
original transmitted data using the multiple There are t channel coeificients available in this
wireless scenario that correspond to all possible
redundantcopies.
combinations of the r receive antennas and t
The space time trellis code provides both diversity
transmit antennas.
and coding9 gain as compared to the space time
The rx t channel coefficients are arranged in a
block codes.
matrix form as follows:
The STTCs have a good bit-error performance.
However their encoding and decoding methods h h2
are complex. H=2
They require a virterbi decoder at the receiver end. Lh ha (O-1659)

Q. 27 Write a short note on MIMO system model. Here the rxt dimensional matrix H is called as
Ans. the MiMO channel matrix.
MIMO system model: Let i the additive noise at the receive antenna
is
Fig. 2.17 shows a MMO wireless system which and it is denoted by n, i.e., ny nz Dr.
consists of t transmit antennas and r receive
The vector form representation of the net MiMO
antennas. Such a MIMO system is also referred as
an rx.t system. input output system model is :

Tx Rx
antennas MIMOb antennas h2 a
(Input) Oupuy

-0-1658)Fig. 2.17: MIMO system input-output schematic

(0-1660)
Let ay
the
2 a are the t symbols transmitted from
transmit antennas in the MIMO system, This can be represented using matrix notation as,
1)
ie. a,
The a, denotes the symbol transmitted from the
b Ha+n
transmitantenna with 1s ist
i From Equation (1), the receive symbol bis
given as,
The t-dimensional vector is formed by stacking of
transmit symbols. b =h1a+ h12a2 t.. hai@ + ny

It is also called as the transmit vector and is given From Equation (2) it can be seen that, all the
by, symbols a, a.. a, interfere at by received at the
receive antenna 1.
Similarly, the receive symbol b> is given by,

(0-1655)

e Casy saiutiogs
 Celular Networks (Sem.6/ E&Tc/SPPU) CN-30
Thisistrue forallthe receive antennas, that means Applicatlons:
at each receive antenna i, the receive symbol b; is WLAN (Wi-Fi) uses MIMO with 802.11 n standard.
a linear sum of allthe transmit symbols a,
a from the t
a.
transmit antennas, observed in
This is possible because, multiple small antennas,
additive noise n are present in modem devices like laptops, datä
cards,mobiles, tablets.
Q28 Write a short note on advantages The HSPA uses MIMO in commercial networks.
and
applications of MIN1O. But it is difficult to install two antennas in mobile
Ans."
devices considering the mobile hardware
Advantages of MIMO: limitations.
1 Increased uplink/downlink throughput Some mobile devices do support dual antennas
2 High QoS (Quality of Service) with increased that operate for MIMO Both these antennas are
spectral efficiency cross-polanized.
Increasesthe spatialdiversity and Q. 29 With neat diagram explain MIMO OFDM
multiplexing gain
Minimizes
Transmítter.
the fadíng effects
theAns.
transmitted signal traveling to receive
on
antenna MIMO OFDM Transmitter
5. Better Signal to Noise Ratio(SNR) Fig. 2.18 shows the processing at
the transmitter
6 Reduction in BER (Bit ErrorRate) ofthe MIMO-OFDM systemn.
-

Transmit
antenna,1

gansnt ransmit
antennat
gemu
F CP

. 0-1714)Fig. 2.18: MIMO OFDM transmitter

Muldple tansmit
nnras
MIMOOFDM transmítter
consists of Serial **r
parallel demux block toQ30 Stateadvantages and disadvantages off
for transmit antennas MIMO-OFDM
N-point 1FFT parallel to serial mux *'*

and Cyclic:
Prefix(CP) On each transmit antenna
again S/P Ans.
demux operation is performed. Advantages of MIMO-OFDM:
Each information symbol The advantages of MIMO-OFDM are as follows:
is passed through aserial
to parallel (S/P) converter arid becomes parallel 1 MIMO-OFDM enables support for more
data: On the parallel data, the IFFT operation antennas and larger bandwidth.
perfomed. Tim domain symbols are parallel is
serial (P/S converted and to 2.MIM0-OFDM increases the data rates up to
a
then cyclic prefix (CP) .
is added
CP is added to eliminate ISI and ICT (inter-carrier
, several hundreds of M bits/sec. and achieves
spectralefficiencies of several tens of
interfarente). Finally, the ampiled moditated - bits/Hz/s.
Signals are transmitted.
It increases spectral efficiency of the system.
scasy-solutioas
 Cellular Networks
(Sem.
6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
4. It improves reliability
of link. CN-31
5It has low sensitivity Disadvantages of MIMO-OFDM
error. to time synchronization
The disadvantages
of MIMO-OFDM are as
6. It has extra resistance follows:
to fading. 1. MIMO-OFDM
7. Ithas highbandwidthspectral needs multiple antennas.
8. The complexity
for FFT
efficiency.
2An
3.
implementation cost high.
is
Accuracy of synchronization
low. and 1FFT becomes
must be very
high.
4. High power consumption.
Chapte 3 Introduction to Mobile
1 Explain the concept Communication
system. of cellular telephone
Ans.
In the cellular system city is divided
into small
Block diagram areas called 'cells.
Each cell is around
The block diaram of 10 square kilometre (depends
the cellular network as upon power of base
shown in Fig. 3.1. is station).
Q.2 Draw general block diagram
of mobile phone
system and explain
its operation.
Mobllo telephone Ans.:
SWiching oflcs
(MTSO) Block dlagram:
The structure of the mobile
phone network along
with the public switched
telephone networksis
shown in Fig. 3.2.

Landline Hexagcnal Base statons

Moble unt or pocket celutar toephone telephone9 cells ol cells
Celi ste ublie SWitchea
Transportablo or pocket cellular telephone
Contral
Slchod
telephone C8Nar:
MTSO

Ceil &te ardenna

01ico
2twork
Moblle phone communicates
withthe base statlon
(G-1028)
Fig3.2: Basic stnucture of mobile telephone
G-1025) Flg.3.1: network
The cellular network
It is basically a multiuser wireless Cellular telephone system
is a wireless telephone
telephone system. It is a multiuser system.
system.
Cellular phone is wireless communication Operation:
system
just like cordless phone. The mobile telephone system
has hexagonal
In cell phone, distance is shaped cells as shown .in Fig. 32 Each cell
not restricted to within has a
home but one can travel in the city or base station situated at thecenter.
even
outside the city The. task of the
without interruptionin bas stations, is actas an
to
communication. interface between
the mobile phone and the
cellular radio system.
The demand for cellular mobile phone
is
increasing at alarming level and is likely that wired The base stations of all the cells are connected
to
communication will be replaced by wireless the switched center MSC or MTSO,Observe that
technology this interface is a bi-directional one.
aCasT-301tons
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-32
That means the exchange of information between Ans.:
the switched center and the base stations is a twa
way. As shown in Fig. 3.2, the communication
area
1.Base station:
of the mobile communication is divided, into It is defined as a fixed (non-moving) station in a
hexagonal cells. mobile radio system, which communicates with
Therefore, the system is named as the mobile stations
the cellular
radio system. The switching center acts.as
the 2. Control channel
interfacebetween the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN): -It is defined as the radio channel
used for
transmitting the control signals such call
In addition to that it performs as set up,
the supervision and call request, call initiation as well as
the control
control operations in
the mobile communication information
System. Due to this kind of a system layout,
the 3. Forward channel:
communication can take place between two
mobile subscribersor between It is defined as the radio channel
subscriber and a landline telephone as
a mobile used for
transmitting the information from the base station
well.
If a mobile subscriber travels from one cell area to to the mobile ie. in the forward direction.
the other then it automatically gets connected.to 4. Reverse channel
base station of that cell. Thus the service provided It is defined as the radio channel used for
to a mobile subscriber is continuous without transmitting the information from a mobile to
any
break base station i.e. in the reverse direction.
a. 3State the advantages cellular
of concept
5. Mobile station
Ans. It is defined as a station in the cellular radio
Advantages of cellular concept: service which is used when in motion at an
1.Only a fixed number öf channels (frequency unspecified location.
slots) arerequired to be used. This is because Mobile stations can be portable hand held
the same frequencies can be used for personal units or they can be the ones installed in
multiple cellsdue to the principle of vehicles.
frequency re-use
Q.5 Explain FDD and TDD.
Large area can be covered.
Ans.
Lowpower transrmitters can be used as the FDD and TDD
cellf area is small
Every piece of subscriber equipment"(eg" Inthe fullduplex systems simultaneous
mobile handset) within a country or communication takes place between the base
continent can be manufactured with the station and subscriber.
sameset of channels so any mobile can be This can be achieved by providing two
Used anywhere. simultaneous but separate channels operating at
Highercapacity. different frequency ranges in Fig. 3.3. as shown
Localinterference only.
.. 7Robustnessto failure at single component.
Base
station
Frequency
(Forward channel)

Q.4 2
Define the following
Base station
1
. (Reverse
channel) T
2 Control channel Mobile station

3 Forward channe (G-1557) Fig. 3.3: Concept of FDD

4 Reverse channe This is caiei ds riequeicy Division uupiexing

5. Moblle staton, (FDD).

s easy-Solutions ,
 FCellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc
/SPPU)
CN-33
Another technique used in
full duplex
systems is Advantages of Frequency Keuse
called asTime Division
Duplexing (TDD) in which
adjacent time slots on the same A single transmitter of high'power need not
radio channelare
allotted for the forward be used to cover the entire area.
and reverse channels. ,'
2Many transmitter of small power working at
Fig. 34 shows the principle of TDD.
the same frequency can beused.
E BacoTimeslot-1 This technique reduces the minimum height
of the antenna.
Timeslol-2
Slot-1
Mobileslation 4 The users, located in different geographical
Slo-2
areas ie. diferent cells can use the same
FOrwardReverse frequency simultaneoushy.

(G-1558) Fig.3.4:Concept
me 5.It drastically
efficiency,
íncreases. the spectrum

of TDD
Q.7 A spectrum of 30 MHz is allocated to a
Q. 6 Write a
note on frequency reuse
and Its wireless FDD cellular system which uses two
advantages. April i7,Apri 18,March 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full
19
Ans. duplex voice.and control channe), compute
Frequency reuse: the number of channels avallable per cell ifa
system uses:
In frequency reuse concept the radio channels use 1. 4 cell reuse
the same frequency to cover different areas that 2. 7 cellreuse
are physically separate from each other. 3. 12 cell reuse
Infrequeny reuse it is necessary.to see Asume 1 MHz of spectrum is allocated to
that the control channel.. Give distribution of voice
co-channel interference is not objectionable. and control channels. April 17
Frequeny reuse is aninmportantconcept Ans.
because:Glven:

.
Total bandwidth
in this a single transmitter of higher power.need 30 MHz
not be used to cover the entire area. Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz x 2 simplex
channels
Instead many transmitter of small
output power 50 kHz/duplex channel
operating at the samefrequencycanbe used.
Total
.
available channels 30x 10
This technique also reduces the minimum height 50x 10
of the transmitting antenna, because now
each 600 channels
antenna has to coverasmall area. 1.FoUr-cellreuse:
Frequency :.
reuse is very important concept of the Total number of channels available per cell
cellular mobileradio system.

The users located.in different geographical areas .

150 channels .Ans.
2. Seven cell reuse
i.e. different cells can use
the same frequency Total number and channels available
simultaneously. per cell
600
The advantage.of fregquency reuse
is that it 86 channels Ans.
drastically increases the spectrum efficiency
but3.12cell reuse
the disadvantage is that if the system
is not Total number of channels available per cell
designed properly then co-channel interference
may take place. 75 channels Ans.

casy-Saluttons
 Celular Networks(Sem.6IE&Tc/SPPU) CN-34
FA1 MHz spectrum for control channel implies that This algorithm considers the following aspects:
1000x 10 1. Possibility of blocking in future
there are
are s0 within the
s0 10:20
10 control channels outof
cell
the 600 channels available.
2. The frequency used by the requesting cell.
The 600 channels must be evenly distributed to
each cell within the cluster. Practically only the 580
3.The reuse distance of the channel.

voice channels will

be allocated as control 4Othercostfunctions
channels are allocated as 1 per cel. Depending on these factors, the MSC only
allocates a frequency which is not being used
1. Forfour-cell reuse we can have five rol presently in the cell or any other cell which is too
channels and 145 voice channels per cell. close, for avoiding the co-channel interference.
For seven-cell reuse, we can have cells with For successful operation of dynamic channel
two control channels and 84 voice channels. assignment strategies, the MSC has to collect real
time data on the following parameters of all
3. .For 12 cell reuse, we can have one control channel continuously
channel and 74 voice channels.
1 Channeloccupancy
Q. 8Explain different channel assignment 2. Traffic distribution.
strategles. Decr16, May17 3. Radio signal strength indications CBSS)

Ans.: Hybrid Channel Assignment:

Dlfferent channel assignment strategies Hybrid channel assignment strategy is the
1 Fixed channel assignment combination of fixed and dynamic channet
assignment štrategies.
2 Dynamic channel assignment and
Here they assign a fixed number of channels to
3 Hybrid channel assignment strategies.
each cell site on a long-term basis.
Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA):
When all of them are busy and a call is initiated,
In the fixed channel assignment strategy. a fixed
the BS will raise a request for dynamic channel.
predetermined set of voice channels is assigned to
The ratio of. number of fixed channels and
each cell.
dynamic channels is an important number and its
A mobile phone number within the cell can be
value depends on the traffic conditions.
called by making use of the unused chanmels in
This ratio may vary in its value according to. the
that particular cell.
estimated values of instantarneousload
However if no channels in that cell is free, then the distributions.
**
call is blocked and the subscriber does not get .

The hybrid channel assignment schemes show

service.
better performance for the traffic loads up to
Different modifications have been done in the
50 %.
fixed channel assignment strategy.
But fixed channel assignment (FCA) gives better
One of them is channel borrowing.
results for the traffic loads beyond 50 %.
Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA) :
Q.9 What ls handoff ? Why is it necessary
In the dynamic channel assignment strategy, no moblle cellular system ? Explaln moblle
predetermined voice channels are permanenty assisted handoff.
allocated to any cel. May 16, Aprik 17 May 17; March 19 March 20
Instead, whenever a call request is made in a cell
Ans.:
the base station of that cell, requests the MSC for
Definitlon of handoff
an extra channel
The continue even when the
call in progress will
The MSC then allocates a channel to the other.
mobile station moves from one cell to the
requesting cell after following an algorithm.

sGas-5olatoas
 Celular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CNE

This process of continuing the call in progress

Cochanned
without terminating it is called as "hand-off. Tols

It is also called as handover.

