Hydrualics For Civil Engineering PDF

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Hydraulics for civil engineering
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Hydraulics
By prof. Dr.
Saleh Issa Khassaf
.......................................................................
Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa Khassaf College Of Engineering
By Abbas Al-DuJailY. Uni. Of Kufa Col. Of Eng. Structures and Water Resources Dept.
Q  2.18 m 3 / sec
LOCAL AND MINOR PIPE LOSSES

A local is any energy loss, in addition to that of pipe friction alone, caused by
some localized disruption of the flow by some appurtenances , such as valves,
bends and other fittings .
Local losses are usually computed from the equation :
v2
hL  kL
2g
In which :
V=Q/A is normally the down stream mean velocity for enlargements the
following alternate formula applies :
v12  v 22
hL  k L
2g
V1= u.s. velocity
V2= d.s. velocity
KL= 1.0 for all a sudden enlargement and takes on values between 0.2 and 1.2
for assorted gradual conical enlargements.
Local losses coefficient (KL) for some common valve and pipe fitting are listed
in table (4)
Ke=0.5
Ke=1.0
ke  0.5  0.3 cos  0.2 cos2 
Ke= 0.04
Fitting KL
Globe valve, fully open 10.0
Angle valve, fully open 5.0
Butterfly valve, fully open 0.4
Gate valve, fully open 0.2
3/4 open 1.0
1/2 open 5.6
1/4 open 17.6
Check valve, swing type, fully open 2.3
Check valve, lift type, fully open 12.0
Check valve, ball type, fully open 70.0
Foot valve, fully open 15.0
Elbow , 45 0.4
Long radius , 90 0.6
Medium radius, 90 0.8
Short radius (standard) elbow 90 0.9
Close return bend, 180 2.2
Pipe entrance, rounded, r/D < 0.16 0.1
Pipe entrance, square-edged 0.5
Pipe entrance, re-entrant 0.8
D2/D1 KL
1.0 0
0.8 0.15
0.6 0.35
0.4 0.43
0.2 0.48
Example : A water is flow from pipe (D=300 mm) to a pipe (D=600 mm) if
the discharge = 900 L/sec and the pressure in the small pipe = 100 kpa ,
Find the pressure in the other pipe ? Neglect the losses due to friction .
Solution :
 * D12
A1   0.0215 m 2
4
V1  12.47 m. / sec
  D22
A2   0.09 m 2
4
V2  3.18 m / sec
losses due to exp ansion :
 k L  1.0 for sudden exp ansion
v12  v 22 12.74 2  3.18 2
hL  k L  hL  1.0 *  7.74 m
2g 19.6
from Bernoulli Eq. between (1) and (2)
p1 v12 p v2
z1    z 2  2  2  hL
 2g  2g
center of pipe as datum   9800 N m 3
100  10 3 12.74 2 p 3.18 2
0   0 2   7.74
9800 19.6 9800 19.6
p 2  100.2456 kpa
(2)
(1)
Q=900 L/sec
D1=300 mm
D2= 600 mm
THE PUMP WITH PIPE LINE
The pump increase the pressure into the flowing fluid in the pipe. The energy
addition is called the net head (hp) of the pump.
The water power (Pw) that is delivered to the fluid stream is the product of the
net head, the discharge and the unit weight of the fluid or :
Pw   * Q * h p
The mechanical power to operate the power must be larger, it is called the brake
horse power
bh p  T * 
In which :
T= the torque
 = angular velocity of the pump drive shift
The ratio :
Pw

bh p
Is the pump of efficiency, which may be larger than (0.8) usually are between
70% and 85% .
The net positive suction head (NPSH) for a pump is used to determine the head
(Zi) that is needed at the pump inlet so that cavitation is avoided in the pump.
Cavitation is the conversion of liquid into vapor by locally low absolute
pressure. A useful form of (NPSH) relation is :
Patm. Pvap.
NPSH    hL  Zi
 
Example : Calculate the horse power of the pump to lift the discharge of the
pipe line from 140 L/sec to 180 L/sec , if the coefficient of friction decrease 10%
from the value before using the pump and the minor losses in the inlet is 0.5 ?
Draw the H.G.L and E.L when using the pump? Show the fig.
Solution:
Q
A150  0.01767 m 2  v150   7.9 m / sec
A150
Q
A75  0.00442 m 2  v75   31.6 m / sec
A75
Applying Bernoulli Eq. between tank level and end of pipe

2
v150 L v2 v2
hL  90  30  0.5  f * 150  75
2g D 2g 2g
L
f  2.256
D
When using the pump and increase the discharge :

2 2 2
v 150 L v v 150 75
60  h p  0.5  0. 9 * f * 
2g D 2g 2g
hp  38 m  E P
The horse power in KW is :
hp   * Q * E p
hp  9.8 * 180 * 103 * 38
hp  67 KW
SERIES PIPE FLOW
The basic tools for analysis here are equations of continuity , work-energy and
Darcy-Weisbach equation or :
Q=A1V1=A2V2 continuity equation
p1 v12 p v2
z1    z2  2  2   hlosses work-energy Eq.
 2g  2g
L v2
hf  f * Darcy Weisbach Eq.
D 2g
All series pipe flow problem fit one of three computational categories,
depending on which factors are known or given and which is sought, as listed in
the table :
Problem Types
Category Known quantities To find
1 Q, pipe line properties hL
2 hL, pipe line properties Q
3 Q, hL Smallest size D
The problem in categories (1) and (2) are analysis problem , analysis of type (1)
problems is direct, without iteration, but iteration may be required for the
second group.
Category (3) is a design problem, which normally requires more assumptions
and more iterative computations to solve. Pipeline properties include the length,
diameter and material type so that the relative roughness is known.
Example : pump is used to deliver a discharge of 0.05 m3 / sec from a river to a

storage reservoir. The system consists of 500 m of 0.15 m cast iron pipe with a
90 bend with a radius of 0.75m of which then transitions to a 0.1 m cast iron
pipe 100 m long, as shown in fig. , If the difference between the water levels in
the river and the reservoir is 20 m and the water discharges into the atmosphere
at the reservoir through a fully open gate valve, what horse power pump would
be required? Given  water  1.003 *10 6 m 2 / sec e=0.00026 for cast iron
K cont.  0.054 , Kbend  0.2 , K valve  0.15
solution
D12  * 0.75 2
A1    0.0177 m 2
4 4
2
 * 0.1
A2   0.00785 m 2
4
Q
v1   2.82 m / sec
A1
Q
v2   6.36 m / sec
A2
v1 * D1 2.82 * 0.15
Re1   6
 4.22 *10 5
 1.003 *10
6.36 * 0.1
Re 2  6
 6.61*10 5
1.003 *10
from table or Moody diagram find ( f )
f1  0.022, f 2  0.025
f1 L1v12
friction loss  h f1   29.7 m
d1 * 2 g
h f 2  51.5 m
Minor losses
v2
contraction  k  0.11 m, valve  0.31 m, bend  0.08 m
2g
 total pump head Hp  Z  h f1  h f 2  helbow  hbend  hvalve
 20  29.7  57.5  0.11  0.08  0.31  101.7 m
 power  Q *  * h p  9800 * 0.05 *101.7  49833 W
Example: Two reservoir are connected by a pipe line consisting of two pipes,
on of 15 cm diameter and length 6 m and the other of diameter 22.5 cm and 16
length. If the difference of water levels in two reservoir is 6 m. Calculate the
discharge and draw the energy gradient line.
Take f=0.04, K inlet  0.5 , K outlet  1
Solution:
From continuity Eq.: Q1=Q2

 
*15 2 * v1  * 22.5 2 * v 2
4 4
v1  2.25v 2
v12 v2
loss head at entrance : hL1  0.5( )  2.53 2
2g 2g
6 v2 v2
loss of head due to friction : h f1  0.04 * 1  8.1 2
0.15 2 g 2g
v12  v22 v2
loss of head due to sudden enl arg ement : hL2   1.56 2
2g 2g
L2 v22 v2
h f2  f  2.84 2
D2 2 g 2g
v22
loss of head at exit  k
2g
v 22
 hL1  h f1  hL2  h f 2  6
2g
 v2  2.7 m / sec
Q  A2V2  0.108 m 3 / sec
PARALLEL PIPE FLOW (EQUIVALENT PIPES)

