24-Apr-2023

24 Apr 2023
Grammar ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Possessive ............................................................................................................................................... 2
When making a reference ....................................................................................................................... 2
When referring to things in a list ........................................................................................................ 2
Something mentioned before ................................................................................................................. 2
Expressing preference (infinitive)........................................................................................................ 2
Reason (point) ..................................................................................................................................... 3
Adjective and vb be + inf ..................................................................................................................... 3
Gerund ................................................................................................................................................ 3
To be .................................................................................................................................................... 3
More infinitive and gerund ................................................................................................................. 3
Modal verbs ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Permission and compulsion verbs (infinitive) ..................................................................................... 3
Verbs of perception ............................................................................................................................. 3
To make smth less direct and generalise (+inf) ................................................................................... 4
To conclude – rhetorical ...................................................................................................................... 4
Agent – causative ................................................................................................................................ 4
Passive ................................................................................................................................................. 4
It – empty subject ............................................................................................................................... 4
To express a general point................................................................................................................... 4
To express consequence/result/cause ................................................................................................ 4
Emphasis ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Double adjectives ................................................................................................................................ 5
To express entirety .............................................................................................................................. 5
To express reservations ....................................................................................................................... 5
To express matter of fact..................................................................................................................... 5
To express ‘always’ .............................................................................................................................. 5
Prepositions for simialarity ................................................................................................................. 6
Passive ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Options ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Prepositions ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Gerund rules ....................................................................................................................................... 6
To face ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Detail ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Scarce ...................................................................................................................................................... 8

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24-Apr-2023

To send packing ....................................................................................................................................... 9

Please .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Impossible ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Point ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
More...................................................................................................................................................... 11
Most ..................................................................................................................................................... 12
Virtue .................................................................................................................................................... 13
To reflect ............................................................................................................................................... 13
reflect ................................................................................................................................................ 14
re•flect .............................................................................................................................................. 14
To involve .............................................................................................................................................. 15

Grammar

Possessive
This week’s highlights (NOT the highlights of this week)

A moment’s hour

When making a reference

Anaphoric expressions are those which derive their interpretation from the antecents

Anaphoric expressions are such that they .

When referring to things in a list

A second important property of complements is that they are sometimes obligatory.

Something mentioned before

As before,

As previous

As in previous examples,

As in the previous section

Expressing preference (infinitive)

1. Would rather

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24-Apr-2023

2. Had better
3. Rather than (eg. Spend money in a restaurant)

Reason (point)
The point of the jibe was, of course, that

The point is that

Adjective and vb be + inf

Free from restraint and relaxed if it to have charm/to be charming

Round the black sea are to be found the most unlearned nations in the world

Gerund
The normal line being constructed as we have described, departures from it will

To be
My task is to

Last issue was over a month ago

More infinitive and gerund

Infinitive Extend smth to cover
Extend smth to + n
Gerund Regard as being of
Regard as different

Modal verbs

Verbs will, might, should, can

Modal-like phrases to be able to, to be allowed to, to be going
to, have (got) to, ought to

Permission and compulsion verbs (infinitive)

1. Make – I made them/they were made to clean up
2. Let – they let them/they were let to
3. Help
4. Have

Verbs of perception
See
Hear
Feel

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24-Apr-2023

Notice

To make smth less direct and generalise (+inf)

To seem
To appear
To look
To tend

To conclude – rhetorical
What then is the value of?
Why bother with?
We cannot say
Some of these stories we know from other sources
But him/S I knew directly and cited in

Agent – causative
The circumstances of his birth were initially too humble to promise future distinction
His mind could not penetreate beyond

Passive
Now, Athenians considered illegitimate used to be enrolled in

It – empty subject
It is strange and churlish behaviour + ing
It is in our constitution to love
It is only to be expected in a rabble with such an enormous empire