Need of hand-offs
a
Assume that there is call going on between two
Drecton o
parties over a voice channel.
. movemer
When the mobile unit moves out of coverage area
of. a particular cell site, the reception becomes Mobie
weak. Then the present cell site will request a Users

handoff. The system will switch the call to a new

Noto:The change in requency as
cell site without interrupting the cal. This the mobile user moves rom ne
procedure is called as the hand off proceduree or cell o he ober.

handover procedure. G-1033) Fig. 3.5: Hand off procedure

The user can continue talking without even
noticing that the handoff procedure has .taken
Place.
The advantage of handoff procedure is increase in
theeffectiveness of themobile system.
MAHO: Mobile Assisted Hand-off
Inthe second-generation (2G) systems, the hand
off decisions is assisted, by the mobile stations.
The mobile assisted hand offs are known as
MAHO.
In MAHO, every mobile station measures the
power it receives from all thebase stations around
it and continuously reports these measured power
levels tothe serving base station.
If the power received from the base station of the
neighbouring cell begins to go beyond the power
received from the curent base station by a certain
margin then the hand off will beinitiated.
Q. 11 Explain SHO ?
The advantage of MAHO is that this method 3
Fig. 3.5 shows twoco-channel cells separated byya
distance D and using the frequency f
Other cells such as C, C C C, C etc exist in-
between the two co-channel using frequency f
The cells C C C3 and C use different frequencies
f f etc. as shown in Fig. 3.5.
f
Suppose a mobile unit initiates a call in cell C and
then moves to cell C
Then as it starts going away from C the call is
dropped and reinitiated in the frequency channel
from f, to f, when the mobile unit (such as car)
moves form C to C
Similarly when the mobile unit moves from cell 2
to Cg the frequency is changed automatically from
to fas shown in Fig.3.5
The process of changing the frequency is done
automatically by the system and the user does not
even notice it
March 20

reduces the time required to handover the callAns.

between the base stations Soft hand off:

MAHO is particularly suitable for the microcellular The hand off is known as soft handoff if the MSs
starts communication with a new base station
environment where the hand off procedure needs
without stopping the communication with the
to be followed very frequently
older base station.
Q. 10 Draw neat figure to illustrate handoff and In a soft hand off the operating frequencies of the
March 19
Xpaln. old and new base stations are identical.
Ans. Soft hand off enhances the signal by providing
Hand off procedure: -t
different-site selection diversity.
Refer Fig. 3.5 to understand the handoff In simple words the soft hand-off is based on the
procedure dearly.

escasy-soiuttonsS
'

. -:' i..i. :
Make before Break strategy.
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&TC/ SPPU)
CN-38
-Thistechnique is used to lower the rates of callAns.
drops,
Definition ofInterference:
Softhand-offis used in COMA systems5.
In electronic communications, especially
in
Q.12 Explain: 1. Intra cell handover 2. Inter telecommunications, an interference is defined as
cel
handover.
Ans.
Dec 16 a
that which modifies signal in a disruptive
manner, as the signal travels
along a channel
Intercell Handoff: between its source and receiver.
During an ongoing call, if a mobile The term is often used to refer to
station moves the addition of
from one cell to another
corresponding handover is known
cell, then the
as inter cell
,
unwanted signals to a useful signal
Interference is said to have occured
hand-off. Thus the inter cell hand-off when
switches a unwanted signals disrupt wireless communication
call in progress from
one cell to the other cel. including the use of your television radio, mobile
Intracelt hand-off:
phone etc
The Intra cell handover is the
handover within one Effects of Interference:
sector or between different sectors
of the same Interference may prevent reception altogether,
cell
It does not require. network may cause only a temporary loss of a signal, or
connections to be may affect the quality of the audio or video
altered.
The intra cell handover switches produced by your equipment:
a call in progress
from one channel to the other The performance of a cellular radio system gets
channelof the
same cell. r degraded due to the interference.
Q 13 Explaln Soit is animportantlimiting factor.
System capacity
1. Forced handoff. 2. Queued handoff.
The total Number of duplex channels in a cellular
Ans. :
systemis defined as capacity of a cellular system
Forced handoff
A forced handoff is defined as
Tt isgiven by
the hand off which C MGN ME
would normally occur but is not allowed to Where M = Number of times the cluster is
happen by force or a handoff that shoula not
occur but is forced to take place. replicated in a fixed service area
Queued handoff G Number of channels per cell
In the queued handoff process the MTSO
7 N a
Number of cellsin celfular.system
F Total number of channel in a system.
arranges the handoff requests in a queue instead
ofrejecting them, if it finds that new cell sites äre Q 15 With neat diagram, describe co-channel and
too busy to makes the handoff possible adjacent channel interference In GSM
May 19
These handoff requests are then acted upon
in aAns.
sequential manner. Queueing of handoffs is more
Co-channel interference:
:
effective than the two threshold handof.
A number of cells operating at the same set of
Also, a queueing scheme is effective only when
frequencies are called as the co-channel cells.
the handoff requests arrive at the MTSO in the
And the interference taking place between the
form of batches or bundles.
signals originating from these cells is called as the
14 Writo 3 nots on : intorference and systo co-channel interference
capacity. April 1 Fig. 3.6 shows the co-channel interference
diagrammatically
es01STSoto1tons -t
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-37
We can reduce the co channel Inteference by increasing
the
separatlon (0) beween the adjacenl co cells Fig. 3.8 shows that due to imperfect receiver
RA filters, the frequencies from adjacent channels
signal
interfere with the passband of the desired
3 to create the adjacent channel interference.
Near-far effect:
if
The adjacent channel interference will be serious
1 to 4:Cochannel cels a
an adjacent channel user is transmitting from
(G-2561o)Fig. 3.6:Co-channel interference
very close distance to the subscribers receiver.
How to reduce co-channel interference ?
This is called as the near-far effect in which a
Note that we cannot reduce the co-channel
nearby strong transmitter captures the
interference by simply increasing the transmitter
power for each cel. subscriber's receiver.
Reducing the interference
In fact increasing the transmitter power will
The adjacent channel interference can be reduced
increase the co-channel interference.
The co-channel interference can by:
be reduced by 1 Careful filtering.
separating the co-channel çells physicaly by a
2. Careful channel assignment (carefully
minimum distance.
assigning the channel frequendes).
Assume that all the cells are of the same size and
all the base stations are transmitting equal There should be adequate frequency separation
amount of power between the spectrums of the adjacent channels
in a cell as shown in Fig. 3.8.
Also let the cell radius be (R) and the distance
Adjacent channels
between centers of the co-channel cels that are
closest to each other be equal to (D), as shown in
Fig. 3.6.
FrequenCy
The co-channel interference reduction ratio is Frequency
denoted by D/R. s8parabons to avord
adjacont channel interferenca
The co-channel interference Tatio is independent
D-1501) Fig. 3.8 : Frequency separation to avoid adjacent
of the transmitted power, but it will be dependent
on the values of R and D. channel interference
If the frequency reuse factor is large or if the
f we increase the ratio (D/R) then the co-channel
interference will reduce. cluster size (N) is small, the adjacent channels at
the base station will be too close to each other in
Adjacent Channel Interference:
the frequency domain.
The interference that results from signals which
are close (adjacent) in frequency domain to the This will increase the adjacent channel
desired signal frequency is called as adjacent interference.
channel interference. Tight base station filters when the same cell is
The principle of adjacent channel interference is being shared by the ciose-in and distant users.
illustrated in Fig. 3.7. The practical base station receivers use high Q
Spectrurn o
desired signal cavity fiters in order to minimize the adjacent
. Spectrum o' adjacent
Channols
channel interference.

a.16 For given path loss component n 4 and

Adjaced Frequency frequency reuse factor of N 7. Calculate SI
chanrel interterence ratio In cellular system. April 16
G-1565) Fig.3.7: Adjacent channel interference
ecasy-sOTuoG
 FCellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-38
Ans. These should be an appropriate frequency
reuse
Glvenn=4N7 ratio (or cluster size) and an adequate
Step 1:Find Q separation
between the adjacent co-channelcells.
Q The wireless engineers will have
N3N V3x7 4582 to deal with some
practical problems such as dificulties
associated
Step 2:Flnd Sl: with the radio propagation
and imperfect
We know that cOverage regions of each cell.
Generally the available mobile
S SN)O divided into control channels
radio spectrumis
(used for initiating,
requesting or paging a call), and voice channels
ASsuming the number of interfering co-channel:
cells which carry the data messages.
to be equal to 6, we get Out of the entire spectrum only 5%
is allotted to
control channels and the remaining 95%
6x (4.582-73.46
tothe voice channels.
is allotted

10 log (73.46) Any suitable frequency reuse scheme can

be
chosen
=10x 18660 =18.66 dß Ans The frequency reuse strategy applied to the
Q. 17 Calculate Signal toInterference control channels is generally different than
ratio in dB for that
a system
having frequency reuse factor of applied to the voice channels.
4 if
path.loss component Is:3, assume sultable Sectoring is used for improving the signal
data if any to
interference ratio which can result in smaller
March 20
Ans. duster size
Gven n=3,N=4 For the CDMA schemes the cluster size N
=1 and
Step 1:Find Q: the frequency planning is far: less difficult as
compared to that in the TDMA systems.
RVN 3x4-3464 CDMA schemes need hard hand
TDMAand FDMA Schemes:
offs similar to
Step 2: Find
Sl : a
We know that 19
With a neat díagram. explaln the term: Cell
Spltting.
S : April 16;Decs1EAPrik 18 March.19
Assuming Ans.
the:number of interfering: co-channetDefinition , *

cells to be equal to 6, weget of Cell splitting

Cell
splitting is the technique,of dividing a larger
@464)69 cell into smalle cells to: incrèase; capacity in
Congested areas.
10 log (6.93) 8.4 dB Ans. Separate antennas are: placed in smaller cells
which fransmit low power compared to larger
Q:18 Write a note on Channel planning for cells
wireless systems. Concept
Ans .
Inorder to improve the spectrum efficiency of a
Channel planning for wireless sYstems cellular mobile systems, we can take the following

he process of assigning.the appropriate radio

twosteps
channels to each base station in a cellular system Implement some frequency reuse technique.
is very important 2Use the cellsplitting technique.
Beasv 301uttons
 F cellular Networks(Sem.
6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-39
Every cell is supposed to handle a particular
value In the sectoring approach,the SIR improves due to
of maximum traffic. and the system
the use of directional -antennas,
But sometimes the demand (traffic) is higher than capacity increases as the number of cells
are
this maximum permissible traffic which can reduced in a cluster and the frequency, reuse is
be
handled by a cell. increased
Under such circumstances, a technique called cell
However all this can be achieved only if we reduce
splitting is used for handling the increased the.interference, by keeping the transmitter power
traffic
within that cell. unchanged.

In cell splitting, the cellboundaries are changed in The co-channel interference is reduced by
replacing the omni-directional antenna at the base
such a way that the local area which was
station by several directional antennas.
considered as one single cell will now contain a
Each directional antenna is allowed to radiate
number of smaller calls.
within a specific sector, so that that the
These new cells which are smaller than the original transmitters in adjacent cells wil not interfere with
cells are called as microcells.
each other.
Thus in cell splitting the original cell is split into The amount of reduction in the co-channel
smaller cels. interference depends on the amount of sectorng.
Generally the radius of a new cellis one half of the Types of sectoring:
radius of the original cell as shown in Fig. 3.9. There are two types of sectoring.as shown in
Original
Original Fig. 3.10(a) and (b) namely, 120° sectoring and 60
C8N cell
sectoring.
-Microcels
Microcells

(a) (b)
A7
(a) 120 sectoring (b) 60° sectoring
G-1032) Fig. 3.9 Cell splitting
G-1566) Fig. 3.10: Prindple of sectoring
a. 20 With a neat diagram explain the term: Cell In the 120 sectoring, a cel is divided into three
sectorlng. April 16, March 19 sectors, with each sector occupying 120° whereas
Ans. in 60° sectoring a cell is split into six sectors with
Definltion of Cell sectoring: each sector occupying 60
Sectoring is another method of increasing the While carryving out the sectoring the channels
number of channels per unit area used in a cell are divided into sectored groups (3
or 6) and used only within a particular.sector (1, 2,
But the technique is different than that used for
cell splitting.
3 or 1,2,6) as shown in Fig. 3.10()and(b).
Sectoring is a technique in which an omni
Q.21 Write a note on: Repeaters

directional antenna at the base station is replaced Ans.

by several directional antennas. Defintlon of Repeaters:

-A repeater is a connecting device. All transmission
In sectoring, the cell radius R is kept constant and
media weaken the. electromagnetic waves that
the D/R ratio is decreased. travelthroughthem.
Concept Attenuation of signals limits the distance any
The Sectoring technique is used for increasing the medium can carry data.
signal to interference ratio (SIR) So as to reduce Pevices that amplify, signals to ensure
transmission are called repeaters.
dat
the cluster size N.
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-40
Functlon of aRepeater
A repeater receives
A solution to this
problem was presented on the
a signal and before it gets
attenuated or corrupted, regenerates basis of the microcell concept for seven cell reuse
the original
signal. Thus we can use a repeater to as shown in Fig. 3.13.
range of communication extend the

Repeater is not an amplifier Mcroco

because amplifiers
simply amplifý the entire
incoming signal along
with noise. Signal- regenerating
repeaters create
an exact duplicate of incoming
data by identifying Zona Zone 2
itamidst the noise, reconstructing
. retransmitting onlythe desired
information.
it and Zona 3.
Microwavo Fiber opte
lnk
Main Coll
The original signal is duplicated, boosted
to its
.
original strength sent as shown in Fig. 3.11.
Host 1
and
Distorted
Sgmal dus
:
G-1568) Fig. 3.13 The microcell concept,
As shown in Fig. 3.14, all the three or more zone
UL to noise
3
sites represented as T/R, are connected to the
1
01 1 same base station and they share the same radio
Onglnal signal 1 011
Regenerated equipment among themselves.
noise frae ckginal
G-352) Fig.3.11 Function a
Sgna The transmission media such as coaxial cable, fiber
Wireless Repeaters of repeater optics cable or a microwave link, can
be used for
connecting the zones to the base station.
Fig. 3.12 illustrates the concept of
repeater
a wireless In this way each cell consists of
a base station and
multiple zones
A mobile station traveling within
a cell (see
Recehved peate Transmitted Fig. 3.14) is
eegnal slgnal attended by the zone that has the
(G-2397) Flg.3.12:Concept
of wireless repeater
strongest signal ofall.