To solve this problem, replace the set of parallel pipes by single "equivalent
pipe". This equivalent pipe, which is devised so it has the same head loss as the
original set of parallel pipes and conveys the same total discharge.
The equivalent pipe formula can be constructed so it can be used with any pipe
combination having head loss characteristics that can be described by the
exponential of formula :
h f  KQ n
For Hazen Williams :
n  1.852
C *L
k  1.852k
C HW * D 5.33
C k  10.67 (meter system) D, L in meter
C k  4.73 ( ft  system ) D, L in ft
For Manning Equation
n  2.0
Ck * n 2 * L
k
D 5.33
Ck  10.29 (meter system) D, L in meter
Ck  4.66 ( ft  system) D, L in ft
If two pipe are parallel :
h f  KQ n  K 1Q1n  K 2 Q2n
Q  Q1  Q2 solving the two Eq.
1 1 1
1 1 1
( )n  ( )n  ( )n
K K1 K2
For the reminder of the problem the equivalent variables K and Q are then used
in place of original parallel pipes. Once Q has been found,
n
then a back-substitution into ( h f  KQ ) determines Q1 and Q2
Example: Two reservoir have difference in water surface elevation of 40 ft.

Water flows from the higher reservoir through 4000 ft of 12 inch diameter pipe,
which then joins a pair of parallel 2000 ft-long pipes which end at the lower
reservoir. One parallel pipe has a 10 inch in diameter, the diameter of other
pipe is 8 inch , f = 0.02 for all pipe. Find the discharge for each pipe ?
Solution :
For each pipe n=2

L 1 1
K f
D 2 g A2
with the given data :
K12  2.01
K10  2.51
K 8  7.65
1 1 1 1 1
 1  2  1 2  1 2  1 2  1 2
            
 Ke  K
 10   8 K  2 .51   7.65 
Ke=1.014 omitting local losses

H  40  ( K12  Ke)Q 2
Q  3.64 ft 3 / sec
 h f  KQ n  K1Q1n  K 2Q2n
 Q10  2.31 ft 3 / sec
 Q8  1.33 ft 3 / sec
H.W :
1- Two reservoirs are connected by 2 pipes of the same length laid in parallel.
The diameter of the pipe are 10 cm and 30 cm respectively. If the discharge
through 10 cm diameter pipe is 0.01 m 3 / sec . What will be the discharge
through 30 cm pipe? Assume that "f" is the same for all pipes.
Ans. (Q2 = 0.156 m 3 / sec )
2- Two pipes with diameters 2D and D are first connected in parallel and when
a discharge Q passes the loss of head is H1. When the same pipes are connected
in series for the same discharge, the loss of head is H2. Find the relationship
between H1 and H2. Neglect minor losses. Both the pipes are equal in length
and have the same friction factor.
Ans. (H2 = 45.86 H1)
Q : What is the difference between pump and turbine in pipe line flow ?
Answer :
Pipe line with Pumps :
The pump are installed in the pipe line to increase the head so that the fluid can
be lifted to higher levels. The pumps not only lifts the water , but also
overcomes the friction loss in the suction and delivery pipes (hf)
Pipe line with Turbine :

A Turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical work. The gross head
(H1) is equal to difference of levels in the reservoir and tail race. The net head
available (H) is less than the gross head and is given by :
H  H1  h f
Q : What do you understand by " water hammer " in pipes ?

If a fluid flowing in a pipe is suddenly brought to rest by closing the
valve, there is an abrupt rise in pressure, because the momentum of fluid is
destroyed. A pressure wave transmitted along the pipe. The pressure wave and
the accompanying pulsations in a pressure create noise as knocking. The
sudden rise in pressure has the effect of hammering actions on the walls of the
pipes. The phenomena is known as water hummer.
This is a case of unsteady flow and the inertia of fluid is to be taken into
account.
Three reservoir problems

Problems involving pipe flow between more than reservoirs will always
require some form of iterative solution. Here we examine briefly an
economical solution strategy for these problems.
Example : The figure below is a diagram of the three reservoirs problems, the
reservoir are connected by three pipes with an external demand at the common
junction of the pipes. The highest reservoir has a water surface elevation of
100 m , the middle reservoir water surface elevation is 85 m , and the lowest
reservoir has a water surface elevation of 60 m . Determine the discharge in
each pipe ? e  0.0005 m,   1.31 * 10 6 m 2 sec
Pipe k n
1 1469 1.974
2 2432 1.927
3 5646 1.971
Solution :
It is clear that flow is out of the upper reservoir and into the
lowest reservoir. What is unclear is the direction of flow in the
pipe that connects the middle reservoir to the system.
The key step is to determine the direction is only one trial.
Let ( H J ) be the head at the junction , the discharge in pipe (1) and (2) can the be
found from these two head loss equation :
100  K1Q1n1  H J
H J  K 3Q3n3  60
Now select H J = 85 , the water surface elevation of the middle reservoir ,so
that there is no flow in pipe (2) for the first trial solution. Inserting values of (K)
and (n) from the table We find Q1  0.098 m3 / sec and Q3  0.0639 m3 / sec . These
values, combined with the external demand QJ , do not satisfy continuity at the
1
junction J . To satisfy junction continuity we need more inflow to the

junction, so H J must be less that (85)m , thus, we find that the flow in pipe (2)
will be toward the junction and will be governed by :
85  K 2 Q2n2  H J
The junction continuity error for each trial will be :

Qe  Q1  Q2  Q3  QJ 1
Now we select trial values for H J until approach Q  0 as shown in the table :
H J (m) Q1 m 3 / sec Q2 m 3 / sec Q3 m 3 / sec Qe m 3 / sec

85.0 0.0980 0.0 0.0693 -0.0259
80.0 0.1134 0.0403 0.0571 0.0366
83.0 0.1045 0.0251 0.0613 0.0083
83.5 0.1029 0.0216 0.0620 0.0083
83.7 0.1023 0.0200 0.0622 0.0001
Ans.
Q1  0.1023 m 3 / sec
Q2  0.02 m 3 / sec
Q3  0.0622 m 3 / sec
PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS

The water supply system consists of several loops and branches of pipes. The
system is known as pipe network. Design criteria are that specified minimum
flow rates and pressure head must be attained at the out flow points of network.
The flow and pressure distributions across a network are effected by the
arrangement and sizes of the pipe and distributions of the outflow. Since a
change of diameter in one pipe length will affect the flow and pressure
distribution
A Hardy Cross Method is one of important method to design of pipe network.

A pipe network analysis involves the determination of the pipe flow rates and
pressure heads and must satisfy the continuity and energy conservation
equations
The following three basic conditions:

1- At any junction the total inflow must be equal to the total outflow.
2- The algebraic sum of the head losses around any closes circuit is zero.
3- The head loss equation must be satisfied for each pipe ( h f  kQ n )
A B C
D E F
G H J
Steps Of Hardy Cross Method

The method consists six steps :
1- Assume a reasonable distribution of flow in various pipes satisfy
condition (1) .
2- Compute the head loss (hf) in each pipe using ( h f  kQ n ).
3- Divide the network into a number of closed circuit so that each
pipe is included in at least one circuit .
4- Compute the algebraic sum of the head losses in each circuit (
 h f ) . Take suitable sign convention , unless the assume
distribution of flow happens to be correct ,  h f is not zero and
the assumed discharge needs correction.
5- Revise the flow by applying the correction Q obtained as under
:
Let Q be the assumed discharge in a pipe .
Let the correct discharge be Q . thus :
Q  Q  Q
Where Q is the correction in discharge , Now
h f  kQ n  k Q  Q 
n
The head loss along a single pipe is h f  kQ n