To express a general point

The point/idea is that

To express consequence/result/cause
As a result
For this reason

Emphasis
It was X with whom Y associated
This incident more than anything colled

Made a statement of sufficient frigidity to have extinguished the conflagration (infinitive after noun)

To go as far as to

It is not that

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24-Apr-2023

But I have gone too long about this in the present context

But the gravity of political affairs as well as

Wheenever I reflect on the past

You ask whether

Double adjectives
If left unchecked by

To express entirety
Altogether
Wholly
Entirely
All
Fast
Well

To express reservations
Withal
All the same
Besides
Nevertheless
Further

To express matter of fact

It is true
Indeed
Actually
In truth
Truly

To express ‘always’
Unfailingly

Invariably

Always

To express ‘collectively’

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24-Apr-2023

All around

Collectively

Prepositions for simialarity

For Plutarch, in this as in his other lives

It is with this as with

As with other

And so, just as a painter

Passive
Later, after they were married

Options
Whether by being honoured as a god, or through lasting fame

Either through x or y

Prepositions
To cite 23 writers by name

Enrich sentence with ing form

The most outstanding exploits do not always have the property of

Gerund rules

Prep + gerund To analyse smth as forming (prep + gerund)

Which functions The subordinate clause functioning as (which
functions as)

To face
n.
1.
a. The surface of the front of the head from the top of the forehead to the base of the chin and from ea
r to ear.
b. A person: We saw many new faces on the first day of classes.
2. A person's countenance: a happy face.
3. A contorted facial expression; a grimace: made a face at the prospect of eating lemons.
4.
a. A countenance of a certain complexion or form. Used in combination: babyface; frogface.
b. A person having such a countenance. Used in combination: paleface.
5.
a. Facial makeup: put one's face on.
b. Facial makeup of a certain color, usually worn for the purpose of impersonating or mocking people
of a particular racial or ethnic group. Used in combination: applied blackface.
c. Assumed characteristics, such as clothing or behavior, intended to impersonate or mock people of
a particular racial or ethnic group. Used in combination: dressing up in yellowface.
6. Outward appearance: the modern face of the city.
7.
a. Value or standing in the eyes of others; prestige: did their best to save face after they were shown t
o be wrong; did not want to lose face by being unable to live up to his reputation.

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24-Apr-2023

b. Self-
assurance; confidence: The team managed to maintain a firm face even in times of great adversity.
8. Effrontery; impudence: had the face to question my judgment.
9. The most significant or prominent surface of an object, especially:
a. The surface presented to view; the front.
b. A façade.
c. Outer surface: the face of the earth.
d. A marked side: the face of a clock; the face of a playing card.
e. The right side, as of fabric.
f. An exposed, often precipitous surface of rock.
10. A planar surface of a geometric solid.
11. Any of the surfaces of a rock or crystal.
12. The end, as of a mine or tunnel, at which work is advancing.
13. The appearance and geologic surface features of an area of land; topography.
14. Printing
a. A typeface or range of typefaces.
b. The raised printing surface of a piece of type.
v. faced, fac·ing, fac·es
v.tr.
1. To occupy a position with the face toward: stood and faced the audience.
2. To front on: a window that faces the south.
3.
a. To meet or confront with self-
assurance: How can I face your parents when they know that I've let them down?
b. To acknowledge and accept or deal with: had to face the facts; must be willing to face our problems
. See Synonyms at defy.
4.
a. To be certain to encounter; have in store: An unskilled youth faces a difficult life.
b. To bring or to be brought face to face with: "The prospect of military conflict ... faced us with nightm
arish choices" (Henry A. Kissinger).
5. To cause (troops) to change direction by giving a command.
6. Games To turn (a playing card) so that the face is up.
7. To furnish with a surface or cover of a different material: bronze that is faced with gold foil.
8. To line or trim the edge of, especially with contrasting material: face a hem with lace.
9. To treat the surface of so as to smooth.
v.intr.
1. To be turned or placed with the front toward a specified direction.
2. To turn the face in a specified direction.
Phrasal Verbs:
face down
To attain mastery over or overcome by confronting in a resolute, determined manner: face down an o
pponent in a debate; faced the enemy down.
face off
1. Sports To stand opposite an opponent in ice hockey, lacrosse, and other games and attempt to gai
n control of a puck or ball released by an official at the start of play.
2. To compete: Two longtime opponents faced off in a bitter election.
face up
To confront an unpleasant situation with resolution and assurance: had to face up or get out; finally fa
ced up to the problem.
Idioms:
face the music
To accept the unpleasant consequences, especially of one's own actions.
in the face/teeth of
In opposition to or defiance of.
on the face of it
From appearances alone; apparently: On the face of it, the problem seems minor.
show (one's) face
To make an appearance: Don't show your face on my property again.
to (one's) face
In the view or hearing of: insulted me to my face.