I simply regenerates the network signal arid The antennas in various zones are placed at the
extends the range of the wireless LAN. It outer edges of the cell as shown in Fig. 3.14,
does not and it
use wires but receives radio is possible to assign any
the signalsfroman base station channel to
AP end users, or other repeaters, regenerates the any zone within the cell.
signal and retransmits
it i This is a better approach than sectoring.
We can overcome the signal impairment caused ,

Now as a mobile station moves from one

zone to
by RFattenuation, with the help of repeaters. the other within a cell, it uses the same channel.
Q. 22 What is microcell zone concept
. . used to improve capacity ? How ist Therefore hand-offs will be totally avoided.
? May 1 Thus the micro zone concept allows
Ans. i the use of a
MicrocellZone Concepf given channel only in a particular zone in which
We know that the number of handoffs increase in the mobile unit is travelling.
thesectoring technique. In this way, the base station actualy radiates
its
This puts an additional load on powes in a localized manner which will reduce
the switching and
control link elements of themobile system. interference.

Gasy-Sotutions
.
 Cellular Nehworks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU

Explain the following

CN41
a. 23 cell sizes with
application: its|SrType of Appllcations
Microcell NO çell
1. In urban areas to
2. Pico cell 2, Micro Several
for
cells hundred support PCS,
3. Macrocell
metres pedestrians, offices
4. Femtocell March 20 residential buildings etc|
Ans.
Table 3.1:Types of cells, their sizes and applications 3. Pico Fewtens of To support WLANs for
cells metres indoor use.
St. 1 Type of
No. cell Ize ADolcafione Femto Few To interconnect cell
Several km cells metres phoned, laptops and
1. Macro Cover large
cells
other personal wireless
metropolitan areas, devices
vehicular drivers

Q.1
2
What is the path loss
.
Chapter:4Wireless SystemiPlanning

affecting the path loss.

?. Explain the factorsAns.
Trunk:
4

Ans. Trunk is defined as the term used for describing

Path loss any entity that carries one call.

Path loss is the signal power loss as a function of Tru

Trunking
distance. Therefore, the received signal strength Trunking is defined as the arrangement of trunks
varies with variation in distance between and switches withina communication system

transmitter and receiver. Various path loss modelsrafic

Traffic is defined as the average number of calls in
can be used to estimate the varjation of received
progress.
signal strength (RSS)
Factors affecting the path loss Q.4 Define and explain: Erlangand CCS
Various factors affecting the path loss are as May 12,May 13
follows
Ans.
1.Distance Erlang and cCS
2. Frequency
The intermational unit of traffic js the Erlangs. It is
3. Line of sight (LOS) or NLOS transmission named after the Danish Mathematician, A. K.
4. Antenna heights Etang, who places the basis to traffic theory in the
5. Type of terrain 6. Weather conditions work he did. for the copenhagen telephone
company starting 1908.
Q.2 Whatis link budget? ,'
A server is said to have 1 erlang of traffic if it is
Ans. :engagedfor the entire period of observation.
Link budget of a cellular link is an equation which More simply, one erlang represents one circuit
contains the transmitted, power, antenna gains,
,

occupied for one hour. Traffic is also expressedin

received power and all the losses as follows
Cent Call Seconds (CCS). ces is a call time
P,(dBW= P,( dew)+ dB Gains-Z dB Losses
2 product,
.*".
Q.3 Define the terms trunk, trunking and traffic. is used to compute the amount of traffic
This
,
which is expressed in units of 100 seconds.

.'.
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU) S CN42
Sometimes Call Seconds (CS) and Call Minutes CCR
No. of successful calls 1
Nurmber of call attempts
are
(CM). also used as a parameter of traffic
intensity. The relation between erlang and CCS is A group of 20 servers carry a traffic of 10 E.If
8.
given by, averago duration of calls is 3 minutes,
36 CCS= 3600 CS =60 CM (1)
1Erlang calculate the numbor of calls put through by a
Q.5Define and explain: Busy hour callrate. single server and a group as a whole In 1 hr
Dec 12 Maye13 period. April 18
Ans.: Ans.:
Busy hourcallrate: Glven: A 10 E,

The busy hour calling rate or BHCR is the average

number of calls per subscriber during the busy T 3 minutes
Number of servers = 20
hour.
To find Total number of. calls put through by the
Average busy hour calls
-
BHCR Number ofsubscribers 2 group
Step 1:Traffic per server
As an example for an exchange serving 1000
subscribers, if the average number of busy hour The traffic per server is given by,"
calis is 3500, then the BHCR is given by,
Traffic per server
3500 No.ofserver
BHCR 1000 3.5
3.5
10 0.5
E
a. 6 Define and explain: holding time.
May 12 Dec12 One erlang represents one circuit occupied for
Ans. one hour. Therefore, 0.5 erlang shows that one
Holding time server is busy for 30 minutes in one hour..
The holding time of a call the time frorm the
is Step 2 : Number of calle put through
instant at which the first selector is seized to set Number of calls put through by a server is given
up a call to the instant when all selectors are by,
released. In simple terms, holding time is the Server busy time
duration of acail. No. of calis/ server =
Trafic carried
30
The traffic carried by a group of trunks is defined
10 calls

Total number of calls put through by the group is

Calls by the group 10x no. of server
Where, A Traffic in erlang 10 x20e -f

H Average holding time 200 calls ANs.

C Average number of calls Q.9 Over a 20 minutes observation interval 40
time subscribers initiates a call. Total duratlon of
calls is 4800 sec. Calculate load offered to
Q7 Define and explain: call completion rate.
network by the subscribers and average
May 12 May 13 subscriber traffic ? April 18
Ans. Ans.
Call completion rate: Given: Number of subscribers = 40
The rall comnletinn rata rCRY ie the ratin af
io n: ioau oiered to network, average.
number of successfl calls to the total number of subscriber traffic
attempted calls.
scasy-solutioos
 E cellular Networks (Sem.
6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-43
rate C
Step 1: Mean call arrival
GOS is defined as the ratio of lost traffic because
of subscribo
rrival rate
Mean call arrival rate C=ner
Observation
interva
of busy hours to the offered traffic in busy hour.
Lost busy hour calls
40 GOS
202 calls/min Offered busy hour calls
Step 2: Mean holdingtime t, GOS

Mean holding time Uration ofcalls

Where, A Caried traffic
=
Number ofsubscribers
= Offered traffic
4800/60 A
40. 2 minutes/calls A-Ay Losttrafic.
Step 3:Offered traffic Q.12 Define: Blocking probability Dec. 12, May 18
Offered traffic AxC2x2=4E Ans.
Ans.
Step 4:Average subscriber traffic: Blocking probability
The blocking probability as the probability that all
Averagesubscriber trafic
N 40 0.1E Ans. servers in a system are busy.
When all senvers are busy. the system cannot camy
o.10 Calculate thee busy hour calling rate
for
exchange that serves 1000 subscribers if.
anyfurthertraffic
average BHCA is 5000 and CCR s 60 %. The basic diffrence between GOS and blocking
probability is that GOS is measured from
| March 20
Ans. subscriber point of view while the blocking
probability is a measured from the network or
Given: Average BHCA 5000, CCR 60%
switching point of view.
Step 1:Find averageno. of busy hourcalls:
Number of calls lost
Average no. of busy hour calls= BHCA x CCR
Number of calls offered
5000 x 0.6 Trafic lost
B
3000 Offered traffic

Step 2: Find busy hour calling rate Q.13 During busy hours 1000 calls were offered to
a group of trunks and 5 calls were lost. The
calling rare
Busy hourcalling
busyhourcalls
rateAVgno average call duration was 2 minutes.
Total of subscribers
1. Find traffic offered
30002
1000
2 Traffic caried
AnS.
3. Traffic lost
Q.11 Define and explain: Grade ofservice. 4 Grade ofservice
May 12.Dec 12 May 13, May 18 5. Total duratlon of periods of congestion.
Ans.
April 16
Grade ofsenvice
Ans.
This isthe parameter of congestion which is Glven: H=2 minutes, C= 1000calls, Lost calls = 5
specifed as the probability of a call being blocked 1. Traffic offered
or call being delayed beyond certain ämount of |
time. .
A
1000x 2
33.33
60
That means, some calls may be rejected
and .A =
33.33 Erlangs
retried when the lines are used by other Ans.
subscribers. The grade of service is defined as the Traffic carried:

the total number of calls. .

proportion of unsuccessful calls as compared to
A
CH

Gtasy-50iutions
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN44
But C Total
calls- lost calls Q.16 Explaln the assumptlons in:
1000-5 =995 1 Pure chance trafficC
And T 1h 60 min. 2. Statistical equllibrium Mayai
A 95x
60 1.
Ans.
Pure chance traffic
33.166 Erlangs
3. Traffic lost:
.Ans. Pure' chance traffic means that call arrival and call
terminations are independent random actions
5 lost calls
As the call arrival is random action,
A if is
600.166 EAns. independent of previous calls.
4. Grade of service:
Consequently traffic generally is referred to as
GOS
Traffic lost
Traffic offered memory less traffic

0.166 E This assumption of calls arriving randomly

0.005 and
33.33 E Ans. terminated randomly lead to the following results
5. Total duration of periods of congestion: 1 The number of calls arriving in a given time
Duration= GOSx 3600 has a Poisson's distribution.
=
=
0.005 x 3600
18 seconds
Therefore, P) e
Ans. Where, P) = Probability of number of call
Q 14 During busy hour, 1200 calls were offered to a arrivals in time T
group of trunks and six were
lost The
average call duration was 3 minutes. Find: Mean number of call arrivals

1. Traffic offered
Number of call arrivals intime T.
2. Traffic carried
The time interval T between the independent
random event of cal arrivals have negative
3. Traffic lost exponential distribution.
Grade of service
5. Total duration of periods of congestion.
May 17 Mayta
P(T2t) e
Ans. Where T Mean interval between call arrivals

Similar to Q. 13. The.calldurations (n exhibita negative

exponential distribution
A = 60 EAp- 59.7 E, Traffic lost = 0.3 E
GOS 0.005, Duration = 18 second. PT2 e/H
Where,
; His the holding tíme or mean call
Q. 15 During busy hours, 1500 calls were offered to duration.
a group of trunks and six calls were lost. The
average call duration was 5 minutes. Find
2. Statistical Equlibrlum:
traffic offered, traffic carried, 'grade of The meaning of statistical equilibrium is that the
services and total duration of period of generation of traffic; is a stationary random
congestions. March 19
process.
Ans.
Similar to Q 13. t means the probabilities do not change for the

A F A^ = 124 5E
duration under consideration. As a result, mean.
125 Traffic lost 05E,
GOS 0.004, Duration 14.4 seconds. number of calls is constant

Casy-soloitans
 Cellular Networks
(Sem.
6/E&Tc/SPPU)
This condition is normally
true
traffic. Hence in a way, during busy hour's CN-45
during busy
statistical equilibrium is obtainéd hour
hours,
Tra fic
ofored o
N outgoing
Q.17 Explal the contept
of Markov
Ans.
chain. A-erangs - trunks

(G-3007)
Fig.4.2: Lost call system
Concept of Markov chain:
The meaning
of statistical equilibrium
The number of calls in probabilities is that
progressin a group do not change.
trunks willvary randomly öof
N The meaning
between 0 and of full availability
Thus the.number N. is that every
of calls in progress arring call can be connected
states.The variation has (N+1) trunk which is free. to ary outgoing
orobability
in its value will depend
of change from a state on the And finally,
or to the lost call assumption means
bo below it. This process the state any attempted that if
is referred to as call encounters congestion,
Markov the system immediately then
clears it
chain.
Fig. 4.1 shows a simple Markov chain with N
Here we assume
that the traffic offered is the sum
trunks. of all successful
Birth prOCESS
and unsuccessful calls. Let there
be "*" calls in progress,
Po,1 then we can write,
n-1.N

-- Pt P0)0sx SN . ()
N
PO)Pio P) PIN-11 Now,
P) = 1
.death NN-1
P
probability X= 0
process of the slate,
Fig. 4.1: Markov chain
with Ntrunks 1
In this diagram, P(0), P(1) .P(N) the state are X= 0
probabilities. P() represents
the probability of
state j. P0) represents the probability P(0)
of N
higher state of state j Pay Pix etc representnext
the
transitionali probabilities.
k0
k= 0
If there are x calls în progress, then the probability Substituting P(O) from Equation (2) to Equation (1),
of call arriving
is given by the following weget,
expression:

POOPO 4.3.2) P A
Where A represents the average number of call
arriving during the average holding time H. That k=ok
means C= A Here x is actually number of occupied
trunks.
Hence x can be replaced by N for simplicity
a.18 Derive the first Erlang Distribution for Lost and .

P(N) P) = Probability of congestion

call systems. ie.
Decsi2/Apri probability of lost call which is nothing
but Grade
Ans.
of service.
First Erang Distribution for Lostcall systems:
Refer Fig. 4.2 to understand the lost call system. N!
8 ENA): 3)
The assumption of pure chance traffic, implies that
call arrival and call termination are independent
random events
k 0
This is Erlang's Lost call formula

es casy-s0laltons
 CelutarNetworks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) .CN-46
For assumption of full availability of N trunks,
grade of service can be determined directly or by t has Poisson distribution
iterative application of simple
recurence relation. Px)
Byputting N=N-1.in Equation we
(3), get
AN
1. Probability of no call arrivals
No call arrival, 2,X0
(N 1
iN-1 1A)
N1 -
PO e0.135 ANS.

2Probability of mora tharn one callarrlvals

N1 P 1= 1-P(0)P)

-:k=0 EiN-1A) (4 Pa)

1 0270
Now, considertheterm P 1 1-0.135 0.270
O.595 Ans

k0 Q. 20 A group of5 trunks Is offered 2Erfangs of

trafilc, Find
From Equation (4) . Grade of servlce
2. Probablity that only one tnunk is busy
N-E
EN-10A) N!
3. Probablity thatonly one trunk ls free.
Probability that at least one trunk is free
k=0
Substituting in Equation (3) we get, Aprik 17
A
Ans.
Given

.
ENA N! 1 N52. A 2E
AN-1)!A 1.Grade of service

Dividing numerator and denominatór by ANEand (A)

B N
Simpliying the equation we get
K
(A) k= 0 K0
ELN A AE1
NAEN-T(A) 5 32/120

As this is an iterative forrmula EEN (A) needs, to

be

. 19On anaverage
a.
calculated for alf values of 'N
one callarrives every
32 /120.