If the flow is estimated with an error
2

hL  K Q  Q   K Q2  2Q Q  Q 2 
Neglecting Q 2 , assuming Q to be small "


hL  K Q2  2Q Q 
Now round a closed loop  hL  0 and Q is same for each pipe to
maintain continuity
h L   KQ2  2Q  KQ  0
i.e.
2 2
Q  
 KQ    KQ
2
2 KQ KQ
2
Q
Which may be written :
Q  
h
2 h Q
Which h is the head loss in a pipe based on the estimated Q
In general :
Q  
h f
n 1
n KQ
It must be noted that in the numerator the algebraic sum is taken. In

the denominator, the arithmetic summation is done, without
considering the sign. While applying the correction, the sign of the
correction obtained the general Eq. must be considered.
Since some pipes are common to more than one circuit , more than
are correction will be applied to such pipes. After the corrections
have been applied, new values of assumed discharge are obtained.
6- Assume the discharge as a found in step (5) . repeat the

procedure till the corrections become negligibly small .
Example : Find the discharge in each pipe of the network shown in

figure (a). the values of k corresponding to that in the head loss
equation h f  kQ 2 are also shown in the figure.
A B C
1.25
١٥ ١٥
10 ٥ ١.٢٥ ١٠.٠ ٤.٠٢
٣
5 5 ٣.٧٥ ٤.٩٧ ٦.٠٧ ٢.٧٧
٢.٥ ٢.٥ ٣.٠٩ ١.٥٧
١٢.٥ ١٢.٥
٢.٥ ٢.٥ ١.٨٨ ١.٨٣
١.٢٥ ١.٢
٢.٥ ٠ ١.٨٨ ٠.٠٥

Solution:
Assume the discharge as shown in fig. (b) . Let us take the head loss in clockwise
direction as positive.
The correction have been worked out in the correction table .
Correction in circuit 1 = +0.03
Correction in circuit 2 = - 0.98
Correction in circuit 3 = + 0.62
Correction in circuit 4 = - 0.05
The discharge corrected after these corrections are shown in fig. (c) .
It is to be noted that the correction will have the same sign as found in table if the
flow in the pipe under consideration is in the clockwise direction. The correction
will be of the opposite sign if the flow is in counter-clockwise direction.
The procedure can be repeated by assuming the discharge as given in the table
and the fig. (c) till correction become negligible .
n 1 Q 
hL  kQ 2  hL nKQn 1  nKQ
circuit
h
pipe
L
 n 1
 nKQ
AB 1*10*10=100 2*1*10=20
1- BE 1.5*5*5=37.5 -3.1 2*1.5*5=15 97.5 + 0.03
AD -5*5*5=-125 2*5*5=50
DE -2.5*2.5*2.5=-15.6 2*2.5*2.5=12.5
BC 1*5*5=25 2*1*5=10
2- CF 5*3.75*3.75=70.3 +73.4 2*5*3.75=37.5 75 - 0.98
FE 2.5*2.5*2.5=15.6 2*5.5*2.5=12.5
BE -1.5*2.5*2.5=-9.4 2*1.5*5=15
DE 2.5*2.5*2.5=15.6 2*2.5*2.5=12.5
3- DG -5*2.5*2.5=-31.2 -31.25 2*5*2.5=25 50 + 0.62
GH -1*2.5*2.5=-6.25 2*1*2.5=5
HE -1.5*2.5*2.5=-9.4 2*1.5*2.5=7.5
FJ 5*1.25*1.25=7.82 2*5*1.25=12.5
4- HE 1.5*2.5*2.5=9.4 +1.62 2*1.5*2.5=7.5 32.5 - 0.05
FE -2.5*2.5*2.5=15.6 2*2.5*2.5=12.5
HJ 0 0
Multiple Pump System

The typical performance curve for centrifugal pump is shown in the fig. below
Discharge L/sec
Pumping station frequently contain several pumps in a 'parallel arrangements' see

fig. below , the objective being to deliver a range of discharges. This is a
common feature of sewage pumping stations , whole the inflow rate varies during
the day.
The series pumps operating , the same discharge passes through each pump. All
pumps system must be operating simultaneously. The configuration is the basis of
multistage and borehole pumps ; the discharge from the first pump ( or stage is
delivered to the inlet of the second pump and so on .
Pumps operating in series
Note :
Efficiency (  ) = output power / input power
Also :
H  hf
  100
H
OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULIC

When flow takes place in a channel or pipe such that the water has a free surface
exposed to the atmospheric, we speak of open channel flow. Rivers, sewer,
irrigation ditches and drainage channels, culvert, spillways and similar human
made structures are designed and analyzed by method of open channel hydraulics.
Comparison Between Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow :
Two kinds of flow are compared in figure below :
Pipe flow Open channel flow

1- The water must fill the whole conduit. 1- Open channel flow must have a free
2- It a confined in a closed conduit, exerts no surface.
direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic 2- A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure only. pressure.
3- The water pressure in the tubes are
maintained by pressure in the pipe 3- The water surface is the hydraulic grade
elevation called hydraulic grade line. line and the depth of flow corresponding
4- The total energy with reference of a datum to piezometric height.
line is the sum of elevation (z), the 4- The total energy with reference to datum
piezometric height (y) and velocity head ( v2
= z y
v 2 2 g ) and is called energy grade line . 2g
5- The loss of energy that result when water 5- The loss of energy between two section is
flow between two section is represented by represented by hf
hf .
6- It easily to solve problems. 6- It is much more difficult to solve the
problem because the free surface is
7- Cross section of flow is fixed defined by change with respect to line and space
geometry of the conduit, generally round. 7- May be any shape from circular to
8- Section of roughness coefficient is easily. irregular from of natural.
8- Selection of roughness coefficient not
easily.
Types of flow in open channel

1- steady and unsteady flow : time as criterion.
2- uniform flow and varied flow : space as criterion .
a- Steady uniform flow : the depth of flow does not change during the
time interval under consideration.
b- Unsteady uniform flow : the water surface fluctuate from time to time
while remaining parallel to the channel bottom this is a practically
impossible condition .
c- Unsteady varied flow.
- Rapidly varied flow : the depth changes abruptly over a
comparatively short distant ; otherwise , it is gradually varied .
- Gradually varied flow .
Q : Give the summary classification of open channel flow :

1- steady flow
a- steady flow
b- uniform flow
* Rapidly varied flow
* Gradually varied flow
2- unsteady flow
a- Unsteady uniform flow (rare)
b- Unsteady varied flow
Q : Give an example for the following type of flow :

1- Uniform flow : flow in a laboratory channel .
2- Unsteady uniform flow : Rare .
3- Rapidly varied flow : Hydraulic jump, Flood wave and Hydraulic drop.
4- Gradually varied flow : The flow on the flow or basin after gate or weir .
State Of Flow :
1- Laminar or Turbulent : Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to
inertia and defined by Reynolds Number :
V *L
Re 

The range of Re between the critical value 500 from laminar to high value
12500 to turbulent when the channel flow is uniform , the friction factor
hf
when d   4 R and S  in Darcy-Weisbach Eq.
L
8 gRS
f 
V2
R= Hydraulic radius .
2- Subcritical or Supercritical : depending on the effect on the gravity ( by
ratio of inertial forces gravity forces ) this ratio is given by the Froude
Number (Fr) defined as :
v
Fr 
g * yh
V  mean velosity m
s
y h  Hydraulic depth m
If :
Fr < 1 subcritical flow
Fr = 1 critical flow
Fr > 1 supercritical flow
Chezy's Formula
Chezy's formula equation is :

V  C RS
Where :
C= Chezy's formula .
S= slope of the channel.
Several investigator gave their own expression for the Chezy's coefficient
(C). Two commonly used formulas are given below :
(a) – Ganguillet Kutter formula (1869)

0.00155 1
23  
C S N
N 0.00155 
1   23  
R S 
The coefficient N is known Kutter's coefficient. Its value depends on the
nature of the surface of the channel
(N= 0.0225 for unlined canal in earth )
(b) – Bazin's formula (1897)

157.6
C
m
1.81 
R
m = Bazin's coefficient
m= 1.54 for earth channel in perfect condition
m= 2.36 for earth channel in average condition
m= 3.14 for earth channel in rough condition
m= 0.11 very smooth cement .
Manning formula
In 1889, Manning proposed the following formula :
2 1
1
V  R3S 2
N
Where :
V=mean velocity
S= slope of the channel.
N= Manning's roughness coefficient .
For lined cement canal (n=0.015)

For unlined earthen canal (n=0.0225)
Comparing Manning's formula with Chezy's formula :