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Detail
n.
1. An individual part or item; a particular: discussed the details of the proposal.
2. Particulars considered individually and in relation to a whole: careful attention to detail.
3. A minor or an inconsequential item or aspect; a minutia: skipped the details to get to the main point.
4. A minute or thorough treatment or account: went into detail about his travels.
5.
a. A discrete part or portion of a work, such as a painting, building, or decorative object, especially wh
en considered in isolation.
b. A representation of such a part or portion: a detail of a Rembrandt portrait illustrating the technique
of chiaroscuro.
6.
a. A small elaborated element of a work of art, craft, or design.
b. Such elements considered together: the intricate detail of a rococo altarpiece.
c. The rendering of artistic detail: the fine detail of the painter's brushwork.
7.
a. A group of military personnel assigned to a particular duty, usually a fatigue duty.
b. The duty assigned: garbage detail.
tr.v. (dĭ-tāl′) de·tailed, de·tail·ing, de·tails
1. To report or relate explicitly or in particulars: detailed the charges against the defendant.
2. To provide with artistic or decorative detail: detailed the quilt with colorful appliqué.
3. To assign to a particular duty: "The musicians and other non-
combatants were detailed to carry the stretchers" (Peter Cozzens).
4. To clean (a car interior, for example) meticulously.
5. To market to (a physician) the drugs sold by one's company,
Idiom:
in detail
With attention to particulars; thoroughly or meticulously: explained her proposal in detail.

Scarce
adj. scarc·er, scarc·est
1. Insufficient to meet a demand or requirement; short in supply: Fresh vegetables were scarce during
the drought.
2. Hard to find; absent or rare: Steel pennies are scarce now except in coin shops.
adv.
Barely or hardly; scarcely.
Idiom:
make (oneself) scarce Informal
1. To stay away; be absent or elusive.
2. To depart, especially quickly or furtively; abscond.

make oneself scarce,

a. to leave, esp. quickly.
b. to stay away.
1. 'scarce'
Scarce is an adjective. If something is scarce, very little of it is available.
Good quality land is scarce.
The desert is a place where water is scarce.
2. 'rare'
Don't use 'scarce' to say that something is not common, and is therefore interesting. Use rare.
This flower is so rare that few botanists have ever seen it.
Deepak's hobby is collecting rare books.

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3. 'scarcely'
Scarcely is an adverb that means the same as 'hardly'. If something is scarcely true, it is almost not t
rue. If something scarcely exists, it almost does not exist.
The smell was so bad I could scarcely bear it.
The woman was scarcely able to walk.
Be Careful!
Don't use 'not' with scarcely. Don't say, for example, 'I do not scarcely have enough money to live'. S
ay 'I scarcely have enough money to live'.
If you use an auxiliary verb or modal with scarcely, put the auxiliary verb or modal first. Say, for exam
ple, 'I could scarcely stand'. Don't say 'I scarcely could stand'.
I can scarcely remember what we ate.
He could scarcely be blamed for his reaction.
Scarcely is sometimes used to emphasize that one thing happened immediately after another.
We had scarcely arrived when it was time to leave again.
Be Careful!
Use when, not 'than', in sentences like these. Don't say, for example, 'We had scarcely arrived than it
was time to leave again'.
In literary writing, scarcely is sometimes put at the beginning of a sentence, followed by had or the ve
rb be and the subject.
Scarcely had she put down the receiver when the phone rang again.
Scarcely were the words spoken when he began to regret them.