5 seconds During a period of 10 seconds

. 0.2667
what is the probability that: B7.2667
726670.037.. Ans.
No call arrivals..
2. More than one call arrives. April 16 2 Probabllity that only trunk is busy:
Ans: :

Glven: =1 call every 5 seconds P

2 every 10seconds
Letx be the number of call arivals in time T
k 0
BCasy soluttons
 CN47
6/EaTc/SPPU
Networks(Sem.
F
Cellular 15191
B (K)
19
1519!
PC1) k 0
182238.151196
k= 0 B (K)
19
N Z 1519
7.2667
k=0
7.2667.k0 182238.151196

The
PL1)= 0275
probability that only one trunk is free:
Ans.
:8001, 1

probability that 182238.151196

3. to obtain the
means we need
That B (K) 28611053415
occupied
trunks are
4 2 Ans.
0.06369
4

P(4) 7.2667 out of service:

when one trunk is
=F

Grade ofservice
Ans
B(k) 1-0.01 0.99
k0
Lost
Blocking Probability in
. P(4)
0.09174
one trunk is free:
Ans. Q.22 Explain GoS
Call System.
and

probability that at least

The probability that Ans.
means we need to
obtain the
Probabilityin Lost Call
System:
That GoSand Blocking
system as
x<5. (B) in a lost-call
= 1-P(5) The grade of service
P(x < 5)
occupied
Bie. all trunks are follows:
calls_
but P(5)= Number oflost
1-B=1-0037
: Px «5)
= offered calls
B Number of
0.963. Ans.
: Px <5) Lost traffic
provide grade of services B Offered trafic
Q. 21 Group of 18 trunks
and
of 0.01 when
offered 15 E of traffic.
We can use two
formulae namely Erdang-B
How much is grade
of service improved if blocking probability.
1.
group? Erlang-Cto calculate the
one trunk is added tothe básed on
appropriate formula
service deterlorate We can select the
2. How much grade of customers when all
service ? Dec. 19 handling of
onetrunk Is out of the method of
resources are busy.
Ans.
systems
Glven: N = 18, A = 15, Erlang-B formula is used for lost-call
Grade of service (6) = 001 when calls are iost due to all resources being busy
added to the group: systems when calls
Grade of service if one trunk is Erlang-C is used for queueing
1(1 added trunk) = 19 resources being busy.
N 18+ are queued due to all

The Erlang-B formula is

as follows:
AK

k!
B (K)
4
k=0
 7Cellular Networks (Sem.6/ESTcSPPU)
CN-48
The Erlang-C formula is äs follows
The occupancy of these trunks is 20/31 =
0,6S
AN
NIN-1
Thus higher group of trunks have a higher
Pe efficlency

N-A Q. 24 Write short note on: Loss system ln Tandem,

a. 23 Wrdte shortnote on:Traffic perfomance. Ap

Ans.
Apritt7 Loss system in Tandem:
Ans. A system consists of several links in tandem.
The traffic. performance is measured in terms
of Consider a system with two links having grade
the value of grade of service. of
service as B, and B, respectively for offered traffic
In order to achieve the preferred GOS, we need A Erlangs.
to
increase the number of trunks N with increase
in Now obtain the expression for the grade of senvice
the offered traffic 'A. of a system with several links in tandem.
However, with increase in
the number of trunks, Traffic offered to second link A
[1-8
the probability of trunk occupancy becomes
And the traffic actually reaching destination is,
important.
It has been observed that for a given GOS,
a large A1-8,J1-8
group of trunks can have a higher occupancy than
All-B,-B,+ B,B
that of a smaller group of trunks
The overall GOS of the entire connection is given
This shows that the effidency of larger groups is
by,
higher than that of the smaller groups of trunks.
B
Refer Fig.43 to understand the concept oftraffic B+ B2-B,B
performance If
B, B < < 1,then B, B, is negtigible and overalt
GOS of the entire connection is given by,

0.7
B
B+B
This is the approximate expression for GOS of a
connection with two trunks. .Therefore,. the
0.5 expressio for GOS of a connection with N trunks
in tandem is given by.
*

(Grade of service= O.c02)

00
Q. 25 Explain with neat diagram queuing system.
12
March 13
Totaltrafic (E)
305) Fig.4.3:Traffic performance Ans.
Fig 43 has been drawn for a Gos 0.002. It Definition of queuing system:
shows that in order to achieve this GOS at a traffic -The system which keeps call requests waiting in
of 2 we need to use 7 trunks. The occupancy of queue because of unavailability of trunks is known

.
these trunks is 2/7 0.285 E
Now if we increase the traffic to 20 E ther, the
number of trunks required ín a group will increase
tO 32:*
as a queuing system.
A queue system consists of storage space services
such 2s blocks of mamony in a messago witching
mode or it may consist of only ist of sources
waiting for service.

stasy-soluttonsS
 E&Tc/SPPL
Celular
Nefworks(Sem. 6/ CN49
diagram: Therefore, there will be no delays in serving the
Block
shows the block diagram of a
queung Calls and there is no queue. This system behaves
Fig. 44
offered traffic A and N number
of as the lost call system without any congestion.
system with
trunks. For this operating condition,
Queue
N serversl trunks
Po0 P
Condition 2:x2N
(G-3004)Fig.44:Aqueueing system Here, the number of calls () is much higher than
the number of trunks (N).
DerivesecondiErlang distribution formula of a
.26 queuing system. Therefore, there will be delays in serving the calls
and the queues will come into existence.
May16 Api 17May 18,Dec 17
The incoming calls will encounter delays because

Ans. all the servers will be buisy.

distribution
Second Erlang For this operating condition,
encCOuntering delay is based on
The probability of
P(O)
the
following assumptions: Pt)NN
1 Pure- chance traffic
OR
2.
Statistical equilibrium

3. Fullavailability P) PO)
4. Callsencountering congestion willenter a
queue and are stored there until a
servver
The state probability at trunk 0 is given by:
becomes free. :
NA A0
Out of these assumptions, the first three. are PO NION- A)
system.
common to those for a lost call
is Thisis second Erlang distribution.
The queueing system with all thése assumptions
system
known as M/ M/N queueing Q.27 State and explalin Erlang's delay formula.

Under static equilibrium condition the offered May 13

traffic is less than or equalto the number of trunksAns.
ie.ASN and the queue is not needed, Erlang's delay formula:
The delay occurs if the incoming calls x are much
However if the trafficoffered ishigher than
higher. than the available trunks N .e..
number of trunks i.e. A 2N, then the queue comes
X2N.
into existence andtslength.increases with The probability that there are at least z calls in the..
increasein traffic. system where z2 N is given by,
:
Let x be the total number of calls in the system of
N trunks
Px22) 2 P6)
Consider the following two operating conditions: X:Z
From equation of Pi) for x 2 N we get,
1 Condition-1:xN and
: .
r ..
2. Condition-2:x N Px2)
Condition
1:x<N
Here,
the total number of calls 0), is less than : N

number of trunks. N PO)

es CVESOUTtoas : .

.
.

**
.
******"*.*.******
.i
 Celular Notworks (Sem.
6/ESTc/SPPU) CN-50

let, the probability of delay be

Po

P (K2= N PO N)
k 0 and Po Px
Where,

PX 2)
k X-N
P
Substituting P(0) from earlier equation we get,

PoEzA
This is Etrlang's delay formula.
Px PON
Chapter 5 Wireless and Mobile Technologies and Protocols and their
Performance Evaluation
Q.1
plain evolution of wireless communicatlon The wireless networks are used as replacement for
in detail.
wires within offices, buildings, homes with the use
Ans
Evolution of wireless communication: ofWireless Local Area Networks WLANs).
The celular systems are classified The Bluetooth modem standard can connect
into different
evolutionary generations from first several devices with invisible wireless connections
generation
(16 to fifth generation (SG). within a person's personal workspace
The first generation wireless networks are based ft was conceived as a wireless altermative to RS232
on analog technology and they are cables.
used only for
analog voice services.
The. second generation wireless systems
WLANs and. Bluetooth use low power levels. They
(2) don't needa license for spectrum use
employ digital modulation and advanced call
processing capabilities. They are used för adhoc wireless commünication
Typical examples indude Global System for Mobile of voice and data anywhere in the world
(GSM), cordless telephone (CT2) etc. The cellular systemsare classified into three
The third generation wireless systems (3G) are different evölutión of generations.
developed to provide universal access throughout Fig 5.1 shows classification-of wireless-nefwork
.the world. generations.
They have used broadband ISDN to provide Mreless network
access to information networks like internet,
communications using Voice Over Internet
Protocol (VoIP), voice-activated calls etc. First generation

The fourth generation wireless systems (46) are Second generaton

currently under deployment but continue to
evolve. The néxt generation cellular networks have Third generatión
been designed to support high speed data
communications trafic in addition to the voice (6-2543) Fig. 5.1: Classification of evolution of
calls. genairations

The new technologies and standards are being Fig. 5.2 shows an evolution path from 16 to 5G.
implemented so that the wireless networks can
replace the fiber optic or copper cables
It is a graph of year of
maximum data rate. .the corresponding

0a23ofuions
 .
Cellular Networks

1Gbps
..
(8em 6/E&Tc/SPPU)

50 Mbps
Higher than

5G
ne fhrst generation could
data rate of
generation is
above 1 Gbps.
CN-51
support a maximum
only 24 kbps whereas
expected to support
the fifth
a data rate of
2 Mbps
Q.2 Draw neat diagram
, of GSM architecture and
9.6 kbps explain the function
of each block In it
20G Dec: 16,May 17.Dec 17,1hay
Ans. 18,thay 19,Dec:19
2.4kbps Block diagram:

The detail architecture of a GSM system is shown

in Fig. 5.3.
1990 2000 2010 2020 Year i The BTS and BSC both are
part of the Base Station
* Subsystem (BSS).
Fig. 5.2:Evolution of mobile generations
- :
:Um Abis
interiaceinlerface Interface

,.
Public
HRVR ahwork
M.S
PSTN
MSC
IsDN
Data
networks
:LEIR AUC OMG
Operating
5Upport
Subsystem
M,S OSS)
Base slatíon
Subsyslem Nework switching
BSS) sUbsystem.
BTS:Base ransceiver Station BSC Base Station Controller
HLR: Home Location Register VLR: Visitor Location Register
MSC Mobile Switching Centre EIR Euipment ldentity Register
AUC Authentication Center OMC:Operation Maintenance Center
t67-4) Fig. 5.3:6SM system architecture
Each BSC has hundreds.of BTSS. (Bus:Transceiver
The interface between BTS to BSC is called as Abis
Stations) connected toit interface.
These BTSs are controlled by the.corresponding This interface is expected to carry the voice data
BSCs. The BTSs are connected
to either BSCs (traffic) and maintenance data.
physicaly or via microwave links or dedicated
The BSCs are physically connected to MS (Mobile
leased lines.
Switching Center) via dedicated / leased lines or
eas-SOulloas
 Cellular Networks (Sem.
6/E&Te/SPPU)D eoemeetr CN
as the A 4 To transmit and receive both control 52
microwave link. This interface is known and
interface.
data signals over the air interface.
called Functlons of MSC:
The NSS contains three different databases,
Location Register (HUR), Visitor Location Functions performed by MSC are as follows
Home
Register (VLR) and Authentication Center (AUQ To perform all the : necessary Switchi
functions required by MSs located in' MS
The HLR is a database containing the subscriber
area.
information and location information of each user,
To communicate with other MSCs present
who is staying in the same city as MSC
the GSMnetwork
Each subsariber is assigned a unique Intemational To communicate with the other networks li
Mobile Subscriber Identity (MS) and this number PSTN etc.
will identify each user.
To.track the location of the subscriber t
VLR database is used to temporanily store the IMSI carry out the handover
procesS. wheneve
and customer information for each roamin9 necessary.

subscniber. To perform all the necessary interworking

functions.
AUC is the strongly protected database which
takes care of authentication and handles the 6 To perform the cal routing' and echo contro
functions.
encyption keys for all the subscribers in HLR and
VLR Q.4 State and explain dataservices in GSM.
The OSS supports one or more Operation May 16 4Marksi May1T DeCEIZz
Maintenance Centers (OMO. Ans
Data services in GSM:

.
The OMC is used for monitoring and maintaining
the performance of each MS, BS, BSC and MSC The GSM services can be classified into three types
used in a GSM system. of services
Operating support subsystem (OSS): 1Téleservices
2.Data services Bearer services
The OSS takes care of the following areas of
operation 3. Supplementary services
Teleservices
L Network operation and maintenance.
lhese sérvices.aliows subscriber use. terminat
to
2 Charging and billing.
equipment functions for communication with
Management of mobile equipment.
other subscribers.
Q.3 Explain the function of folowing with respecti :The teleservices support emergency calling, FAX
to GSM architecture: :
services, Videotex and Teletex services though
1. BSC 2. MSC May 18, Dec: 19 theyare not integralpart the
of GSM
standard.
Ans.
In other words, the standard mobile telephony
Functions of BSS:
and, the mobile originatedo base originated
Functions performed by BSS are as follows traffic comes under the teleservices.
1. Coding of speech channels;
The tele-services are as follows
2. To allocate the available radio channels to
1Digital telephony 2. Emergency caling
3; SMS EMS
3. To transmit the paging signals,
5. MMS 6. Group 3 FAX
C13T OiTons . ..
 Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
Cellular CN-53
/Bearerservices:
ervices 7.
Data Suggestion of Charge
services allo subscriber to
transmit
These ate 8. Closed User Groups
appropriatessignals across user network interfaces.
es are the GSM services corresponding .5 Draw and explain the archltecture of GPRS.
Data serv ication between
communic. computers and Ans.
the
to switched traffic. Architecture of GPRS system:
packet
pports packet Switched protocols and data Fig. 54 shos the architecture of the GPRS system.
300 bps to 9.6 kbps.
rates from Um
air intertac
developments are going on to inçrease
New the
-GT3-c
data
ata
rate further.
can be transmitted in two modes
Transparent mode : 6SM nerwork provides
chandard channel coding method for user GFRS
GPRS
MS n
MS
data.
(GT43) Fig. 54: Architecture of GPRS system
Non-transparent mode GSM network
provides special coding methods based on In GPRS two ne network elements are
particular data interface. introduced, which are known as GSN (GPRS
support nodes).
BearerServices Fig. 5.4 shows GPRS architecture, which is formed
rer services are basically the data services
with all GSNs, which are integrated into the
which correspond to the communication between
standard GSM architecture, alongwith some.
a computer and packet switched trafic. interfaces.
arer services are defined as all those services GPRS support nodes:
that enable the transmission of data between
networks.
There are two types of support node in GPRS:
interfaces and
1 SGSN (Serving GPRS
support node)
In the classical GSM model, the bearer services are 2. GGSN (Gateway GPRS
connection oriented and use circuit or packet support node)
1. Serving GPRS Support Node
Switching. (SGSN):
As shown in Fig. 54, the BSCs
Bearer services are of two types: are connected to
SGSN which acts as the service access
point to the
1.Transparent bearer services GPRS network, for
the GPRS user.
Non-transparent bearer services SGSN is analogous to MSC in
the GSM networks.
Supplementary Services: We may view it as a packet switched MSC