1
1
C  R6
N
Example : A canal has a bottom width 0f (3 m) and a side slope 2:1 . If the slope of
the bed 1/5000 and the depth of flow is (1.5 m) , Calculate the discharge using :
(a) Kutter formula (b) Manning formula Take N=0.025
Solution :
0.00155 1
23  
(a) : C S N
N 0.00155 
1   23  
R S 
A
A= (b+zy) y = 9 m 2 , P=9.72 m, R= = 0.925 m
P
C= 39.3
1
V  C RS = 39.3 0.925 *  0.534 m s
5000
Q  AV  4.81 cumecs
/ (b)
1
2 1
1 3 2 1 2
 1 2
V  R S  * 0.925 3 *    0.537 m s
N 0.025  5000 
Q  AV  4.84 cumecs
H.W: The cross-section of an open channel is a trapezium with a bottom width of

(4 m) and a side slope 2:1 , Calculate the discharge if the depth of flow (1.5 m) and
S=1/1600 use :
(a) Chezy's formula C=50 Ans. (13.02 cumecs)
(b) Bazin's formula m=2.3 Ans. (9.9 cumecs)
.
Channel of Composite Roughness

When the channels have different (n) values for the bed and sides , the
equivalent (n) must be used.
The water area is divided into N parts having wetted perimeters P1,P2,P3…. Pn
with the roughness N1,N2…..Nn and each section has a mean velocity (same
mean velocity)
Horton and Einstein find equivalent (n) as follow:
2/3
  n Pi ni 3 / 2  Horton and Einstein
n   i 1 
 P 
 
1/ 2
  n ( P i ni 2 ) 
n   i 1  Pavlovskij
 P 
 
5
3
PR Lotter
n 5
 
n 
Pi Ri3 
 
i 1  ni


 
P= total wetted perimeter
The equation of Horton and Einstein gives the least error and its good to
application
Channel of compound section

A compound cross section may be defined as section in which various sub-areas
have different flow properties. E.g. surface roughness, etc. . A natural stream
having overbank flow during a flood is a typical example of compound cross
the roughness of overbanks is usually higher than of a main channel and
therefore; the flow velocity in the main channel is higher than that in overbank
flow.
If assumed that the bed slope is same for the three sub-areas and the total
discharge from Manning is :
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
= + + °
The above assumption leads to large discrepancies between computed and
measured discharge when flood flow conditions.
H.W1 : A circular pipe of (1 m) radius is laid at an inclination of 5° with the

horizontal . Calculate the discharge through the pipe if the depth of water in the
pipe is (0.75 m) using Chezy's equation = 65?
Ans. = 13.24 ⁄
H.W2 : A channel with a cross section shown in Fig. has a flow of 150 m3/s.
The slope of the channel bottom is two per thousand, and the Manning n for the
flow surfaces is 0.03. Compute the normal and critical depths in the channel.
Choose the correct answer:

The Chezy-Manning equation is valid if:
a- The acceleration of the flow is zero.
b- The discharge, slope and depth are constant.
c- The flow in the channel is normal.
d- All the above.
e- None of the above.
Channel Of Most Economical Cross Section

A channel which gives maximum discharge for a given cross-section area and
bed slope is called a channel of most economical cross section or in other
words, it is a channel involves lesser excavation for a designed amount of
discharge . Also defined as channel which has a minimum wetted perimeter.
For a channel of most economical cross section the cross sectional area is
assumed to be constant and a relation between depth and width of the section is
found out, to gives maximum discharge .
Q: find the best hydraulic section of a rectangular channel?

A=by ……(1)
P= b+zy ……(2)
From (1)
= Substituting in (2)
For the best hydraulic section; the wetted perimeter is minimum
Example: A trapezoidal channel carries a discharge of 2.5 cumecs. Design the

section if the slope is 1 in 1200 and the side slopes are 1 in 1. Use Chezy's
formula c=55.
Solution :
For best hydraulic section =
= + − = .
= √
= . ∗ ∗ = .
= .
= + −
= ∗ . √ +−
B= 0.9 m
Width of the base = 0.9 m

Depth of the channel = 1.085+2*1.085
Side slope = 1:1
H.W :
1- Prove that the best hydraulic section of trapezoidal channel when the b=base
width , y=depth of flow, side slope 1:z is =
2- Prove that the best side slope of the trapezoidal channel is 1:√3 .
3- Prove that the most efficient section of triangular channel is when side
make an angle of 45 with the vertical.
4- Prove that the maximum discharge will take place when the depth of
water is (0.95) times the diameter of the circular channel.
Total Energy In Open Channels

The total energy of liquid at any point is equal to the sum of the elevation head,
= + . +
2
= + . +
2
∝=
= ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎℎ .
∝= 1 ℎ ℎ
For the channel slope is small cos ≈ 0

∴ = + + =T.E.L
In 1912, Boris A-Bakhmeteff introduced the concept of specific energy and

defined as with respect to the channel bed as datum :
Speci ic energy (E) = y +
2
∴ =
= +
2
The last equation indicates that for a channel with constant discharge, specific
energy is a function of depth of flow (y).
For constant discharge , a curve can be plotted between (E) and (y) curve is
known specific energy diagram.
The curve has two limbs AC and BC, the limb BC approaches the horizontal
axis asymptotically and the limb AC approaches the line OD asymptotically .
the line OD is indicate at 45 to the horizontal. It should be noted that the curve
is applicable when the discharge is Q.
If the discharge is changed to ( > ) ( < ) different curve are
obtained.
If the channel shape or size is changed, a new diagram should be drawn.
The following points should be noted from the specific energy curve :
1- There are two depths of flow for a given specific energy, except at one
point (C) at which there is only on depth. The two depth for a given
specific energy are known as alternative depths and are represented by
[ < ]. the depth at point (C) is known at the critical depth
.
2- When < ; the flow is subcritical and specific energy increases
with increase in depth of flow.
3- When > ; the flow is supercritical and specific energy decreases
with increase in depth of flow.
4- At the critical depth, the specific energy is minimum. A uniform flow in
which the depth if flow is equal to the critical depth is known as critical
flow.
Critical Depth In Rectangular Channels

Let B be the base width of rectangular channel.
Discharge per unit width of the channel is =
∴ = + = +
2 2
= =
∴ = +
2
The critical depth is at minimum specific energy
∴ =0
2
=1− =0
2
Substituting this value of in a specific energy eq.

= + = +
2 2
= + =
= It is give also maximum discharge
=
Critical Depth In Non-rectangular Channels

v2
E  y
2g
Q2
E  y
2 gA2
dE Q2 d  1 
 1 .  
dy 2 g dy  A2 
dE 2Q 2  dA 
 1  
dy 2 gA3  dy 
dE
  0 at critical depth
dy
Q 2  dA 
1  0
gA3  dy 
 dA 
The term   represents the rate of increase of area with respect to (y). a little
 dy 
reflection will show that it is equal to the top width T . therefore;
Q 2T
1 0
gA 3  A
   hydraulic depth
Q2 A3 T 

g T
Using trial and error to find the critical depth Yc in A and T will occur.
H.W1 : A rectangular channel 3 m wide, carries a uniform flow of water of 6
cumecs. Compute and plot the specific energy curve, and determine
(a) the minimum specific energy and critical depth.
(b) the alternate depth for a specific energy of 2.5 kg.m/kg
(c) the depth which is the alternate depth for 1.5m depth.
(d) the bed slope required to maintain a uniform depth of 0.6 m.
H.W2 : A trapezoidal channel of bed width 3m and side slope 1.5:1 (V:H)
m3
carries a discharge 7 . Calculate the critical depth.
sec
Velocity Distribution In Open Channel

The velocity in open channel is not uniform over the section. It is retarded near
the boundary because of the resistance. Had there been no resistance other than
the boundary resistance, the maximum velocity would have occurred at free
surface. But the surface tension and wind produce resistance to flow at free
surface therefore; the maximum velocity occurs at some depth below the free
surface.
The figure represent the curves of equal velocities in the channel.