To send packing
To dismiss or send one away rudely or abruptly.When it became clear he was only interested in makin
g a profit for himself, we sent him packing.I was only five minutes late, but the boss sent me packing n
onetheless.

Please
v.tr.
1. To give enjoyment, pleasure, or satisfaction to; make glad or contented.
2. To be the will or desire of: May it please the court to admit this firearm as evidence.
v.intr.
1. To give satisfaction or pleasure; be agreeable: waiters who try hard to please.
2. To have the will or desire; wish: Do as you please. Sit down, if you please.
adv.
1. If it is your desire or pleasure; if you please. Used in polite requests: Please stand back. Pay attenti
on, please.
2. Yes. Used in polite affirmative replies to offers: May I help you? Please.

Impossible
It was quite impossible to not

Point
n.
1. A sharp or tapered end: the point of a knife; the point of the antenna.

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2. An object having a sharp or tapered end: a stone projectile point.

3. A tapering extension of land projecting into water; a peninsula, cape, or promontory.
4. A mark formed by or as if by a sharp end.
5. A mark or dot used in printing or writing for punctuation, especially a period.
6. A decimal point.
7. Linguistics A vowel point.
8. One of the protruding marks used in certain methods of writing and printing for the blind.
9. Mathematics
a. A dimensionless geometric object having no properties except location.
b. An element in a geometrically described set.
10.
a. A place or locality considered with regard to its position: connections to Chicago and points west.
b. A narrowly particularized and localized position or place; a spot: The troops halted at a point roughl
y 1,000 yards from the river.
11. A specified degree, condition, or limit, as in a scale or course: the melting point of a substance.
12.
a. Any of the 32 equal divisions marked at the circumference of a mariner's compass card that indicat
e direction.
b. The interval of 11°15′ between any two adjacent markings.
13.
a. A distinct condition or degree: finally reached the point of exhaustion.
b. The interval of time immediately before a given occurrence; the verge: on the point of resignation; a
t the point of death.
14. A specific moment in time: At this point, we are ready to proceed.
15. An objective or purpose to be reached or achieved, or one that is worth reaching or achieving: Wh
at is the point of discussing this issue further?
16. The major idea or essential part of a concept or narrative: You have missed the whole point of the
novel.
17. A significant, outstanding, or effective idea, argument, or suggestion: Your point is well taken.
18. A separate, distinguishing item or element; a detail: Diplomacy is certainly not one of his strong po
ints. Your weak point is your constant need for approval.
19. A quality or characteristic that is important or distinctive, especially a standard characteristic used
to judge an animal.
20. A single unit, as in counting, rating, or measuring.
21.
a. A unit of academic credit usually equal to one hour of class work per week during one semester.
b. A numerical unit of academic achievement equal to a letter grade.
22. Sports & Games A unit of scoring or counting.
23.
a. A unit equal to one dollar, used to quote or state variations in the current prices of stocks or commo
dities.
b. A unit equal to one percent, used to quote or state interest rates or shares in gross profits.
24. One percent of the total principal of a loan, paid up front to the lender and considered separately fr
om the interest.
25. Music A phrase, such as a fugue subject, in contrapuntal music.
26. Printing A unit of type size equal to 0.01384 inch, or approximately 1/72 of an inch.
27. A jeweler's unit of weight equal to 2 milligrams or 0.01 carat.
28.
a. The act or an instance of pointing.
b. The stiff and attentive stance taken by a hunting dog.
29.
a. A reconnaissance or patrol unit that moves ahead of an advance party or guard, or that follows a re
ar guard.
b. The position occupied by such a unit or guard: A team of Rangers were walking point at the outset
of the operation.
30. Sports
a. Either of two positions in ice hockey just inside the offensive zone near the boards, usually assume
d by defenders attempting to keep the puck in the offensive zone.
b. Basketball A position in the forecourt beyond the top of the key, usually taken by the point guard.