These services are digital in nature and they are Within the service area of SGSN, it delivers packets
i. offered as supplements with the basic teleservices, to MS (mobile stations).
The supplementary services provide various SGNs send queries to home location, registers
enhancements for the standard telephony (HLRS) for obtaining
the profile data of GPRS
services. subscribers.
Some of the typical supplementary services are as In their service area, SGSNs
detect new GPRS MS
follows and process the registration of new mobile
Conference Call subscribers and keep records of their, locations
2. Call Waiting inside a given area.
3. CallHold In this way the SGSNs perform the mobility
Call Forwarding management functions such as attaching
A
5. Call Barring / detaching a mobile subscriber and its location
' management.
6Caller ldentification
 6/E&Tc/SPPU)
Celular Networks
(Sem.
Ge Interface:t connects GGS
SNand
Functions of SGSNs:
functions of SGSNare as
follows
Exchange the location information
GGSN and HLR. berwes
t
The main
mobile station.
data to and from
Routing of o.6Draw and explain the GPRS protocol
handle authentication. sta
tack
2.To carry out data compression
and ciphering. Ans
3To and
mobility GPRS protocol stack
Tracking of location
4 Fig. 5.5 shows GPRS protocol stac
administration.
profile of users.
forthe
'Stores the location and data transmisslon User
Mobility.management. ppeatonUm interface Sn
Applcainterface interfac
Node (GGSN) SNDCP
2. Gateway GPRS Support IP

are connected to the external packet Relay P

The GGSNs
SWitching data networks, like
the X25 ortheNDC LCTCP
Internet as shown in Fig. 5.4.
LLC

RLC
Relay UDP
essGP
TCPAUDP

a
GGSNs acts simply as
For all these networks the Nelwo Network IP
MAC
a specific
MAC MAC:Sevice servics
router When the datá addressed to FGst1 bits L1 bits L1 2
GGSN it first checks if GSM RE
mobile user is received by a Lin2
the called address is active AS SGSN
then the GGSN forwards the data
fit is.active, (G-2427) Flig. 5.5.:GPRS transmission plane
protocol stack
packets to SGSN
However if the called address is found inactive Um (air intertace) islocated between as d BSS
then GGSN simply discards the
received packets the Gb interface is locatedbetweenBSS and SGSS
The GGSNs route the mobile originated data and Gn interface is locate between SGSN . and
packets to the desired network GGSN.

They also track the mobile user in association with DCP (Subnetwork dependan antconvergence
the SGSNS protocol) encapsulates the: IP packets in GPPE
Specific packet format which is
3.GPRS Interfaces used
between
TheGPRSarchitectureincludes signaling: SGSN and MS

interfaces with various protocols which controls LLC layer providesa reliable logicallink to the data.
support the transmission of pakets across units from the higher layers, which depends on the
and
the networks andta themobilestations Underlying radio interface protocols
Followingare the GPRSintefaces LCprovides either acknowledgedor
unacknowledged data transmission.
1 Air Interface (Um t
conniects MS and BTS
Base transceiver station) GTP (GPRS tünneling protocol) tunnels user data
Interface It connects BTS and BSC
2A-bis. between the two GSNS in the GPRS backbone
(Base station controller) .. network.
3. Gb Interface:t connects BSC with SGSN.
BSSGP (base station subsystem GPRS protocol)
Gn Interface It connects SGSN and GGSN. layer conveys routing and QoS related information
5 Gi Interface: It connects GGSN with external between the BSS and. SGSN. RLC (Radio Link
PDNPacket Data Network). Contro) protocol provides reliable radio link for
6 Gr Interface It connects SGSN and HLR thedata transfer between MS and BSs.
MAC layer controls the multiplexing of signaling
Exciange the User iriformato between
and data messages from various GPRS users
SGSN and HLR
 .dar Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-55
cellular
RF (Radio Frequency) layer controls
M the
channel management modulation
-al tlon 2Depending on the individual service provider
odulation, transmission, power control and GPRS is uSually to be paid per Mbytes or
decoding
channel coding / kbytes. But this has been modified in various
per
of GPRS. places vhere thereis no more charge of
Write the characteristics
a.7 usage of downloads instead GPRS
GPRS
.
Ans.5 GPRs. downloads are rather unlimited with a flat fee
Characteristics of
GPRS uses packet switched network to bepaid every month.
1 uses GSM architecture and
Itnodes.
GPRS suppo
PRo 3.t does not provide store and forward service
2 therefore if the MS is not available the data

Itenables voIce and data flow through the gets lost

network. Applications of GPRS
time slot allocation Following are the applications of GPRS
4. It has dynamic
is faster. than GSM and code
division 1 Sending and receiving e-mail, Short Message
5It (CDMA).
multiple acCcess Service (SMS), Mültimedia Message (MMS),

disadvantages fax etc.

Q.8
State advantages, and
applications of GPRS. Internet access and video conference.
3. Provides location based services
Ans.
Advantages: Provides the connection with PC's and other
GPRS: devices.
Following are the advantages of
Speed:GPRS technology offers higher data 5. Non-real time Internet applications..
1.
rate than GSM. GPRS provides speed limit 6. Retrieval of e-mails, faxes.

upto 171 kbps and offers throughput upto 7. Asymmetricweb browsing more
40 kbps. downioading and lessuploading)
Packet switched: GPRS packer Switcned
IS
a.9 Compare:GSM and GPRS.
system circuit and parallely packet switching
Ans.:
can be used.
Comparlson of GSM and GPRS
provides "Always on
.
Always on: GPRS
Table 5.1 Comparison of GSM and GPRS
capability.
Se a
Spectral efficiency Because of shared use Parame er. GSM GPRSEG
of radio channels, GPRS provides a better
No
Abbreviation lobal system for General
traffic management and it has service access mobile packet radio0

to a greater number of users. Communicaton service

5. Packettransmission: For long data packet
Based DMA GSM
system
transmission GPRS works more efficiently.
Users per
Disadvantages: channel
Type of Circuit switched Packet
Following are the disadvantages of GPRS:
connectiontechnology switched
1. As GPRS uses the GSM band for data
. technologyY
transfer, when a connection is active, calls 5. Frame 4.5 ms 4.6ms
and other network related functions cannot duration
6. Carrier size 200 kHz TDMA 200 kHz
be used.

0111-501tors
 CN
FCelular Networks (Sem.6/E&To/SPU B through Tub interface lur is the interface
Node
Q.10 RNCsare connected
Compare EDGE and GPRS systems through which two to each.
Ans.:
other.
Table 5.2:Comparison of EDGE Z,5G and GPRS
Controller (RNC)
Radio Network
Sr arameter EDGE2.5G GPRS
follows:
No RNC are as
The functions of
1.Data rate 547.2 kbps 171.2 kbps
Call adm/sslon control:
Channel 200 kHz 200KHz 1. RNC computes the traff
bandwidth within each cell the
Modulation GMSKand decides whether to accept or not the onal
GMSK andd
PSK transmissions.
fechnique 8 8 PSK
Encryption decryptlon:
Number of voice 2. I
channels .Before the transmission
over the wireless link
information which comes
the
RNC encrypts all
11 With neat diagram explain UTRA-Network from

Ans:
(UTRAN)Architecture
the fixed network
and vice versa. .
3. Congestion
control
UTRA Network (UTRAN) Architecture:
Many stations share the radio resources available.
The basic archítecture of UTRAN is as shown in
during packet oriented data
transmission.
Fig.5.6. RNC
In a cyclic fashion the allocates bandwidth to
Cor rebwont ic
u infertaca.. every station by considering he QoS
requirements.
furintarface RNS Radio resource control:
RNC RNC RNC Controls radio resources of the cells which are
UTRAN
connected through a node B.
5 Protocol conversion, ATM switching and
Node BNode B Node BNode multiplexing:
ATM is the base of connection between RNCSs,
Node B and CN. The RNC needs to switch the

Ueregupment (UEL connections to multiplex different data streams.

6. Setup and release of radio bearer:
Flg 5.6:UTRAN architecture
Components of UTRAN to
The function of RNC is setúp, maintain and
release a logical data connection a user to
The two components of UTRAN are: equipment (UE).
1RNS (RadioNetwork Subsystemy Allocation of code

2Node 8 The RNC selects the CDMA codes used by a UE.

UTRAN architecture consists of many RNS (Radio
Network Subsystem) controlled by RNC (Radio
Network Controller) and includes many nade B
components as well.
In UMTS; RNC and node B are similar to BSC and
BTSrespectively in GSM. Antennas which makes a
9.
radio cell are controlled by node B, UE Cmobile
device is connected to one or more antennas
Through. the interface lu the core network is
:Connected to RNG and RNC is connected to
8. Management:
The RNS provides interfaces to the tasks such as
information regarding the current load, errOr
states, current traffic required for the network
operators.
Power control
A relatively loose power control is performed by
the RNC t controls tronsmission poer is based
on the interference values from other RNCs or
other cells.

aasy-sofutons
 cellular NetwoksSem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU)
CN-57
10.
RNS location and handover control:
1 It implements mobilty management
Whether another cell is better suited for a certain function.
nection or not is decided by RNC depending 2. Bearernegotiation.
on the strength of signal receivedby UEs or 3. Requests certain services from the nétvwork
handover is decided by RNC
node B. If t
informs Q.
12 State importantfeatures of
an UE.
cell WCDMA
the new Ans.
UE moves Out of the range of one RNC then,
a Importantfeatures ofW-CDMA:
new RNC has to be elected which takes
responsibility of the UE. Thíis is known as Table 5.3:UMTSSpecifications
Specification Value
relocation.
Channel Bandwidth
Node B: 5 MHz
Node connected to one more antennasMutiple access
B is CDMA
which creates one /more cells. The cell may use
scheme
either FDD or. TDD or both. Datà Rate 384 kbps to 2 Mbps
The main function of Node B is inner loop power Duplex Mode FDD and TDD
control to the near far, effects.Downlink RF
moderate
Direct Spread (DS)
Connection qualities and signal strengths are Channel Structure
measured by Node B, to exercise the power
Chip Rate 3.84 Mcps
control ,
Frame Length 10 mS
Node B can support soft handover which occurs
between different antennas of the same node B.preading Balanced QPSK (downlink), Duak
Modulation
Node B logically equivalent to the GSM base channel QPSK (upink) Complex
station. spreading circuit

Userequipment (UE): Data Modulation QPSK (downlink), BPSK (upink)

As shown Fig. 5.7 UE is the counterpart
in of Coherentdetection User dedicated time multiplexedd
several nodes of architecture. : pilot (downlink and uplink)
..
As the counterpart of a node B,UE performs Common pilot in downlink
following functions Cnannel Data and control channel are
1 Signal quálitymeasurements Multiplexing in multiplexed
Downlink
2. Inner loop power control.
3. Rate matching.
Q.13Write a noteon HSUPA
4. Spreading and modulation. Ans.
A the counterpart of RNC; UE performs following HSUPA stands for High Speed Uplink Packet
functions: access. It was introduced in Release 6 in 2004.
1. Cooperation during handover. The, main objective of HSUPA is to improve
2.
3.

4.
Cell selection.
Encryption /decryption.
Participation in the radio fesource allocation
.
Spectraleficiengy of uplink and, to reduce the
Jatency. HSUPA has peak data rates of 5.8 Mbps in

process. .
the uplink.
SUPA technology is compatible with HSDPA and.
AS the counterpart of core network, DE pertorms
itis applied tothe uplink transmission directions.
following functions .
 ,

N-58
channel and erence
Cellular Neworks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU) both
the
varying radio
bursty data traffie
receives
applied in conditions and
Several'similar technologies are
Hybrid ARQ:
HSDPA and HSUPA Use of
5 reduces retransmisslon
HSDPA ana Hybrid ARQ technique
nere are some basic differences in finks. round trip
times and
proves the robust
tness
HSUPA due to the different
conditions of
system by
allowing soft combining of
of
considerable growth in the
the
HSUPA provides retransmissions.
provide the same transmission time interval
(TTI
upload speed but does not Shorter
6.
capacity as HSDPA trip time is decreased byusing a
The round
shorter 1l.
Q.14 Write a note on HSPA. T enables improvemen
Ans
HSPA:
Use of shorter
adapting to fast
channel variations and n ces

(HSPA) is known
as latency
High Speed Packet Access specifications of 4G LTE
3.5G technology (Release 7 Q.15 State the
(HSPA) was Ans.
The High Speed Packet Access LTE
performance spacifications of 4G
introduced in order to improve the
a higher speed. HSPA joined the 1Peak data rates: Dównink1 GbpS uplink
andto provide 300 Mbps.
HSDPA and HSUPA: the new service to
HSPA allow
Spectrum efficiency3 times greater tha
user. 2.
provide a better performance for the LTE.
network
Advantages: 3.Speed10 times faster than the 3G -

The main advantages of HSPA are: Peak spectrum etficiency Downlink 30

4. S
/Ht uplink-15 bps/Hz
transmission
1. Use of shared channel
Use of ink adaptation LTE is flexible and reliable.
4G
5 affordable.
3. Use of higher order modulation 6. It is easy to standardize and
Fást scheduling Explain with diagram, the working operation
Q.16
5. Use of Hybrid ARQ of LTE network structure. Dec. 19
6.Shortertransmission time interval (T)
: Ans.
1Use of shared channel transmission LTE-Advanced architecture.
the resource
Due to sháred channel transmission
allows. to achieve
Fig. 5.7 shows the netvork
structure of LTE where
šharing takes place which us LTE stands for Long Term Evoution. -

*.*
high levels of efficiency.
Use of fink adaptation:
With the use of link adaptation the channel usage
is maximized.
eNodeB
Is1-MME S

.
.