It will be noticed that the velocity decreased as the sides and bed are
approached. The mean velocity in any vertical section occurs at the depth of
approximately (0.6 D) below the free surface. A more accurate value of the
mean velocity is obtained by measuring the velocities at depth (0.2 D) and
(0.8 D) from the surface and then taking the average of these velocities as
Shown in fig. below.
The surface velocity is generally (1.1) times the mean velocity. However , this
ratio is greatly affected by the wind and other factors and as such is not reliable.
For shallow channels, the maximum velocity occurs near the free surface ;
whereas for deep channels, it occur at from the free surface.
Measuring Of Velocity
The velocity of flow in an open channel can be determined by various method.
Some of the more common method are discussed below :
(a)- Pitot tube : A Pitot tube is held with its nose facing upstream at the point at
which the velocity is required. The rise of liquid above the free surface is
measured. The velocity is calculated from the formula :
Where:
C= is the coefficient to be determined experimentally.
h= is the rise of liquid above the free surface.
C<1.0
Example: A Pitot tube having a coefficient of 0.98 is used to measure the

velocity of water at a center of the pipe . calculate the velocity when the
stagnation pressure and static pressure are 6m and 5m respectively.
Solution:
= 2 ℎ
= 0.98 2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (6 − 5) = 4.33 /
(b)- Current meter : A current meter consists of a horizontal wheel on which

buckets(or cups) are fixed (as shown in figure).
When the current meter is held in a flowing liquid , the liquid strikes with the
buckets and the wheel starts rotating.
The current meter is calibrated before use. The calibration is done in a channel
in which the velocity is either
known or can be calculated. By
varying the velocity , a calibration
chart between the number of
revolution per minute and the
velocity is obtained. The velocity
(v) can be expressed as :
V=CN
Where (c) is the coefficient of meter obtained from the calibration chart and (N)
is the speed in revolution per minute.
Using the calibration chart or the equation above, the velocity at any point can
be obtained from the number revaluations per minute.
(c)- Floats :A small float is permitted to travel a known distance and the time
taken by the float is noted. The surface velocity is calculated from the measured
distance and time.
The accuracy is greatly affected by the resistance produced by winds. From the
surface velocity , the mean velocity can be estimated by experience. The mean
velocity is (0.8) to (0.95) time the surface velocity.
Measuring Of Discharge
The discharge in a small channel can be determined by constructing a notch
across the channel and measuring the head over the crest. The discharge is
calculated by using the weir formula:
Q = Cd. L. H ⁄ (V − notch)
⁄
Q = Cd. L. H (rectangle or board crested weir)
Where:
Cd= coefficient of discharge.
L= length of weir.
H= head over the crest.
The discharge can be also be determined be Venturi flume.

= 2 ( − ℎ)
−
Measuring Of Discharge In Irregular Channels

If the channel is very large and irregular in cross section the width of the river
or channel divided into a number of vertical segments, the mean velocity in
each segment can be determined by measuring the velocity at (0.6D) from the
free surface, the discharge in the channel is obtained by product the mean
velocity and the area of the segment .
For more accuracy , the velocity should be measured at several depths in the
segment and the mean velocity is taken as the average of these velocities.
Total discharge in the channel is obtained by adding up the discharges in the
individual segments.
River Bends
When a river flows around the bend, scouring takes place on the outer bank and
silting takes place on the inner bank. The scouting is mainly due to impact of
water striking the outer bank. The pressure of water on the outer bank is more
than the inner bank, due to curvature, the pressure at the surface is more than
that near the bottom. This causes the water at the outer bank to flow down ward
and form a cross-current.
Hydraulic Jump
A hydraulic jump (H.J.) occurs when flow changes from supercritical state to a
subcritical state. There is a sudden rise in water level at the point where the
hydraulic jump occurs. Rollers of turbulent water from at this point. These
rollers causes dissipation of energy. A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the
toe of spillway or below a sluice gate where the velocity is very high.
A hydraulic jump can be used for one or more of the following purposes:
1- To dissipate excessive energy.
2- To increase the water level on the downstream of a hydraulic structure.
3- To reduce the net uplift force by increasing the downward weight due to
increase depth.
4- To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective
head causing flow.
5- To provide a control section.
6- For thorough mixing of chemicals in water.
7- For aeration of drinking water.
8- For removing air pockets in a pipe line.
Despite the complex appearance of a hydraulic jump due to excessive

turbulence , it has been successfully analyzed by application of the impulse-
momentum equation. The impulse-momentum principle gives fairly good
results.
Equations For The Hydraulic Jump

 The energy dissipated in H.J. is giving by:
∆ = 1− 2
∆ = + - +
Or:
∆ = + − +
2 2
 The depth before the jump is called (the initial depth y1) and the depth
after the jump is called ( the sequence or conjugate depth y2).
 The relation between y1 and y2 is :
= 0.5 1+8 −1
= 0.5 1+8 −1
 In rectangular channel, it can be calculated the energy dissipated using

the following equation:
( )
∆ =
 Efficiency of hydraulic jump
The ratio of specific energy after and before the jump is known as the height of
jump:
∆
= =
 Height of hydraulic jump (hj)(H.J.)

The difference of the depths before and after the jump is known as the
height of jump :
ℎ = −
 Length of the hydraulic jump(Lj)

The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the
downstream where the rollers terminate and the flow becomes uniform is
known as the length of the H.J.
The length of the jump varies from (5 to 7) times it height. An average

value of (6 hj) is usually taken. Thus
= = ( − )
Example: A rectangular channel which is 7m wide carries a discharge of 12
cumecs. If the mean velocity of flow before the hydraulic jump is 7 m/sec,
Calculate the height of the jump and the energy dissipated.
Solution :
= 0.5 1+8 −1
= =
√ √
12
= =
= 1.71
7 .
1.71
= = = 0.245
7
7
∵ = = 4.515
√9.81 ∗ 0.245
∴ = 1.4375
Hj = y − y = 1.4375 − 0.245 = 1.926 m
∆ = 1− 2
∆ = + - +
=
.
∆ = . + − . + = . .
∗ . ∗ . ∗ .
Or
( )
∆ =
Homework
1- A horizontal rectangle channel of constant width is fitted with a sluice
gate. When the sluice gate is opened, water issues with a velocity of 6
m/sec and depth of 0.5 m at the venacoutreata. Determine whether a
hydraulic jump will form or not. If so, calculate the energy dissipated.
Ans. (yes, 0.492 kg.m/kg )
2- A trapezoidal channel of a bottom width 3m and side slope 1.5:1 (V:H)
carries a discharge of 7.02 cumecs. If the depth before the jump is 33 cm,
calculate the conjugate depth after the jump.
Ans. (1.5 m)
3- Determine the flow rate in a horizontal rectangular channel 1.5 m wide
in which the depth before and after the hydraulic jump are respectively
0.25 and 1.0 m.
Ans. (1.85 cumecs)
Non-Uniform Flow In Open Channel

Most of artificial channel are designed for uniform flow, but there are certain
reaches in these channels where the flow is non-uniform. Some of these
locations are :
1- The reach upstream of a weir or dam.
2- The reach downstream of a sluice gate
3- The reach is sudden change of slope.
In gradually varied flow problems, we are mainly concerned with the method of
predicting water surface curve and computing their length ( such as upstream of
weir or dam). In rapidly varied flow problems, we are generally interested in the
location of2 the rapidly varied phenomena and its effect on the flow ( such as
hydraulic jump).
Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow

Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow is an expression giving the
relationship between the water surface slope and other characteristics of flow ,
this equation is :
dy S  S f

dx d  v2 
1  
dy  2 g 
S = bed slope
S f = the slope of the energy line
dy
The equation gives the slope of the water surface with respect to the bottom
dx
of the channel. In other word, it gives the variation of depth (y) with respect to
the distance along the bottom of the channel.
dy
The value of may be zero, positive or negative depending upon the type of
dx
flow as described below :
dy
1. = 0. This indicates that the slope of the water surface is equal to the
dx
bottom slope. In other words, the water surface is parallel to the channel bed.
The flow is uniform.
dy
2. = positive. This indicates that the slope of the water surface is less than
dx
the bottom slope ( S ) in this case, the water surface rises in the direction of
flow. The profile so obtained is called the backwater curve.
dy
3. = negative. This indicates that the slope of the water surface is greater
dx
than the bottom slope ( S  ) in this case, the water surface falls in the direction
of flow. The profile so obtained is called the drawdown curve.
It may be noted that the slope of water surface with respect to the horizontal
( S f ) is different from the slope of water surface with respect to the bottom of
dy
the channel ( ).
dx
A relationship between the two slope, can be used the following equation:
dy
S w  S 
dx
This equation can be used to calculate the water surface slope with respect to
horizontal.
Classification of channel slopes