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c. In women's lacrosse, a defensive player who marks the opponent playing nearest to the goal (the fi
rst home).
31.
a. An electrical contact, especially one in the distributor of an automobile engine.
b. Chiefly British An electrical socket or outlet.
32. points The extremities of an animal, such as a cat or horse, especially when they differ in color fr
om the rest of the coat.
33.
a. A movable rail, tapered at the end, such as that used in a railroad switch.
b. The vertex of the angle created by the intersection of rails in a frog or switch.
34. A ribbon or cord with a metal tag at the end, used to fasten clothing in the 16th and 17th centuries.
v. point·ed, point·ing, points
v.tr.
1. To direct or aim: point a weapon. See Synonyms at aim.
2. To bring (something) to notice: pointed out an error in their reasoning.
3. To indicate the position or direction of: pointed out the oldest buildings on the skyline.
4. To sharpen (a pencil, for example); provide with a point.
5. To separate with decimal points: pointing off the hundredths place in a column of figures.
6. To mark (text) with points; punctuate.
7. Linguistics To mark (a consonant) with a vowel point.
8. To give emphasis to; stress: comments that simply point up flawed reasoning.
9. To indicate the presence and position of (game) by standing immobile and directing the muzzle tow
ard it. Used of a hunting dog.
10. To fill and finish the joints of (masonry) with cement or mortar.
v.intr.
1. To direct attention or indicate position with or as if with the finger.
2. To turn the mind or thought in a particular direction or to a particular conclusion: All indications poin
t to an early spring.
3. To be turned or faced in a given direction; aim.
4. To indicate the presence and position of game. Used of a hunting dog.
5. Nautical To sail close to the wind.
Idioms:
beside the point
Irrelevant to the matter at hand.
in point
Having relevance or pertinence.
in point of
With reference to; in the matter of: In point of fact, I never lived at the address stated on the form.
make a point of
To consider or treat (an action or activity) as indispensable: made a point of visiting their niece on the
way home.
stretch a point
To make an exception.
to the point
Concerning or with relevance to the matter at hand: remarks that were to the point; rambled and woul
d not speak to the point.

More
adj.Comparative of many much

1.

a. Greater in number: a hall with more seats.

b. Greater in size, amount, extent, or degree: more land; more support.

2. Additional; extra: She needs some more time.

n.

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A greater or additional quantity, number, degree, or amount: The more I see of you the more I like you
.

pron.

(used with a pl. verb) A greater or additional number of persons or things: I opened only two bottles b
ut more were in the refrigerator.

adv.Comparative of much

1.

a. To or in a greater extent or degree: loved him even more.

b. Used to form the comparative of many adjectives and adverbs: more difficult; more softly. See Usa
ge Note at perfect.

2. In addition: phoned twice more.

3. Moreover; furthermore.

Idioms:

more and more

To a steadily increasing extent or degree: getting more and more worried.

more or less

1. About; approximately: holds two tons, more or less.

2. To an undetermined degree: were more or less in agreement.

Most

Most obviously
adj.Superlative of many much

1.

a. Greatest in number: won the most votes.

b. Greatest in amount, extent, or degree: has the most compassion.

2. In the greatest number of instances: Most fish have fins.

n.

1. The greatest amount or degree: She has the most to gain.

2. Slang The greatest, best, or most exciting. Used with the: That party was the most!

pron.

(used with a sing. or pl. verb) The greatest part or number: Most of the town was destroyed. Most of t
he books were missing.

adv.Superlative of much

1. In or to the highest degree or extent. Used with many adjectives and adverbs to form the superlativ
e degree: most honest; most impatiently.