3. Use of higher order modulation UE S1-UVSorving SSIs8PON sGTnten

the Uu aoway gataa
QAM modulation scheme is used in
16 .
transmitted at A
downlink which allows data to be eNodeB
higher rates. Radio Access Core network (EPC)
Network (RAN)
Fast scheduling: MME: Mobio Wsnagement Entty PON: Packet Data Network
ths systom makes vse {2t chcdl 135 nome Suoscricer server UE.iser Equipritent
PCRF: Plicy and Charging Rules Function
modulation and adaptive coding, it can react to
(G-7590) Flg. 5.7: LTE-Advanced architecture
 ular New
orks (Sem. 6/ E&Tc/SPPU) CN-59

ork architect is simple which contains

access point ie eNode B or Base C.Packet data network(PDN) gateway (P-GW)
single type ol
or more cells are supplied by eNode d Hone subscriber server (HSS)
station. One
(PCR)
BorBS. Policy and Charging Rules Function
in Fig 5.7, the LE-A network,consists Functions of,core network:
As shown
of Functions of the core network are as follows:
(RAN) 7 EUTRAN
Radio Access Network 1 Charging and subscriber management
Core network(EPC)
2. Mobility management
Radio interface
3. 3. Provision of quality of service.
Radio Access Network (RAN): 4 Policy control of user data flows.
access network 1S also known as
The radio
The
Evolved
5. Connection to other external networks.
EUTRAN or Universal Mobile
3. RadioInterface
TelecommunicationsSystem.
Refer Fig. 5.7 to understand different radio
Access Network consists of an LTE
The Radio interfaces in LTE
eNodeB.
mobile terminal, radio interface and Interface x2: This is an interface, which connects
are
iTE Mobile Terminals1TE mobile terminals diferent base stations. The important information
phones and other devices which required for the còordination of transmission in.
the mobile
LTE.
pport the neighboring cells can be exchanged through this

Radio Interface Radio interface are the radio interface.

that connect the mobile terminals and

LTE
Interface $1 : RAN is connected to the core
eNodeB. network through interface S

eNodeB E-UTRAN Node B or eNodeBs are

Interface Uu: This is an interface, which connects
mobile.
Jocated all.over the network of the UE (user equipment) and eNodeB.
operator and they connect the LTE mobile This is an interface for the user plane between an
terminal to the core network via radio interface S1
k
E-UTRAN and S-GW. It provides GTP tunnel per

of eNodeB :
Carrier.
Functions
NodeB
The functions of eNodeB are as given below: Interface S1-MME This is an interface for the
control plane between an E-UTRAN and MME
1 Scheduling/Radioresourceallocation.
:
Interface S6a This is an interface for the control
2. Retransmission control.
plane between an HSS and MME. It exchanges
3.PhysSIcal layer functions. user subscription and authentication intformation.

4 Air interface communication. Interface S5/$8: This is an interface defined for

2. Core network (EPC)
The Enhanced Packet Core (EPC) developed for the
4G is also known as System architecture evolution
(SAE) which is based on the packet switched
the control and user planes between an S-GW and
P-GW
- Interface SGI: This is an interface defined for the
control and user planes between an P-GW and

transmission The LTE Core Network is the brain of Internet

4G system. Q.17 Draw the LTE Radio Protocol Archltecture.

Core network consists of Ans

aMobilitymanagement Entity (MM LTE Radio Protocol Architecture:

.b. Serving gateway (S-GW) Fig. 5.8 shows the structure of LTE protocol.

es0aSy-s0lutions

. .
 E&Te/SPPU) CN-60
Networks (Scm. 6/ n-continuotus carrler aggregation
Cellular has a
applications
Usor Control wider range of mugh
than continuous
plano plane User Contol aggregation,
carrier
plano plano
Layers NAS Enhanced MIMO:
RRCIP
3 IPRRC
PDCP
PDCP In LTE-A, enhanced MIMO techntque
cnsures
RLG higher efficiency enabled by proved
RLG MAG multiple access and multiple antenn. up
smsslon.
eMAC nnologies
LPhysical Physical Out of the
several mado
we consider the anced antenna by release
10, techniques.
Air Interce the advanced antenna techniques,
eNode B multiple
UE transmit and eceive antennas and mutli-cell
structure MIMO techniques are used to offer
GT-17) FIg. 5.8: LTE protocol
downlink MIMO and. uplink MIMO that impro
of LIE
Enlist the Key technologies d rOVes
the downlink and theuplink
Q. 18
Advanced. Explaln any twa. tates
respectivel.
Ans. Enhanced MIMO IS an important aspect
Key technologies Features of LTE-A:"| advanced technique. It allows of LTE
technologies the
system to
n
The following are some of the key the
IMT advanced rate requirements
considered for the LTE advanced:
Enhanced MIMO expands the MIMO capabilities
1. Carrier aggregation
of LTE release 8.
2. Enhanced MIMO techniques Enhanced MIMO Supports eight downla
link
3. Wireless relays antennas, allowing the possibility in the downlint

4. Coordinated multipoint transmission and of 8 x8. spatal multiplexing and four uplin
antennas allowing the possibility of up to x 4
reception
transmission in the uplink, when jointed with fotr
Carrier Aggregation: . eNB receiverS.
The camier aggregation ensures the wider
bandwidths. Q.19 Draw LTE-A Radio Network Architecture.
fully utilizeAns.
,

The major goal of LTE-advanced is to

MHz, which
the maximum bandwidth of 100 isLTE advancedarchitecture
extremely large bandwidth. Fig. 5.9, shows the network structure of.LTE
To deal with this problem, a scheme known as, a.eAdvanced:re 1.

carrier aggregation has been proposed. eNodeB

A technique where multiple carriers of maximu
bandwidth of 20 MHz would be aggregated .for *2 ,
the same user equipment(UE) is known as Carrier $7.
aggregation (CA).
LTE-A allows a mobile to transmit and receive
JE S1Seving s5/s8PDN SGhtere
x2 gawa
upto five component carries (CCs} simultaneously.
.:
each of which has a maximum bandwidth of oNodeB

20 MHz EUTRAN Core network (EPC)

CA supports aggregation of both continuous and MME: Mobie Management Enty

non-continuous carriers. UE: User Equipmont

POM:Pakat Data Natvork
Contnuous carrier aggregation is used for super PCRF Poley and Chsrging Rules Functon

high bandwidth. (6-2590(6)) Fig. 5.9: LTE advanced architecture

0S-10lgitons
 Notworks (Som.6/E&1
E&Tc/SPPU)
Collular CN-61
Compare botwoon 3GPPI LTE and advanced
20 3. The key challenge in establishing the 5G
LTE.
network is its flexibility and efficiency in using
Ans LTR
LTE-A:
Comparison of and LTE the available capacity in the spectrum for the
Table 5.4:Comparison of
LTE and LTE-A
deployment of various netvworking scenarios.

SParamoter
LTE
LTE Advanced 4 56 should be able to deliver a connection
with a suitable QoS as mobile networks have
NO Ud
Release 8/9 Release 10
1.3GPP been covering all aspects of our daily
releases
communications.
Modulation 64QAM, 64QAM
|160AM, S. 5G networks should be highly reliable and
640AM secure.

Duplex TDD and TDD and FDD 6. In order to achieve the above goals, the
FDD
Method designed technology for establishing the 56
Channel 1.4, 1.6,3, 5,|Uplo 100 MHz for network must consider the capability to
4,bandwidth 10, 15, 20|downlinkand 40 MHzfor
support visual communications with ultra
MHz uplink with carrier
high-quality and attractive multimedia
a99regation
interactions.s
| Moderate 3 times higher than that
5. Spectra Requirements for 5G Networks:
efficlency of LTE
Following are the requirements for 5G networks:
5. Peak data Downlink Downlink: 1 Gbps
rates 300 Mbps Upink : 500 Mops 1. 5G networks need extreme flexibility to
Uplink: 75
support various applications and services.
Mbps
2. In 5G networks it is necessary to consider
7. Mobility <350kmph 350 kmph, s 500
frequency band end-to-end application quality.

8. Access
OFDMA/ Sc|OFDMA/SC FDMA 3. 56 should be able to support at least 1 Gb/s
methodology-FDMAA
or more data rate in order to meet the
ms ms
9. Latency
rol10 5 requirements for providing ultra-HD video
outtime
and virtual reality applications.
a.21 List out various challenges and requirements
4. 5G networks should increase their capacity
for 5G service. Dec. 19
Ans.; by a factor of,nearly 1000 in traffic load and
Challenges for 5G Networks peak data rate of 5-10 Gbps.
Following are the chalenges for 5G networks 5. It should increase the spectral efficiency of
while establishing 5G wireless networks:
10 bps/Hz, and latency of 1 ms for the user
1SG networks, should be capable of providing plane and 50 ms for the control plane
large connectivity and huge capacity.
6. SG network should consider Millimeter
2 It should support a huge range of services,
waveform (mmWAV) and unlicensed bands
applications and users related to different
for spectrum usage.
areas of life.
tasy solutions
 Cellular Networks (Sem.6/E&TCSFO fixed IPV6 addres
CN-62
explaln 5G concept In
betiween its
he help of Layers, address for the current wireless netw
wireless technology. May 19,De: 19
Ans A mobile terminal can be attached
.

mobile or wireless netWorks at the same

to Several.
5Gconcept in wireless technology
y TransportProtocol(OTP)
Concept in wireless technology3. Open
Corresponds to the open system interconnected corresponds to thetransport (layer
4)
OS) layers: session (layer 5) layers of the OSI model d
Fig 5.10: shows the correspondence of ISO-OS al transmission controt Protocol (TCE) vee
reference model and the 5G model. 5G model t is considered that the packet loss
congestion.
loss takes
takeeplace
consist of four basic layers dueto network
OStmodel 6Gmode
But in wireless technology, losses cari occur.d
Pplication layer
Ppicatons a higher bit errorratio in the radio interface
Rresantatog (ServiceS
ayer Hence TCP adjustmentsand alterations
Session layér anticipated for the mooile and WIreless networke
:Open transport
protocol (OTP) that retransmit the damaged TCP segments over
ransport layer

Network ayer
Lpperhework lsyers the wireless link only.
ower hetwork laye

Data lnk layer It will be suítable tohave a transport layer for.5G

Open wirefesa
architecture (OWA)
mobile terminals, Which can be: downioaded
i and
Physical layer .:'
installed.
GT-25) Fig. 5.10: SG protocol Stack
Such mobiles will have the ability to download the
1 Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) :
desired version specifying wireless technoloqy
Networklayer
nstalled at the Base station: This is known as open
3Open Transport protocol (OTP)
4Applicationlayer transport prótocol (OTP) :
*-

Open Wireless Architecture (OWA 4Application (Services)Layer

ii *
It lowest layer or sG imodel. It comesponds to The application layer topmost
is the is
layerof SG
the physical and data linklayer of the OSI model and coresponds to the application láyer of the
t
OSTd
2. Nefwork Layer. OSI mOdel

AS showrn in Fig, 5.10 network layer. of SG. is APplicationlayer provides intelligent: QoS
subdividedinto two layers namelyupper network managementover a variety of nebworkš.
layer and lower network láyer. It provides the quality testing service and store the
The network layer of 5G coresponds to the measurement information in the database at the
network layer of OSTmodel and it is based on1Pmobile termna
:
Due to próblems. in IPv4 and 1Pv6, all mobile nthe 5G mobile phone, the QoS parameters such
networks will use mobiteIP standard in 5G. as delay. jitter, losses, bandwidth, and reliability,

Each mobile terminal in 5G wil be a foreign agent etswit be stored in a databasa.

(FA) maintaining care of address:(CoA) mapping Application layer selects the. best wireless
Connection for the given service.
i0aSy soluttong
 Sem. 6/E&Tc/ SPPU)
Networks (Sem
cellular
applications of 56, .Write a short note on OMNeT+*
23
lst out various 26
a 5
Ans.
Ans. appllcations off5G OMNeT+
Varlous
the followina open-source
technology can be used ,
in OMNeT++ simulation tool, is an
5G discrete-event simulation software.
applications
multimedia
Entertainmentand computer communication
1 nternet of Things - Connecting everything
tis used for simulating
networks, including wireless networks

Smart Home In OMNeT+, The programming characteristic

shipping
Logistics and follow a modular style.
4.
Smart cities Features
5.
6.
Smart farming
critical applications
OMNeT+ offers a
standard library which
that can be
Healthcare and misSion explains some standard modules
7
Drone operation used duríng the modeling process of the
8.
properties of OFDM. system.
Irite a short note on
2. In OMNeT++, the: key modules for
Ans. OFDM troubleshooting, tracing and animation are
Properties of
of OFDM are as efficient.
important properties
Some of the key
Tracing and simple debugging is the
follows
intersymbol feature of the OMNeT+ package. It used
is
1OFDM can eliminate theincreasing for tracing the behavior of the system.
interference (ISI) without the
bandwidth. Different classes of the OMNeT++ librarý
very .complex signal The library of OMNeT++ contains the following
2. It does not require
processing.
1 Message classes
OFDM is very sensitive to
frequency offsets
3 2. Container classes
it needs to use some
and timing9 jitter and
Routing classes
additional mechanisms to address these 3
issues.
4. Random number generator classes
5.Statistical classes
Q.25 State the features of OPNET.
The classes are used to gather data when the
Ans.
simulation is on the run
Features of OPNET:
following are the main features of
OPNET Messageclasses provides message packets for
-The
means and it helps in yarious types of networks
1. OPNET has powerful
model building. simulation running and Container.classes provide. various storing services
analysis of the simulation outputs. such as queues and stacks and uphold the general
2. It supports a hierarchical configuration of actions on these classes.
modeling.
Routing classes offers the base for using a
range
3. A set of library modules in OPNET supports message
of routing methods for movement of the
communication protocols and network-
packets in the network.
related topologies.
are the diferent methodsused.n
Ihe model can be easily compiled and run| Q.27 What
because OPNET an excellent
OMNeT.State tsadvantagesand ..
has
disadvantages.
troubleshooting tool.
 CetularNetworks
(Sem 6/E&Te/SPPU)
Ans
Ad ho00 CN-04
Mothods
used in OMNeT+* mobility
odels
hree methods used in
OMNeT* are: automaic 1.Randam
animation module
output windows and object mmodels
inspectorss
While designing, some 2emporal
dependoncy
text data is generated as a
checkpoint for troubleshooting. S
This type of text 3.Spabal
data used for debugging isshown dependency
in the module models
output window.
The status of the 4.Geographic
object at any point of time is rosticton
shown by using object models
monitors/ inspectors.
In order to buld the network simulators, (o1037 Fig 5.11: Classification ofad hoc mobility
mod
OMNET+is an extensible, modular, component Q.29 What are the limitations
of the an
based C+ simulation library waypoint model.
and framework
Ans.
OMNET++ can be used in various problem Limitations of the random waypoint
domains induding wireless communication model
and The advantages of Random Waypoint
networks due to its generic architecture. Model
its variants are simplicity of implementation and
Advantages: wide acceptance. and
It supports parallel distributed simulation However, they may fail
to adequately
2. It is used for queuing network simulations certain mobility characteristics
capture
such as temporal
3. It Provides rich cdass of libraries for. dependency., spatial dependency
and geographic
restriction.
implementation of various modules
Therefore these models have some limitations
Graphical tools are avañable for the analysis in
the following scenarios :
of simulated output
1. Temporal dependency of velocity:
5. It provides both. event based and process
In certain scenario the velocity of MN cannot be
based programming style absolutely random.
Disadvantages: .

Spatial dependency of velocity:

*-.

L Poor doumentation. In certain scenarios, such battlefeld

2 Limited protocol support, communication the movement pattern of a MN
cannot be absolutely random, rather it will be
3. Analysis of performance measures is poor.
correlated with some other nodes.
4 Poorrun tme performance. .
Geographic Restrictions of Movement In the
Q. 28 Give the classiflcatlon of.ad hoc mobility Random Waypoint Model, it is assumed that the
models. mobile nodes can move freely within the
Ans. simulation field without any restrictions. However,
Classificatlon of ad hoc mobility models: inmany realistic applications in urban areas, the
movement of a mobile node will be bounded by
Fig. 5.11 shows the classification of ad hoc obstacles, buildinas. streets etc.
mobility imodels.
Q 30 Write a short note on Gauss-Markov mobiny

model.
easy-sORutlonS
 (Sem.6/E&TC/SPPU)
Networks(6cm.
Networks
6/E CN-65
Cellulat
A memory less Gauss-Markov model when
mobllty model: Here the velocity of
a MN
Ans, Markov
Gauss larkov mobility
model is a type of
a 0.
Cormpletely random.

The dependency models

dels
2. The Gauss-Markov Model has srong
temporal
not assume the node velocities memory ie, a = 1). Herethe velocity of the
models does the same
This
random nature. Instead it assumes that mobile node at time slot t is exactly
random in nomendlature
tobe single node at different time slots as ts previous velocity. In the
velocities of is called
the 'correlated" of vehicular traffi thecry, this model
are the "Fluid Flow Model.
correlation could be because of the
com
Such memory
mobility of a node due to the Gauss-Markov Model has some
traint on the
Constraint
velocity and rate of 3. The in the
laws of acceleration, e, 0 « a < 1). Here the velocty
physical dependent on
direction. Hence, the current velocityof Current time slot is somewhat
change of may depen on its previous both its velocity at time t 1 ard the
mobile node
a. Gaussian random variable W, With increase
velocity
characteristic: is defined as the velocity is more mainly
This
mobilty in a, the aurent
velocity. However: the dependent on its previous velocty.
temporal dependency of.
nature of the Random Waypoint Otherwise, it will be mainly dependent on the
memory less
temporal
Model is not
suitable to capture this Gaussian random variable.

dependency behavior. Q.31 Give the classification of mobility metrics.

mobility models considering
Therefore various Ans.
temporal dependengy are proposed and m of mobilitymetrics:.
model is most
of
one of the mnctassification
Gauss- Markov mobility Fig. 5.12 shows the classificaticn of Mobility
important of this
kind.
metrics
Gauss-Markov Mobility Model
The
is a widely Mobily Metrics
utilized model. In this mode,the velocity of the
mobile node is assumed to be correlated over Random based
time and it is modeled
as a Gauss-Markov
stochasticprocess. Tempcral dependenc)

two-dimensional simulation tield, represent

a
Jn process by the
Spatal dependersy-
the Gauss-Markov stochastic
following equation Geogaphical resticsons
V,aVa ovi-wWa Hybrid stuhre
-In this expression a is thememory level parameter
which determines the degree of dependency.
Pause Tme
In other words the value of a determines the
degree of randomness ofthismodel. Relaho velocity
Depending on the value of.a the following three -2997 Fg 5.12:Classification of Mobility metrics
,
mobility behaviors are possible:

.32 Compare 1 G to5G mobile generation. May 19

Ans.

Jable 5.5 shows the comparison of Various Mobile System Generations

Cs0asy-50lutioos

,n
:
 aCN-68
Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&TCSF
Moblle System
Generations
Comparison of Varlous
able 5.5 Generadon L 31"

Sr 3G
G 5G
No. Feature 10 26 Fourth FIfth
Third 2010 2020
Generation Second
First 1990
2001
Year of 1970 .
IP-broadbandWi-IPv6
introduction Broadband, IP,
Technology Analog cellular Digital
FDD, TDD
Fi MIMO
celular WAMax and LTEYetto be finalize
CDMA UMTS,
CDMA
Standard AMPS
TDMA, GSMWCDMA
CircuitPacket
Packet packet
Switching Circuit Circuit
Packet 2-8 GHz 15 GHz
850-1900
1.6-2.5GHz
Frequency 824-894 MHz
MHz
band Mbps 50Mbps Higher than 1Gbps
7 Dataspeed 2.4 kbps 9.6 kbps 2 MC.CDMA OFDM MC CDMA,
CDMA
Mutiplexding FDMA CDMA, LAS-CDMA, OFDM
TDMA

PSTN
Packet Network Intemet Internet3
9 Core network PSTN
Digital voice, High speed data,
Dynamic Interactive
10 Services Only voice or Information multimedia, Voice
Voice, Vide0
only message Data, SMS Access. Over
..-, .

Chapter 6: Performance Analysis Issues -

Error coding isused in many applications for fault
Q.1, Define network codin9. computing.
tolerant
Ans.. is
a networking Inthe error control coding a mathematical rule
Network coding is defined as
encoded is used to encode the source data bits ínto longer
: technique in which transmitted data code words for transmission.
throughput
and decoded to. increase network
These "code words" are then decoded at the
reduce delays and make the network more robust
destination to obtain the original informátion.
Q.2 What are the funetions of network coding ? The extra bits in the code word are knownn:as a
Ans. parity bits or check bits which provide redundancy
Functions of network coding: according to the coding scheme used.
Network coding techniques increase immunity of the destination to check
These extra bits allow
the transmitted signal to radio channel noise and correct the errors introduced by the
frequency fading and multipath spread. communication medium.
These techniques also reduce bit errors and frame This reduces the need for data retransmission.
errors. It is possible to reduce number of requests of
error detection.3State various applications and challenges
for retransmission by using specific
network coding.
and correction codes. Ans.
Network coding includes a method of detecting
Applications
and correcting the errors and ensures safe
Nlehunr rnding is perceived to be vsefut in»tr
transíer of iniormation rom its source to its
networks where the same data needs to be
destination.
transmitted to a number of destination nodesS
COS1-SoTulo
 6/E&Tc/SPpIN
Neworks (Sem. CN-67
Cellular
me
of such
networks are as follows: are
Implement. Assuming that four data bits
Wireless mesh networks, to be transmitted, he suggested a code word
1.
pattern shown in Fig. 6.2
Messaging networks, Dae bis

. Storage
networks, PDPDPP1,B, 0, Da
bts
(G-1347) Fig. 62:Code word pattern for Hamming code
Multicast streaming networks,
2 The D bits in Fig. 62 are data bits, whereas
File-sharing peer-10-peer networks
P bits are parity bits. The parity bits P PzPa

Challenges: are adjusted in a particular way as explained

e regular topology change occuringinpeer-to below. :

etworks can pose chalenges to the network | Minimum

number of párity bits:
netwo
ing technique because it makes the.
Table 6.1(a) gives a listing of minimum numberof
synchronization more complicated.
parity bits needed for various ranges of "m
challer posed by the, peer-to-peer
Another information bits.
networks is that the
peers may need a large
Table 6.1/a): Number of parity bits to be used
processing time while trying to decode
amoùnt of Number of Information bits| Number of parity bits
data.
2 to 4
Explain the procedure of encoding in
a.4 Hamming codes. 5 to 11

12 to 26
AnS
DlocK cOde. It is an error
Hamming codeisa hear

.
27 to 57
correcting code.
Hammingcode structure:
58 to 120

Hamming code is. basically a linear block code Deciding the values of parity bits:
named after its inventor. Table 6.1/b) indicates which bit positions are
an erorcorrecting code.
isinserted in. between the data bits as shown The parity bits are
in
associated with each parity bit in order to establish
required parity (even or odd) over the selected

Fig.6.1 bits positions.

D D D,-Pa D, P P Table 6.1(b)
RParity Bit Bits to be checked
D D D Da D Do DPa D P P
P 1,3.5.7.9.11.13,15,.
2,3,6.7,10,11,1415,
DData bits P->Paity bts 15 b
Hamming
Code
P |4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,.
6-1946) Fig. 6.1: Hamming codewords P 8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15, ..
-The 7-bit Hamming code is used commonly, but Selection of parlty bits:
the concept can be extended to any number of Selection of P
bits.
P is adjusted to 0 or 1 so as to establish even
Note that the parity bits are inserted at each 2" bit
. parity over bits 1, 3, 5 and 7 ie. P, D,. D, and D,
where n.= 0, 1,2,3 Thus P is at 2= 1, ie.
at fist bit, P2 is at 2 = 2 P, is as 2 and Pg is at 76 5 A0-Considor bis 1,35,7 1o: P

2as shownin Fig. 6.1. Z064020-Consider bits 2:3.6.7 tor Pa

7-Bit Hamming Code
Z54320-Consder bis 4,5.6.7 te: P
LA scientist named RW. Hamming developed
-2291)
coding system which was easy. to |
Gs0sy-s0tgtlons
Cellular Networks (Sem.6/E&Tc/SPPU) CN-08
Selection of P, DDg Dg P D Pa P

P2 is adjusted to 0 or 1 so as to set cven pariy

Overbits 2, 3, 6 and 7 (P. D,D, and D,) P0 to havo oven party
of
P0, D. r
Selection of P (G-1951)

adjusted to 0 or 1 so as to set even Explaln the procedure

Pis pantya.6 of decorl
odlng
over bits 4, 5, 6 and 7 (P.D. D, and D Hamming codes. n
Ans.
The selection of parity bits will be clear after
The Hamming coded data is now tranh
soving the following example. the receiver is decoded to get the data
it back
Q.5 A bit word 1 0 1 1
to be transmitted
is The bits (1,3,5,7):(2,3,
6,7)and (4, 5,671a
Construct the even parity seven-bit Hammlng checkedfor even parity. re
code for this data.
the 4-bit groups mentioned above
If all
Ans.
the even parity then the receive code Ossess
Step 1: The code word format: word is
correct i.e. it, does not contain errors
The seven bit Hamming code format is shown in But if the parity. is not even (1.e.
error exists. Such an error can
it is odd) then
Fig. 6.3. Given bit word =
1011. be located by
forming a three bit number out of
the three parit
checks. This process becomes clear
by solving the
examplegiven below."
-To be decided
(G-1948) Fig. 6.3 a.7 If the 7-bit Hamming code word recelved by
receiver.is 10 1:101,1. Assuming the eve
Step 2:Decide P,
parity state whether the received code word
P sets the parity of bits P,. D3. D, and D As D, correct or wrong. If wrong, locate
the' bit in
Ds. D 111 we have to set P 1 in orderto error.
have the even parity. Ans:
D Ds Ds P Ds P2 D Do Ds. Pa DaP2
Roceved codowcd
1 o1
- Set P 1
to have G-1957
he even pari)y of PD DD
Step 1: Analyze bits 4, 5,6 and 7
'.

Step 3: Decide Pz
(G-1949)
P D De D1101 Odd parity.
.

Error éxists here. :

Pa is set to have the even parity of Pz D D, and Put Pa1in the 4's position of the error word.
D. But D, D. D, = 101 hence set P = 0. 'Step 2: Analyze bits 2,3,6 and 7
De Ds Pa D P2 P
P D D, D, 1001>Even parity so no error
Hence put P, = 0 in the 2's position of the error
Set P2 =0 to have
oven parity of P2 DgDg and D Wora.

Stop 3: Check the bits 1,3,5,7:

(G-1950)

Step 4:Decide P P D D. D, 1 011Odd parityso erro

P
exists.
set to have the even parity of P, D; D, and
is

D, But D, D, D, = 101, hence set P = 0. ience put P = 1 in

the T's posiiori of the error
Word.
 6/E&Tc/sS
/SPPU)
NetworKG (Sem. CN-69
ular
error wor
vord
Write the mutual information, channel capacity. eror
Step4 =
Enor
word E exponents, and relative entropy are some other

1s posilon important measures in information theory

2's position Some of the key sub-fields of information theory
4's posilion are source coding, algorithmic complexity theory
6-1958) algorithmic information theory and information-.

ng the values of PP and P obtained theoretic security.

Subst and 3 we get
insteps 1,2
Q.9 Explaln applications of infomation theory.
Ans.

E(5)10 1. Data Compression

Use Shannon's concept of entropy to determine
(G-1959)
the maximum theoretical compression for a given
of, the transmitted code word is n message alphabet.
Hence bit 5
error. Compression is possible if the entropy is less than
765 4 321 the average length of an encoding.
With the help of information theory obtain the
Incorrect bit relative frequency of every English alphabet in the
(G-1960) English text

the error
Based on this the entropy is calculated which
Step 6:Correct equal to 4.08 bits per character.
fovert the incorrect
bit to obtain the correct code
follows Normally 8 bits per character are used in any
word as
Common code to represent a character.
Correct code word = [ 1001011]
Thus, Shannon's theory shows that there exists an
Write a note on
: signiticance of informatiton
Q.8 encoding that is roughly twice as efficient as the
theory.
normal one
Ans
Later Lempel and Ziv suggested a technique of
Significance of Information Theory:
dynamic compression.
Information theory is the scientific study of the
quantification, storage, and communication of
The dynamic compression has been adapted to
optmize the encoding based on particular text
digital information.
Many computer programs use compression
This field was established by Harry Nyquist and
techniques based on these ideas.
Ralph Hartiey, in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon
In practice, most text files are compressed by
in the 1940s.
about 50 percent.
The field of information theory makes use of
They use approximately 4 bits per character which
probability theory, statistics, computer science, is the number suggested by the entropy
statistical mechanics, information engineering, calculation.
and electrical engineering. 2. Error Detecting and Correcting Codes
An important measure in information theory is Another important application of information
entropy. theory is in error detecting and correcting codes.

Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty Shannon's work in the area of discrete, noisy
involved in the value of a random variable or the communication indicated towards the possibility
of constructing error-correcting codes.
Outcome of a random process.
Csa51-501utons
 N-70
Cellular Networks (Sem 6/ E&Tc/ SPPU) Cryptographic. systemsmake use of special
tTor-correcting codes add extra check bits
to the infomation called. a"key to encrypt and crypt
operate in the
data to help corect errors and thus messages.
different for theencoding
opposite direction from compression. Some systems use
codes ony and decoding, while some other systems use
On the other hand, the eror -detecting processes
not
indicate that an error has occurred but do same key for both
automatically correct the error. Shannon made a general observation "he
soluti
Such an eror is corrected by an automatic request amount of uncertainty introduce into the tion
cannot be greater than the key
uncertainty
to retransmit the message.
more extra bits random keys should be selected
The error-correcting codes heed This means, that
moresecüre.
than error-detecting codes to make the encryption
use
Therefore, in some cases it is more efficient towhat did not lead to new
indicate While Shannon's work
to
an error-detecting code simply practical encryption chemes, he provided
featurec
has to be retransmitted. framework to understand the essential
Selection of error-correcting or eror-detecting anysuch system.
on nature of the erors
codes depends factors like, control to suppress
that are likely to occur under the dircumstances
in
a
10 Explain use of Power
interferences in cellular networks.
which the message is being sent
Transmissions with the space vehicles generaly Ans
use eror-correcting codes becauseUse of power control
retransmissions are difficult due to long distances Signals from mobile stations operating in a
and low available power. coverage area of a BS cause interference to other
MSs operating în the
same.
Instéad it is.necessary to employ, utmost skil and
operate
art to build communication systems that Such interference can be reduced by monitoring
Shannon's results.
at the limits imposed by and controlling the power transmitted by the
3. Cryptography:, :
mobile stations. This is known as the.power
information control. Power control also helps to increase the
One more important application of
theoryis in the field of cryptography battery Ilife of MSss
secure:
Cryptology is thescience Thus it is necéssary for: the wireless. network to
communication. It consists õf. both cryptanalysisS monitor the radio resources, signál strength, and
otography
aia
Ciyptanalysis is the study of how encypted
information is revealed (or decrypted)
secret key is unknown.
when the
other
ommunication between an MSs: and.
ntormationeabout
associated.
BSs to

control power and reduce interference.

control is 'defined as the. algorithms,
.
Power
Whereas cryptography is the study of how protocols and techniques used in cellular networks
information is concealed and encrypted. control the power transmitted by MSs and BS in
to
Shannon's analysis of communication codes led order to reduce variousinterferences.
him to apply the mathematical:: tools of This not only reduces interference but also
information theory to cryptography in enhancés the battery life of MSs.
Communication Theoryof Secrecy Systems
Transmit power control Increases the Signal to
(1949):
Interference Ratio (SIR) thereby improving the
He noted from his analysis of simple transposition s quality of communication.
ciphers that theý do not affect the entropy of the
talso improves the system capacity.
source.
e0131-So1ulons

.
 Networks(em. 6/ E&Tc/ SPPI
elllar
the Expla concept of open loop power
state Ans.
CN-71.
a.11 control and its disadvantages,
Closed loop power
control:
AS powercontrol
rol: n the closed-loop power control technique
openloop the
open op power control is generally SIgnal in reverse
channel is adjusted based on
The yed on the uplink or reverse link ie, the metric of performance
link
MS to BS Ihe BS
makes the decision about power
from
power Control does not adjustment of MS and communicates it
The open-i00p consider to MS on
control channel.
feedback fromthhe BS to control power MS.
any at Closed loop power
open looP power control control implements a feedback
Thus is entirely mechanism between
the BS and MS to eliminate
dependent on the mobile unit. the disadvantage of
open loop power control.
The
open-loop contro is simple to achieve butit is in dosed loop power control,
the BS measures the
not as
accurate as close-loop control. qualty of received signal from MS
and instructs
The open-l0op power control also can react the MS of the actions
to be taken via control
auickly to any fiuctuations in signal strength. Signaling on the downlink
channel
t is also possible
powers transmitted by the MS and BS change
Thep to use the closed loop power
control to adjust the transmitted
allv due
dynamlcally due to many factors such as. velocity power of the BS.
Advantages of closed power
loop control
ofmobile, fading, and distance between MS and 1.
BS. power control th MS measures
For exercising The delay in implementation of power
the received signal strength (RSS), quality of the control is minimal
reference channel from BS and BER frames. 2. The errors introduced in
the power control
The MS will reduce its transmit power if the RSS or are extremely low
BER are above certain thresholds. The MS
would 3. t improves the quality of power
control and
increase its transmitted if RSS or BER are below
reduces interference
certain thresholds.
Disadvantages of Q.13 DisCuss various power
open loop power control: saving mechanisms.
Ans,
Some of the major disadvantages Ot open
i00p Power saving
powercontrol are: | mechanisms
In addition to
1 The power control decision depends on
the the interference suppression, the
measurement RSS and signal power contol canbe exercised to reduce the
on the
reference channel of the downlink power consumption of MSs
and enhance their
2. Due to the delay between BS and MS, the battery life. :

power control is implemented after Power saving mechanisms achieves this

a goal by
significant delay making a MS operate
in suspended.or semi
3. The uplink
suspended mode of operation.
and downlink channels are usually
not correlated. This may introduce The transmission mode consumes the highest
errors in
amount of power while reception mode
power control. consumes
the second highest power.
4In TDMA systems,
the MS receives and The standby mode consumes the least amount of
transmits on different time slots.Therefore, a
power.
time lag is introduced in implementing
the The wireless network can be designed
open loop power
control. to ensure
that the mobile stations spend most of
4.12 Explain the time
the concept of losed looP powe either in starndby or sleep mode in order
to save
control and state lts
advantages. powel.
casy-4olutoas
 Cellular Networks (Sem. 6/E&Tc/SPPU CN-12
come to a wrong concht
Will
power is to employ So station-c
of saving
rechnique transmission no one is transmitting and so it can that
discontinuous mostly employed in
is
station A. start
cellular telephone networks. transmitting to

Use sleep mode for saving battery power, of MS f station-C starts transmitting. it wil creareate
when itis inactive. collision at station-A and will wipe out the rames a
fromstation-B.
Q14 State different MAC protocol issues. This problem in which a. station. is not able
Ans. ole to
detect an already, transmitting other station which
Different MAC protocol issues is too far
away is caled as the hidden
station
Hidden terminal problem problem.
2Reliability In this example it is said that stations -8 and Caare
3.Collision avoidance hiddenfrom each other with respectto station-A
Nowconsider
Fig. 64(b) which shows the hidden
4Congestion avoidance station problm occuring dúe to an obstacle,
5.Congestioncontrol Due to hidden station problem, the possibility
i 6. Energy efficiency. collision increases and the capacity network
will
5xplain the hidden station problem. i redue
Ans.
Q. 16. Explain the exposed statlon problem.
Hidden station problemz .
The hidden station problem ocurs when a station s.
nay: not be aware that some other station isxposed station problem
transmitting because of either range problem.or The exposed station problem is a similar problem.
some obstacle. Inthls problem, a station refrains from using the
e
In this situation collision may occur but may not commonmedium. even when no other station is
be detected. The hidden station problem is üsing it (ie. the channel is actually free).
illustrated in
Fig-.6.4 Refer Fig. 6.46) which shows thre In order to understand this concept clearly, refer
wireless stations A, B and C Fig6.5where Aisthesending station and Bis the
Obstace destination
Range of B Kange oo

Ais sending data to B. Station C wants to send its

.
Statons B and Care not in Due to the obslacle,
9ach others ranges statons B ad Gare hidden
data to stationD and it is possible to do so
ithour
A
interfering in the communication between
and B:
each other
trom
(b As shown In Fig. 6.5 station C is in the range of
G-2098) Fig, 6.4; Hidden station problem ,
station A.Iin otherwordsCis exposed to A
.
The transmission ranges of stations-B and C have :Ránge ofA
been shown by the, two ovals on left and right
respectively which shows that station-C is not in
range of C.
the range of B and B is not in the
However station-A is in the range of both Band C.
****
Range of Cc
So A can hear signals transmitted by B and C Fg. 6.5: Exposed station problem
Refer Fig. 6.4(a) where station-6 is transmitting to 91s)
station A Therefore C listenis to what A is transmitting and

checks the medium to see if decides to refrain itself from sending its message
Now if station-C to D, This causes wastage of channel capacity.
anyone is transmitting.it will not hear station 8
because it is out of range
1

GcasySolutions
 Networks(Sem.
Networks (Sem. 6/6
6/E&Tc/SPPU
Cellular
Describe he operation CN-73
of RTS-CTS
After this waiting
a 17 messagesS. time station A sends a
the sta
control frame called as Request to Send (RIS) as
RTS-CTS messages shownin Fig.6.6.
Ans, RTS-CTS
operationof Source
802.11 MAC addresses the hidden station
Destinadon Other statons
EEE A
adding two additional frames, the RTS
roblem by
CTS (dlear send),
(request to send) to
DIF8
source sends a RIS and the destination
Here, the
replieswith
a CTS.
SIFS
ther
The
nodes that overhear theRTS and CTS ,

messages will spend their.transmissions,for a

SIFS
certain time period indicated
in the RTS/CTS

frames DAT NAV

frame f
The source station retransmits the RTS
the
RTS/CTS handshake
fails.

The
system treats this as
rules.
a
collision

retransmission occurs as per :Time Tome JUme

For
avoiding faulty consecutive retransmissions. (6-210) Fig. 6.6: CSMA/CA and NAV
the retry Ccounters and timers are employed to 2. After receiving the RTS, the destination

imit the lifetime of

frame.a station B waits for a specific amount of time
called the Short Interframe Space (SIFS) and
a.18 Write
a note on DCF. then sends a control frame Clear to Send
(CTS) back to the source station A. The CTS
Ans.
access method used by DCF is CSMA/CA. frame is anindication that the destination
The
exchangetime line station is ready for receivingthedata.
Frame
The source station receives the CTS frame,
The exchange of control and data frames with
waits for a duration of SIFS and then sends
time has been shown Fig. 6.6.
the datato the destination station.
We assume that there are four wireless stations A,
present in a wireless LAN. A is a source
4.The destination station receives the data
B, Cand D
waits a
for duration of SIFS and sends the
and B is the destination. acknowledgement (ACK) frame to indicate
are.referred to as other
ThereforeC and
stations.
D
, Note that
that it hasreceived the data frame.
the CSMA/CA protocol; the
in
The sequence of control and data exchange is as acknowledgement (ACK). is needed. because
follows Otherwise the source station does not have any
means to know that the data has been received by
1. The source station A senses the medium for
its idleness before sending a frame. It does the destination station.
the media sensing by checking the energy n CSMACD the ACK is not needed because the

level at the carrier frequency. lackofcolision itself

is treated. as an
la) A persistence strategy is used with back of|
acknowledgement of data being received
successfuly.
until the channel is found to be idle.
(0) Once the channel is found to be idle, the.Q19Write
a note on PDF.
source station A waits for a' specific amount | Ans.
of time called as the Distributed Interframe An optionalàccess method which .can be
Space (DIFs). implemented in :the infrastructure network
 CN-74
FCellular Networks (Sem. 6/ E&Te/SPPU)
wants to use PCF, then the priority will be given t
a wireless LAN with AP) but not in the ad-hoc
network (WLAN without and AP) is caled as the theAP.
But the effect of
this higher priority of PCF over
Point Co-ordination Function (PDF).
DCF, is that the stations using DL
may neyver get
Note that the PCF is implemented on top of the
common medium.
DCF and used mostly for those applications that theaccesstothe
are time sensitive. But this should be avoided. Hence a repetition
cover the
interval has been designed in order to
The acces method used by PCF is the centralized
PCF (contention-free) ås well as DCF (contention:
contention free polling access method.
based) trafic
for stations that can be polled is
The polling
The repetition interval always starts with a special
performed by the AP. These stations when polled
in séquential manner will send their datá to AP type of frame called beacon frame as shown in
a Fig.6.7.
on one by one basis.
continuously. As
One more interframe space called PIFS has been The repetition frame is repeated
defined to give priornty to PCF over DCF This shown in Fig. 6.7, on hearing the beacon frame
NAV for the duration of the
inteframe space PIFS (PCF IFS) is shorter than DIFS the stations start their
cóntention free period of repetition interval
The meaning of this arrangement is that if at the
-

time, a station wants to use DCF and AP

an An example of repetition interval has been showm
$ame
in Fig. 6.7.

Repeiton interval Conte

Contenton-free tton
SIFS B Baacon frame
Access PIES Contention free
CF
point
ime

Polled station KE
Data
Tme
On hearing the beacon frame all other
stations start their NAV

NAV:
NAV:
Na carrier, sensing
Tume

G-2101) Flg. 6.7: Example of repetltion Interval

The Pc (Point controllen can perform the following operations or ary combination of them, during the

:
repetition interval.
,.
802.11 uses the concept of piggybacking. The PC (point controller) sends a CF end (contention - free end)
frameat the end of the contention free period, so that the contention based (OCF traffic) stations can use the
common medium.

GsSy-SoIuions
 Networks (Sem. SPPU)
celular
CN-75

Note

Gi0a5y-501utlons