1- Critical slope S   S c or y n  y c
2- Mild slope S   S c or y n  y c
3- Steep slope S   S c or y n  y c
4- Horizontal slope S  = 0 the normal depth is infinite.
5- Adverse slope : the bottom of the channel rises in the direction of flow.
In this case ( S  = negative) the normal depth is imaginary.
Characteristics of Flow Profiles

The surface curves of water are also called flow profiles. The flow profile is a
backwater curve if the depth of flow increase in the direction of water (i.e.
dy
= positive ). The flow profile is drawdown curve when the depth of flow
dx
dy
decrease in the direction of flow ( i.e. = negative ).
dx
Classification of Flow Profiles

For a given discharge, the normal depth ( y n ) and the critical depth ( y c ) can be
calculated. On the longitudinal section of the channel, a line parallel to the
channel bottom and at a height of ( y n ) is designed as a normal depth line
(N.D.L.). A line parallel to the channel bottom and the height of ( y c ) is

designed as critical depth line (C.D.L.).
Depending upon the slope and zone, the flow
profiles are classified into (13) types as
follows:
1- Mild slope curves M1, M2, M3
2- Steep slope curves S1, S2, S3
3- Critical slope curves C1, C2, C3
4- Horizontal slope curves H2, H3
5- Adverse slope curves A2, A3
For example S2 curves occurs in the zone

(2) of steep slope.
Notes :
1- All profile in zone (1) and (3) are backwater curves.
2- All profile in zone (2) are drawdown curves.
3- The profile in zone (3) , theoretically commence from the channel bed.
4- C1 and C3 profiles are practically horizontal.
Summary of flow profile gives the shapes of the profiles
- If mild slope and y  y n  y c

 M 1 backwater curve
- If steep slope and y c  y n  y
 S 3 backwater curve
- If horizontal slope y n  y c  y
 H 2 drawdown curve
 All flow in zone 1 is subcritical flow

and = +ve
 All flow in zone 3 is supercritical
flow and = +ve
 All flow in zone 2 is =
−ve except c ; = 0
But
M , H , A are subcritical and S
is supercritical
C is uniform critical
Example: Draw the water surface at profile
Solution:
= = >
Supercritical → =+
Example: A rectangular channel 6m wide consists of three reaches of different

bed slopes which are in continuations of another. The first reach has a slope of
1:100, the second 1:2500 and the third 0.0036. the three reaches are,
respectively, 200 m, 600 m and 400 m long. Sketch the surface profile when a
discharge of 12 cumecs flows in the channel. Take Manning n=0.015.
Solution:
= =2 /
4
= = = 0.742
9.81
Let ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
1 1 6 .
= = ∗ (0.01) ∗ (6 ) = 12
0.015 6 + 2
= 0.52
, ℎ ℎ, = 1.50
ℎ ℎ ℎ, = 0.72 m
As the critical depth is 0.742, the first and third reaches indicate steep slope.
A hydraulic jump will be formed when the water surface crosses the critical
depth line when passing from steep slope to mild slope.
There are two possibilities :

1- Hydraulic jump followed by S1 curve.
2- Hydraulic jump preceded by M3 curve, depending upon whether the (H.J)
is formed on steep slope or mild slope.
Let us whether case (2) is possible :
2/1.5
= = = 0.347
2 √9.81 ∗ 1.5
= 0.5 1+8 −1 ⇒ = 0.3

Thus case (2) is not possible, as the depth if 0.3 m is not available.
Let us now try the case(1) . the depth before the (H.J) would be 0.52 m
2/0.52
= = 1.7
√9.81 ∗ 0.52
= 0.5 1+8 −1 ⟹ = 1.06
This case is possible , as the depth 1.06 , is available.
When the flow passes from the second to the third reach, M2 and S2 profile are
formed.
Computation Of Gradually Varied Flow

An engineer often requires to know the distance up to which a surface profile of
a gradually varied flow will extend. For instance, he may require the distance on
the upstream of the weir up to which the effect of backwater curve exists to
know the extent of submergence so that the land may be acquired accordingly .
Three common method of computation :

1- Direct step method.
2- Graphical integration method.
3- Direct integration method.
We deals the Direct step method in our studies.
Direct Step Method

In this method, the channel is divided into short reaches. The computations of
surface profile is carried out step by step from one section to another one. The
direct step method for the prismatic channel is explained below.
Let us consider a short reach of channel of length (dx) see fig. below
Equating the total energy at two section (1-1) and (2-2)
v12 v2
S  dx  y1   y 2  2  S f dx
2g 2g
S  dx  E1  E2  S f dx
E 2  E1
dx 
S  S f
The method of computation consists of the following steps :

1- Calculate the specific energy at the section, say section (1-1) where the
depth is known. This section is usually a control section.
2- Assume an appropriate value of the depth (y2) at the other end of the
small reach. The assumed at the section (2-2) will be greater than that the
section (1-1) if the profile is rising curve and less if the profile is a falling
curve.
3- Calculate the specific energy at section (2-2) for the assumed depth y2.
4- Calculate the slope of the energy line ( S f ) at section (1-1) and (2-2) by
1 2 / 3 1/ 2 1
using Manning formula : V 2  R1 S f , V  R 22 / 3 S 1f 2/ 2 the
N 1
N
S f1  S f2
average slope in the reach : S fm 
2
5- Compute the length of the curve between section (1-1) and (2-2) using the
E 2  E1
equation : L1 2 
 S f  S f2 
S    1 
 2 
6- Now the depth at section 2-2 being known, assume the depth at another
section , say 3-3, repeat the procedure to get the length L23 .
7- Repeating the procedure , the total length of the curve may be obtained.
Thus : L  L1,2  L2,3  ......Ln1,n where (n-1) is the number of reaches into
which the channel is divided.
 It may be noted that the subcritical flow the computation is carried from
downstream to upstream, whereas in supercritical flow from upstream to
downstream.
Example: A rectangular channel of a base width 7m is laid on a slope of 1 in

1000 and it carries a discharge of 35 cumecs. The channel terminates in a free
overfall. Compute the length of the flow profile from the free overfall to a point
where the depth is 0.95 times the normal depth. (N=0.025).
Solution:
A 2 / 3 1/ 2
From Manning formula : Q  R S
N
2/3 1/ 2
7 yn  7 yn   1 
If y n is the normal depth : 35     
0.025  7  2 y n   1000 
By trial and error: y n =2.9 m
 0.95 times the normal depth = 0.95*2.9 = 2,75 m
The depth at the free overfall is equal to critical depth
q 2 3 35 / 7
2
yc  3   1.364m
g 9.81
Now make a table to continue the solution
V Sf  E
y A P R v2 L
4
R 3 Q V2 v 2n2 S fm E S  S fm x
4
y
A R3 2g
1.364 9.55 9.73 0.982 0.976 3.66 13.4 0.0086 2.046 0.00755 0.024 0.00655 3.6
3.6
1.50 10.50 10.0 1.05 1.07 3.33 11.10 0.0065 2.070