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2. Very: a most impressive piece of writing.

3. Informal Almost: Most everyone agrees.

Idiom:

at (the) most

At the maximum: We saw him for ten minutes at the most. She ran two miles at most.

Virtue

n.
1.
a. Moral excellence and righteousness; goodness.
b. An example or kind of moral excellence: the virtue of patience.
2. Archaic Chastity, especially in a woman.
3. A particularly efficacious, good, or beneficial quality; advantage: a plan with the virtue of being pract
ical.
4. Effective force or power: believed in the virtue of prayer.
5. virtues Christianity The fifth of the nine orders of angels in medieval angelology.
6. Obsolete Manly courage; valor.
Idiom:
by/in virtue of
On the grounds or basis of; by reason of: well-off by virtue of a large inheritance.

To reflect
v.tr.

1. To throw or bend back (light or sound, for example) from a surface.

2. To give back or show an image of (an object); mirror.

3. To make apparent; express or manifest: Her work reflects intelligence.

4. To bring as a consequence: The victory reflects credit on the coach.

5. Archaic To bend back.

v.intr.

1. To be bent or thrown back: Her voice reflected off the canyon walls. See Synonyms at echo.

2. To give something back, as light or sound: a shiny surface that reflects well.

3.

a. To give evidence of the characteristics or qualities of someone or something: That student's perfor
mance reflects well on the whole school.

b. To bring blame or discredit: Hasty preparation of the report will reflect on you.

4.

a. To think seriously. See Synonyms at think.

b. To express carefully considered thoughts: In the essay, he reflects on his career.

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[Middle English reflecten, from Old French reflecter, from Latin reflectere, to bend bac
k : re-, re- + flectere, to bend.]
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.
All rights reserved.
reflect
(rɪˈflɛkt)

vb

1. (General Physics) to undergo or cause to undergo a process in which light, other electromagnetic r
adiation, sound, particles, etc, are thrown back after impinging on a surface

2. (General Physics) (of a mirror, etc) to form an image of (something) by reflection

3. (tr) to show or express: his tactics reflect his desire for power.

4. (tr) to bring as a consequence: the success of the project reflected great credit on all the staff.

5. (intr; foll by on or upon) to cause to be regarded in a specified way: her behaviour reflects well on h
er.

6. (intr; foll by on or upon) to cast dishonour, discredit, etc (on): his conduct reflects on his parents.

7. (usually foll by: on) to think, meditate, or ponder

[C15: from Latin reflectere to bend back, from re- + flectere to bend; see flex]

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers
1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014

re•flect
(rɪˈflɛkt)

v.t.

1. to cast back (light, heat, sound, etc.) from a surface.

2. to give back or show an image of; mirror.

3. to serve to cast or bring (credit, discredit, etc.).

4. to express; show: followers reflecting the views of the leader.

v.i.

5. to be turned or cast back, as light.

6. to cast back light, heat, etc.

7. to be reflected or mirrored.

8. to give back or show an image.

9. to think, ponder, or meditate: to reflect on one's faults.

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10. to serve or tend to bring reproach or discredit: His crimes reflected on the whole community.

11. to serve to give a particular aspect or impression: The test reflects well on your abilities.

To involve
tr.v. in·volved, in·volv·ing, in·volves
1.
a. To have as a necessary feature or consequence; entail: was told that the job would involve travel.
b. To relate to or affect: The matter is serious because it involves your reputation.
c. To cause to burn; spread to: The blaze involved the house next door.
2.
a. To engage as a participant; embroil: The bystanders got involved in a dispute with the police.
b. To show to be a participant; connect or implicate: evidence that involved the governor in the scand
al.
c. To engage (oneself) in a love affair: was involved with a colleague at work.
3. To occupy or engage the interest of: a story that completely involved me for the rest of the evening.
4. To wrap; envelop: a castle that was involved in mist.
5. Archaic To wind or coil about.

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