0.00535 0.093 0.00435 21.4 25
1.75 12.25 10.5 1.17 1.22 2.85 8.10 0.0042 2.163
0.00355 0.155 0.00255 61.7 86.7
2.00 14.00 11.0 1.27 1.36 2.50 6.25 0.0029 2.318
0.00245 0.183 0.00145 126 212.7
2.25 15.70 11.5 1.37 1.51 2.22 4.94 0.0020 2.501
0.00175 0.202 0.00075 285 470.7
2.50 17.50 12.0 1.46 1.66 2.00 4.00 0.0015 2.703
0.00135 0.216 0.00035 635 1105.7
2.75 19.20 12.5 1.54 1.76 1.82 3.30 0.0012 2.919
H.W :
1- A 13.5 cumecs flow in a rectangular channel 7.5 m wide, lined with rubble
masonry and laid on a slope of 1 in 1000. The channel ends in a free outfall and
at a point in the channel, the depth is 1.86 m. How far upstream from this point
the depth be 1.95 m ? (N = 0.017).
Ans.(997 m)
2- For a rectangular channel 6 m wide and having Manning N = 0.015, Determine
the following :
a- The normal slope at the a normal depth of 0.41 m and a discharge 0f 6 cumecs.
b- The critical slope and corresponding normal depth for a discharge of 6 cumecs.
c- The critical slope at a normal depth of 0.41 m and corresponding discharge.
Ans.
a- 0.0052
b- 0.00345, 0.467m
c- 0.00353, 4.93 cumecs
Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which deals with the dimensions of
the physical quantities involved in the phenomena. The physical quantities are
measurable entities such as length, time, electric current, temperature, density and
specific weight. Dimensional analysis reduces the number of variables in a fluid
phenomena by combining some variables to form non-dimensional parameter. Instead
of observing the effect of individual variables,
Dimensional analysis is widely used in research work for developing design criteria and
also for conducting model test.
Dimensions
The fundamental dimension are mass (M), length (L) and time (T) in M.L.T
system, and force (F), length (L) and time (T) in F.L.T system. The two system are
interrelated by Newton's second law of motion:
 L 
F  MX  2 
T 
 FT 2 
M   
 L 
Temperature,  is taken as the fundamental dimensions.
Dimensional Homogeneity
A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogenous if quantities in both
sides of the equation have identical dimensions.
Let us consider the following two equations :
P  h ...(1)
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
v R S  ( 2)
N
Equation (1) is dimensionally homogenous:
F F F
 2    3  L    2 
L  L  L 
Equation (2) is dimensionally non-homogenous:
Left-hand side = (L/T)

Right-hand side = L2 / 3 (1)
Notes:
1- The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by (1) such as

slope.
2- A dimensionally homogenous equation is applicable to all system of units.
On the hard a dimensionally non-homogenous equation is applicable on to
the system of units for which it had been derived.
3- Two dimensionally homogenous equations can be multiplied or divided
without effecting. But the equation can't be added or subtracted (as the
resulting equation may not be dimensionally homogenous.
4- The principle of dimensional analysis can be used to convert units from
one system to another system.
Example : convert the pressure from kg / cm 2 to lb / in 2

Solution :
1 lb = 453.6 gm
1 kg = 2.204 lb
1 inch = 2.54 cm
kg / cm 2 kg inch 2
conversion factor   *  2.204 * 2.54 * 2.54  14.22
lb / inch 2 lb cm 2
Therefore; the pressure in kg / cm 2 can be convert into lb /in 2 by multiplying it

with (14.22). in other words
Pressure ( lb /in 2 )= 14.22* pressure in kg / cm 2
−
Buckingham's  -Theorem states that if there are (n) variables in a dimensionally
homogenous equation and if these variables contain (m) fundamental dimension
(such as M.L.T), they may be grouped into (n-m) non-dimensional parameters as
 -term.
The Buckingham method can be summarized as follows:
1- List all the (n) variables which affect the phenomena.
2- Choose (m) repeating variables, when selecting repeating variables, the point
mentioned above must be kept in view.
3- Write the general equation giving the functional relationship in the form of
equation : F ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 ,)
4- Write separate expression for each  -term in the form of equation:

a1 b1 c1
1  X X X 
1 2 3
 2  X 1a X 2b X 3c 
2 2 2
 n m  X 1an m X 2bn  m X 3cn  m 

Each  -term contain the repeating variables and one of the remaining
variables. The repeating variables are written in exponential form.
5- The exponents of the repeating variables on the basis that each  -term is
non-dimensional.
6- After the  -term have been determined, the functional relationship (
[ F ( 1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  m n )  const.] and the required expression can be obtained. The
following artifice, if necessary, can be used to get the required expression:
a- Any  -term may be replaced by any power of it because the power of a
non-dimensional term is also non-dimensional. For example may be
replaced by , , .
b- Any  -term may be replaced by the product of that term with an
absolute numerical constant. For example can be replaced by
(2 , 3 , ).
c- Any  -term can be replaced by another term which is the product or
quotient of two  -term. For example can be replaced by ( ∗
).
d- Any  -term can be replaced by another  -term which is the sum or
difference of the  -term with an absolute numerical constant for
example can be replaced ( - 1) or ( + 1).
Note:
The repeating variables selected are ( , ) i.e., the first
representing the fluid property, the second representing the fluid
characteristics and third representing the geometrical characteristics of
the body. This in general.
Example: Assume that the friction factor (f) depends upon the diameter of pipe
(D), density ( ), viscosity( ), the height of roughness(k) and the velocity (v).
Drive  -term of the non-dimensional variables of the friction factor of the flow
through the pipe?
Solution:
= ∅( , , , , )
{ , , , , , }
Where F stand for 'a function of f '
The number of primary dimension involved is (3), i.e. m=3
The total number of variables is (6) i.e. n=6
Therefore; the number of  -term is 6-3=3, Thus

( , , )=
Now taking , , as repeating variables

=
=
=
The exponents can be determined as under (Re)
=
Writing the dimensions
= [ ]
Equating exponents of M,L and T
For :
M: 0= + 1 = −1
T: 0=- − 1 = −1
L: 0=−3 + + − 1 = −1
Therefore;
=
As reciprocal of a non-dimensional parameter is also non-dimensional, the
expression for can be written as:
=
Likewise, writing the dimensions in expression for
=
= [ ] [ ]
Equating exponents of M,L and T

M: 0=
T: 0=−
L: 0 = −3 + + + 1 → = −1
Therefore;
=
Likewise,
=
= [ ] [ ]
Equating exponents
M: 0 = =0
T: 0 = − + 0 =0
L: 0 = −3 + + + 0 =0
It may be noted that the non-dimensional variables, such as f, itself becomes
the  -term .
Thus the functional relationship becomes
, , =
=∅ , → =∅ ,
The friction factor depends upon Re and (roughness ratio)
H.W :
1- the discharge Q of a centrifugal pump depends upon the mass density of fluid
( ),the speed of the pump (N), the diameter of the impeller (D), the monometric
head (Hm) and viscosity of fluid (u), show that :
= ∅ ,
2- show that the viscosity through a circular orifice is given by

= 2 ℎ ,
H= head causing flow
D= diameter of orifice
Example : If the drag force on the ship (Fd) depends on length of ship (L), viscosity
of the liquid ( ), velocity of ship (v) and ( ),(g). Explain the terms of dimensionless
parameter.
Solution :
By Rayleigh's method
= ( , , , , )
=
=
:1 = +
: −3 − + +
: −2=− − −2
Solve the equation in term of c and e :
=2+ − , =1− , = , =2− −2 , =
∴ =
=
∴ = ( , )
∴ = ( , )
By Buckingham's method
( , , , , , )=0
6-3=3 repeating variables= , ,
( , , )=0
=
In term MLT
=
= → =
= → =
∴ , ,
H.W : A capillary rise (h) of a liquid in tube varies with tube diameter (d),
gravity(g), fluid density ( ), surface tension ( ) and contact angle ( ). Find a
dimensionless statement of this relation.
Comparison of Rayleigh and Buckingham method

In Rayleigh method, a series of terms is used. The variables are expressed in
exponential forms. The values of the exponents are determined from the
principle of dimensional homogeneity. The method become tedious when a
large number of variables affect the phenomenon.
In Buckingham method, there is no series of terms, the expression for  -term
are simple and straight forward, irrespective of the number of variables
involved. In flow phenomenon in which the number of variables is large, this
method is more convenient than the Rayleigh method .
It may, however , be noted that both the methods are intrinsically the same .
both methods are based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity. The
algebraic steps in the two methods are essentially the same.
Hydraulic Similitude
Model analysis is frequently used to study the flow phenomenon which are
complex and are not amenable to mathematical analysis. In model analysis,
investigations are made on model which is similar to the full-size structure
known as prototype.
Model study of proposed hydraulic structures and mechanies are generally
under taken to product the behavior of the prototypes.
The civil engineering model such as dams, spillways and canals to know the
working of full size structures. It is noted essential that the model should
always be smaller than its prototype. Sometimes a full size model or even a
model larger than the prototype is used.
In fact, a model is a mechanical analog of the prototype. The advantages of
model testing of for most economical and for safe design in case of its failure.
Types of hydraulic similarity

To complete working and behavior of the prototype , from its model, there
should be a complex similarity between the prototype and its scale model. This
similarity is known as hydraulic similitude or hydraulic similarity.
Following three types of similarity :

a- Geometric similarity
The model and its prototype are geometrically similar when they are
identical in shape but differ only in size.
Thus the scale ratio (Lr) is:
= = =
Similarly, area ratio and volume ratio :
= =
= =
b- Kinematic similarity
Kinematic similarity if the prototype and model have identical motions or
velocities. On other words, the kinematic similarity is said to exist
between the model and prototype, if the ratio of the corresponding
velocities at corresponding points are equal.
If , the velocity of liquid at point 1 and 2
The kinematic similarity exist, then the velocity ratio of prototype to the
model (Vr):
( ) ( )
= = =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= = =
( ) ( )
c- Dynamic similarity
Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces. The corresponding
points of prototype and model are equal.
( ) ( )
= =
( ) ( )
The force mean : gravity force, pressure force, viscosity force, elasticity
force surface and the tension force :
( ) ( ) ( )
= = = =
( ) ( ) ( )
The technique of hydraulic model involves the selection of suitable scale,
operation of hydraulic model and correct prediction.
Example : A spillway design to be studied by means of a geometrical similar

model constructed to a scale of 1:20. Neglecting viscous and surface tension
effects, calculate :
a- The discharge in model corresponding to a discharge of 1500 cumecs in
the prototype.
b- The velocity in the prototype corresponding to a velocity of 2 m/sec in the
model.
c- The height of the hydraulic jump corresponding to a jump of 5 cm in the
model.
d- The energy dissipated in the prototype corresponding to 0.25 H.P in the
model.
Solution :
a)-
( )
=
( )
∴( ) =( ) → = → =
∴ =
B)-
C)-
Height of hydraulic jump, from geometric similarity,
1
= =
2
= 20 ∗ = 20 ∗ 0.05 = 1
D)
Therefore;
( . )
=
( . )
H.W: The mean velocities in the river and its model are respectively 3 m/sec
and 1 m/sec. if the slopes in the river and model are 1:2500 and 1:200
respectively. Calculate the length ratio.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODEL
All hydraulic models may be broadly classified into following two types :
1- Undistorted model
2- distorted model
Undistorted model: which is geometrically similar to the prototype (i.e. having

geometric similarly in length, breadth, height and head of water etc.)
the protection of undistorted model is comparatively easy and some of the result,
obtained from the models, can be easily transferred to the prototypes as the basic
condition (of geometric similarity) is satisfied.
Example : the discharge over a model, which is reduced to 1:100 in all its
dimensions is 1.5 l/sec. what is the corresponding discharge in the prototype ?
Solution:
= 1.5 /
Q =over prototype
q=a*v
Q=A*V
Distorted models
A model is said to be perfect or undistorted when it is perfectly similar to its
prototype. In undistorted models because the conditions of similitude are
completely satisfied. The results of model investigation can be directly used
for the prototype .
A model is said to be distorted when one or more characteristics of the model
are not identical with their corresponding characteristics in the prototype. In
distorted model, the result obtained are primarily qualitative. However, in
certain cases, by applying the laws of distortion, the results obtained from
model investigation can be transferred to prototype quantitatively as well.
Distortion of the model can be due to any one of the following models:
1-Deometric distortion : this type of distortion occurs when the scale ratio not
constant usually ,the vertical model scale is exaggerated .
2- distortion of configuration : in this type of distortion, the configuration of the
model is different from the configuration of prototype, such as the slope of
model is different from the slope of prototype , although the geometric similarly
exist.
3- material distortion : in this case , the material used in the model is not of the
required grade.
4- Distortion of hydraulic quantities : in such a distortion, there is a distortion
of some hydraulic quantity such as discharge, velocity and time. It means
that the required scale ratio of that quantity is not maintained.
Example of the distorted model is the pressure distribution, velocity
distribution and wave patterns are not correctly responded and it is difficult
to prepare distorted models of some structure such as river bends, earth cuts
and dikes.
The following table represent a scale ratios for distorted models for some
quantity:
Quantity Symbol Scale ratio
Reynolds's law Froude's law
Length, Breadth, Height Lr, Br, Hr Lr,Dr Lr,Dr
Horizontal Area
Vertical Area Lr Dr Lr Dr
Slope Sr / /
Velocity Vr / . .
discharge Qr / . .
Example : A distorted model of a rigid bed river has a horizontal scale ratio of
1:1000 and a vertical scale ratio of 1 in 100. What is the flow in the model
corresponding to a discharge of 5000 cumecs in the river ? also calculate the
value of Manning's roughness (N) for model if that for the river is 0.03. If the
flood peak requires 1 hour to travel through 100m in the model, how much time
would the flood peak take to travel the corresponding distance in the river?
Solution :
According to the Froude law :
1 1
= = =
100 10
1 1 1
= = ∗ =
100 ∗ 1000 10 10
5000 1
= = =
10 10 200
=
≈
= . = 1.47
= ∗ 1.47 = 0.03 ∗ 1.47 = 0.0441

1
1
: . = 1000 =
1 100
100
= ∗ 100 = 1 ∗ 100 = 100 ℎ
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Hydraulics for civil engineering

Book · February 2017

Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa Khassaf

Soil Erosion View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

LOCAL AND MINOR PIPE LOSSES

THE PUMP WITH PIPE LINE

Applying Bernoulli Eq. between tank level and end of pipe

When using the pump and increase the discharge :

The horse power in KW is :

SERIES PIPE FLOW

Q=A1V1=A2V2 continuity equation

Example : pump is used to deliver a discharge of 0.05 m3 / sec from a river to a

From continuity Eq.: Q1=Q2

PARALLEL PIPE FLOW (EQUIVALENT PIPES)

For Manning Equation

If two pipe are parallel :

Example: Two reservoir have difference in water surface elevation of 40 ft.

For each pipe n=2

Ke=1.014 omitting local losses

Pipe line with Turbine :

Q : What do you understand by " water hammer " in pipes ?

Three reservoir problems

junction J . To satisfy junction continuity we need more inflow to the

The junction continuity error for each trial will be :

H J (m) Q1 m 3 / sec Q2 m 3 / sec Q3 m 3 / sec Qe m 3 / sec

PIPE NETWORK ANALYSIS

A Hardy Cross Method is one of important method to design of pipe network.

The following three basic conditions:

Steps Of Hardy Cross Method

Where Q is the correction in discharge , Now

The head loss along a single pipe is h f  kQ n

Neglecting Q 2 , assuming Q to be small "

Which h is the head loss in a pipe based on the estimated Q

It must be noted that in the numerator the algebraic sum is taken. In

6- Assume the discharge as a found in step (5) . repeat the

Example : Find the discharge in each pipe of the network shown in

5 5 ٣.٧٥ ٤.٩٧ ٦.٠٧ ٢.٧٧

٢.٥ ٢.٥ ٣.٠٩ ١.٥٧

٢.٥ ٠ ١.٨٨ ٠.٠٥

Multiple Pump System

Pumping station frequently contain several pumps in a 'parallel arrangements' see

Pumps operating in series

OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULIC

Comparison Between Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow :

Two kinds of flow are compared in figure below :

Pipe flow Open channel flow

Types of flow in open channel

Q : Give the summary classification of open channel flow :

Q : Give an example for the following type of flow :

Chezy's formula equation is :

(a) – Ganguillet Kutter formula (1869)

(b) – Bazin's formula (1897)

For lined cement canal (n=0.015)

Comparing Manning's formula with Chezy's formula :

H.W: The cross-section of an open channel is a trapezium with a bottom width of

Channel of Composite Roughness

Horton and Einstein find equivalent (n) as follow:

P= total wetted perimeter

Channel of compound section

H.W1 : A circular pipe of (1 m) radius is laid at an inclination of 5° with the

Choose the correct answer: