Peer srerregnene easel Open Channel FlowMACMILLAN SERIES IV Civil. ENGINEERING —Gene Nordby, Editor Computer Methods in Solid Mechanies by Joseph J. Gennaro Construction and Professional Management: An Iniroduetion by Matty Rubey and Walker W. Milner Introduction to Soil Behavior by Raymond N, Jong and Benno P. Warkentin Open Channel Flow by FM. Henderson Structural Mechanics and Analysis bs James Michalos and Edward N. Wilson (Other titles in preparation) Open Channel Flow F.M. HENDERSON Professor of Civil Engineering University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand MACMILLAN PUBLISHING CO., INC. New York COLLIER MACMILLAN PUBLISHERS London©Copyright, F. M, Henderson, 1965 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or trans ‘ited in any form ot by any means, electronic or mechaneisl including Photocopying. recording or by any information storspe and retell ssstem, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Library of Congress catalog card number: 6610698 Macmillan Publishing Co, Ine 566 Third Avenue, New York, New York 10022 Collier Macmillan Canada, Lt Printed inthe United States of America Printing 13 Year as To My WifePreface Although this book was originally conceived as a text for use by the civil ‘engineering student in advanced courses cither in his senior year or at graduate {evel itis also designed to have some appeal to the practicing engineer. ‘Open channel flow, like any topic of engineering interest, is defined and classified partly by its possession of certain characteristic applications and partly by the principles that arc invoked to deal with them. This particular Subject is so rich in the variety and interest of its practical problems that any textbook on the subject is in danger of becoming a mere catalogue of applica- tions and routine techniques devised for dealing with them. But it has to be remembered that mastery of this subject, as of any other, demands a grasp of basic principles no less than a facility in routine operations. The practicing engineer is reminded of this fact whenever he turns from the familiar numerics of backwater curves and flood-routing procedures to some unusual transition problem whose solution requires 2 good grasp of fundamentals. ‘The importance of basic principles is recognized in this text in two ways first, by devoting the opening chapters to a fairly leisurely discussion of intro- ductory principles, including a recapitulation of the underlying arguments derived from the parent subject of fluid mechanics; and second, by taking every opportunity in the later chapters to refer back to this earlier material in order to clarify particular applications as they arise. It is hoped that the practicing engineer, as well as the student, will find this kind of treatment helpful, and a compensation for the fact that not every application is pursued through every possible variant that occurs in practice. Further compensation will, itis also hoped, be found in the fairly complete system of references and. in the unusually large number of applied topies dealt with. This insistence on the importance of principles does not imply that they should be given a status and significance independent of the applications they possess. The engineer invokes principles in order to deal with problems that arise in practice, and when dealing with these general principles he still remains in touch with the physical events which have prompted the need towiih Prerace generalize. This notion has dictated the structure of many chapters in th book, particularly Chapters 2 and 3. In each of these, a typical basie problem is discussed first; the theory is then developed to solve this problem, and is finally generalized to cover other problems as wel tis generally agreed that in order to read a textbook effectively the student ‘must to some extent help to write it For this reason the reader is invited to complete certain aspects of the main line of argument in the form of set Problems: the results of these problems are subsequently referred 10 1s if they were an established part of the text, Although basic principles are of first importance in the treatment of the problems generally, prominence must also be given to methods of numerical computations, including trial solutions, For this reason some of the early chapters have Appendices dealing with the details of algebraic and numerical manipulation, Moreover, the growing importance of the high-speed computer is recognized by a special section in Chapter S, and by the inclusion, after a brief introduction in Chapter 2, of computer programs in the problems at the end of most chapters, ‘Some particular features of the text material may be remarked on here. In the early chapters care has been taken to develop the formal proofs of the occurrence of ertical low in circumstances broadly characterized by the term “restraint-and-release”; such proofs are known but are often neglected. Novel methods of backwater computation are presented in Chapter 5. in particular an extension to the Ezra method which develops the full potentialities of the method. At the end of Chapters 4 and 5 effort is devoted to grouping the Preceding material on controls and longitudinal profiles into a synthesis aimed at the better solution of practical steady-flow problems. in particula the determination of the discharge. In Chapter 8 an attempt is made to bring & more fundamental treatment of ursteady flow, including the method of characteristics, more completely into the realm of engineering practice, for these methods are relevant to a greater variety of real engineering problems than flood routing atone. The scope and significance of the various flood. routing methods in Chapter 9 are discussed in relation to the basic character of the motion, in particular to the nuraber of slope terms that are significant in the dynamic equation of motion. In Chapter 10, on sediment transport the vexed question of channel stability and formation is touched on in sufi Geent detail to show what issues are at present in doubt: under model theory in Chapter 11 the verification of models. seldom discussed explicitly in the literature is given a brief airing. Wave theory is treated in enough detail in Chapter 8 to enable harbor models and their possible distortion to be dis. ‘cussed competently in Chapter 1. The book has grown out of courses given since 1956 to fourth-year students of civil engineering at the University of Canterbury, and an oceasional feftesher course given to practicing engineers. From the experience so pained it appears that a three-hour. one-semester undergraduate course could conveniently be formed from Chapters 1 through $ (excluding some of the PREFACE ix nll sectns of Caps 3a fom sd tops in Chien 6a TNs psy same of th Gmeiry mse rom Chats #3 Treluded eg, ¢e.92.A graduate course of sma length could be Forme from the remaining material in Chapters 5 through 8, together with a sub- Grama amount ofthe remaining four chapters. The total content of the book sould cecupy between two and thre onesemeser courses, While an effort tebe neo avn ono eaten aoeaton, me torics hove been pursued at such enh tat they may be beyond the scope teen eraduate course It is hoped, however, that thereat f hee opis il have some reference vale forthe practicing engine “New Zealand practize inthis edi sutaallyinfucacd by Amerian irons in partelr bythe American dvslopment ovr the as thirty sears of rove seentne approach to problems in engineering hydric. So the celting of ths book hs happy been uncompated ty any ned to resole SvnitstetmeenBritsh and Amertan usage except in ones spect. The ssh abtcinon “ae anng one abe et per snd ed throughout the book inthe hope of ecsuading Americ renders tat this Simple and expressive term desenee to be beter known outside the British Syne in many of th pis reed n this book has ben inspired and nade more efetve by contacts with frends and colleagues in engineering practice an by dsusion with them about tet problems ind observations Ia hte fo ste the Fle the conta 0 xpos the boi that they have gn the Book a stronger favor of physi rey that it would eerie have had Cis hoped thatthe fet hae been to make the resull move digestible, Chapters | and # have been materially improved as the result of some searching ees by ‘Dr. 7. Brooke Benjamins be sof sours n no ay responsible for le ha rea, No one can write onthe subjst mater of shi book without besoming indebted fo Ven Te Chow's roent authonatve treat on the subject Whe Ihave atempted to make my acknowledgments especialy ts posible in ts od oft eh re el aenowen rade he so the general iluminston which his treatise has easton So many areas ofthe Subjects and fvom which every subsequent writs benefits Frequent reference wav also made tothe authorate text Enghering Haas, ete by Hones Rouse Finally thanks ar dv to the University of Canterbury Civil Engineering Department serene, Mis. D-E Bal and Mis AT. Peet. who pe the manvserit and dealt ably with its many diel FM. H Christchurch, New ZealandContents retace List ot symbols CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow 1A Introduction 12 Definitions 13 Continuity 114 Equations of Motion—Gonerat 1s 16 uw 18 1 Equations of Motion—Fiuid Flow Use ofthe Enerey and Momentum Concepts Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Flow Resistance Velocity Coecients CHAPTER 2 Tho Energy Principle in Open Channel Flow a4 22 2a 24 28 26 an ‘The Basic Equation ‘The Transition Problem Crtcal Flow Suberitical and Supercritical Flow ‘The Occurrence of Critical Flow; Controls ‘Applications in Rectangular Charols ‘Nonrectangular Channel Sections Appensix om Mathematical Aids CHAPTER 3 The Momentum Principle in Open Channel Flow a a2 33 34 38 ‘The Mydraute Jump “The Momentum Funetion— Rectangular Channels ‘The My relationship Nonrectanguitr Channel Sections Unsteady Flow: Surges and Bores ‘Appendix on Mathematical Aids erseContents CHAPTER 4 Flow a 42 4a Py 4s as Resistance Introduetion The Resistance Equation Uniform Flow: Its Computation and Applications Nocuniferm Flow Longitudinal Profiles ‘Interaction of Local Features and Longitudinal Profiles CHAPTER 5 Flow Resistance—Nonuniform Flow Computations 5A 5a 53 54 82 5a 59 510 Bat Introgution Uniform Channels Step Method Distance Calculated from Depth Direet integration Methods ‘Step method Depth Calculated from Distance Irregular Channels Stop Method. Single Channels Sep Method- Divided Channels “The Ezra nathed Grimm's Method ‘The Excoffier Mothod ‘The Discharge Problem ‘Tho High-Speed Computer CHAPTER 6 Channel Controls 81 62 6a sa 65 es 67 {niroduetion ‘Sharp-Orerted Weirs The Oveefow Spitiway “The Free overall Undertow Gates (ritcat Depth meters Energy Disipators CHAPTER 7 Channel Transitions ta 12 3 1 1s Introdution Expansions and Contractions (Changes of Direction Culvert ‘Brigge Pers {Lateral tntow and Outtow co 88 tor 105 07 hs ns nas 126 130 16 Ms 1s 152 ist 135 162 m4 74 m4 120 ist 202 210 24 2s 215 Bs 250 258 264 Contents. CHAPTER 8 Unsteady Flow Introduction ‘The Equations of Motion ‘The Method of Characteristics Posiive and Negative Waves; Surge Formation ‘The Dam-Break Problem ‘Some Pratial Problems Oseiiatory Waves: CHAPTER 9 Flood Routing 24 Introduction 9.2 Btorage Routing 93. The Movement ofa Flood Wave ina River Channel 94 The Subsidence of the Flood crest 15 The Speed ofa Subsiaing Flood Wave 96 Channel Irregularities andthe Difusion Analogy 9.7 The Method of Characteristics 9.8 Rating Curves and Expressions for Discharge 2:9 Lateral Iow and the Runof Problem CHAPTER 10 Sediment Transport 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Modes of Sesiment Motion and Bed Farmation 10.3 The Threshold of Movement 10.4 The Suspended Load 105 Bed-Load Formulas and Entrainment atthe Bed 108 The Stable Channel N07 The Natural River CHAPTER 11 Simititude and Models 114 Introduction 11.2 Base Principles 113 Fixod-Bed River and Structural Models 114 Movable-Bed Models 11.5. Unsteaty-Flow and Wave Motos 11.8 General Noter Index as 2s 2s 28 24 204 33 me 355 355 356 368 m4 a6 383 387 31 394 40s 406 aut an a5 a8 46 a8 488 488 3 47 08 50 sisList of Symbols ‘The following definitions of symbols used in this book conform in all essential respects to current usage, in particular to “American Standard Letter Symbols for Hydraulics" (ASA Z10.2—1942), prepared by the Ameri- can Standards Association, ‘The wide range of topies that comes under the heading of open channel flow requires the definition of more parameters than the combined total of ‘characters in the Roman and Greek alphabets. For this reason the repeated tuse of some symbols cannot be avoided. There seems little point, therefore, in seeking to avoid the conflicts in usage arising out of differing conventions in Jifferent branches of the subject—for example the use of the letter ¢ for wave velocity and also for concentration of suspended material. Any attempt to avoid conflits of this kind would only cause confusion by introducing unfamiliar associations of symbol and concept, without producing any compensating advantage. {As far as possible the letters used to indicate the more important parameters such as 4, P, Q, R, 5,1, etc., have not been used for other purposes. Repeated use of the same letter for trivial manipulative purposes such as the condensa~ tion of equations has been confined to other letters such as G, K, T, a,b, k, and r. In general, repeated use of the same letier need not cause any con- fusion, for the use of any limited particular definition is usually confined to a limited characteristic part of the text. Nevertheless, the following list is provided as a guide in order to resolve any doubts that may arise. The list ives every definition used and the source (usually an equation number) in which it first appears. The use of superscripts and subscripts follows normal practice, The “prime” superscript is normally used for dimensionless numbers, as in the case of y' = yy, or »’ = myyb, although Eq. (8-72) provides an exception; the zero subscript indicates conditions which are initial, uniform, undis~ turbed, or in some way standardized. A notable example is the symbol Yo [subscript zero], which usually (but not exclusively) indicates uniformav Lisr oF Svitno.s depths is ocasonaly wed in dierent sense. as in Fig 1020, Eq Lotter subscripts are formed in the conventional way from the initial letter ‘of a descriptive or qualifying word. For example, s for “standard” is used instead of the zoo subscript in Eq. (2-37), where the use of the zero subscript itself might cause confusion. Two leter subseripts, « for critical and + for atio, are of sufficiently general importance to be listed separately below. others are used only attached to particular letters and are listed accordingly” Subscripted symbols arc listed only when the subscript gives a distinct new meaning tothe parameter, and notin those cases where the subscript merely attaches the parameter to a particular place or time, except forthe important zero subscript. When the paramete: occurs in the text only with a times or placesubserptatached~for example ©, im Pooh 6154 without the subscript. é Teed bere A cross-sectional area of flow, Eq. (I=1) Av4z —_patticle shape factors in Sec. 10.5, before Eq. (10-43), a acceleration. Eq. (1-4, 4 constant, Appendices to Chaps. 2 and 3. rofpe*, Eq. (4-5), Tete dimension, Fig. 22 hal ample of sty waves, E49 2riTy Ea, ie of ander sector above bad, Eq. (10-2 nant, (105) fice tomtanis in ge 37 and (2-2) a Shane suc tht cont with Fig 62 sith rans to ofthe broad-creed we 6 oF the Pars fre tat, Ey (53) an OF Me eg cates E31) vid of rstangar same, E9216 bese wit aproial shane E25, seomstat, Appenices to chaps 2 sed one i Hp 628 water npth, Engl 2 Sst =F Fgh, Eq 5) txeage chan 10-81) and 10-82) bridge pie th Eq 103 © Chass toetican 88. re ulation contr Ea. 6.26) 7-20 brated wer oie, Be 1-5, List oF SYMBOLS xl Ce width-contraction coefficient, Eqs. (6-52) and (7-31), G general contraction coefficient. Eq. (6-1). iG discharge coefficient, Eq, (6-2) ch drag coefficient, Eq. (1-22). Cy overall surface-drag coefficient, Sec. 1.8. G. vertical-contraction coefficient at box culvert inlet, Eq. (7-32). C ceneiagy-loss coefficient for eddy losses, Example 5.4; for channel bends, Eq. (7-27); and for bridge piers, Eq. (7-37). DuBoys coefficient, Eq. (10-40) e (subscript); critical conditions, Eq. (2-7); an exception is r., See, 7.3 and Eq. (10-88), wave velocity relative to water, Eq. (2-11), also in Chap. 8 and Sec. 9.7 wave velocity relative to bank, rest of Chap. 9. concentration of air, Eq, (6-16), and sediment, Eq. (10-20). dynamic (as distinct from kinematic) wave velocity, Eq. (9-24). “ local surface drag coefficient, Eq. (1-16). 6 group (wave) velocity, Eq. (8-83). D diameter of culvert, Fig. 2-15. and of pipe, Eg. (4-7) vertical transverse culvert dimension, See. 7.4. Dy, Dy characteristic differential operators, Eqs. (8-136) and (8-146), d depth measured normal to bed, Fig. 2-1e, and (with various subscripts) in connection with aerated flow, Eqs. (6-19), (6-21), (6-22). and (6-25). grain size of sediment, Sec. 10.3 before Eq. (10-7). E specific energy, Eqs. (2-4) and (2-19). complete elliptic integral of second kind, Eq. (10-61). Ere. Eq. (2-17)3 mBj6, Eqs. (2-31) and (2-36). critical specific energy. bulk modulus of elasticity, Sec. 11.2 after Eq. (11-1) ‘energy loss at base of overfall, Fig. 6-17. ‘energy loss in hydraulic jump, Fig. 6-17. < the exponential number, 2.71828 F foree. Eq. (1-4), Fra), Fh) stage functions in Exes method, Eqs. (5-30) and (5-31, BR Shields entrainment function. Fig. 10-3 er Froude number 1/,'gs. Sec. 24 before Eq. 2-13). OV Big. Sec. 27 before Eq, O29). f Darcy resistance eocticient. Eqs, (4-7) and (7-50) Lacey silt factor. Eqs. (10-70) and (10-71). toh Blench silt factors. Eqs. (10-76) and (10-77), ¢ a hydrautie jump function, Prob. 6.15, Sol. in lateral-inflow problem, Eq. (7-51). variable wave-amplitude. Eq. (8-82).xvii He RO Se Se Kyaw List oF Sypors exponent in Eg (2-30 pare ll velocity Tin, Ea 10-46) Munson in Bogard’ method Eq (1-32) the aeration of gravy. E112) “ota eng" B02) bead over wer, Ea), splay Fig, 64 and euler ene, Ta 0-31). tual ead oer broa-rsted wet, Ea, (49) wove height crest rongh Fig B28 Sorin estimate fot ener. Fa, 6-28) stage, or height of water surface above datum, Eq. (1-3). hehe of sll er of teeth ig 633 depth blow tol energie robs. 66 and 67. depth ef rfl exces Eq (10, ead Tos tale ofindow to ve each Eq, (1 ‘exponent in Eq. (2-37). Inet nfow vy. 96) NiO af, Ven Te Chow's ana, Fg, 63), ponent in Ea, 0.9) conveyance /$/!’?, Eq. (425). Shape factor forthe haute jump prof, Prob. 6.15, and for bridge piers, Eq. (7-34). a costcent ih Musiengum 70 retin, Ea, @-11 Gitsoncetientn fod routing Eq 5) constant in Exner's bed-wave equation, Eq. (10-2). Simensoness form of omeyanee Ea (#2), Teme theory cocicents Table 10 badge per scour oun for angle of alc 2 Fig. 1023 bridge pe scour eosin fer nose rms Table 164 nur of tak quanti in Buckszhee theorem, Se. 17 2 fen) purpve syne for condoning lpr ag ments; equal to 4/4, Eq. (3-16); Fih)(Q/Qo)*. Eq. (5-32); Cy(1 — 6/2, Prob. 7.10; O/V, Eq. (9-5). UAE Me 1 Neh of stace roughes rojetions Fa. (11), length a wer fests Eq (2 and Fi 7-24 length of channel See 76 before. -8 Gistance to surge from, £9883) waelnath Ea (0) parte el ine, Ea. (10-1), Hivfrce on parte, Fig TOs tmengerwavlengty Em (10-8) My Ma Ps Q 2, o [List oF Sympots. xix Jengths of USBR stilling basins, Fig. 6-33. length of SAF stilling basin, Table 6-2. drop length, Fig. 6-16 and Eq. (6-39). hydraulic jump length, Figs. 6-16 and 6-31. pipe length, Eq. (4-7). Prandtl mixing length, Ea. (10-24). momentum function, Eqs. (3-3) and (3-8). label for mild-slope profiles, Chap. 4. exponent in Eq. (5-6) arbitrary funetion in Prob. 7.14 _gSq(Ftq — 2)/2coFto, Eq. (8-34). XY", Eq. (2-27). oe OlmE2/aE.. Eq. 2-32), oF O/EZ/ GE.» Eq. (2-33). Mach number, Eq. (7-5). mass, Eq. (1-4). cot 0, Eg. (2-25). sidewall divergence angle, Fig. 6-35. 2x{L, Ea. (8-81). exponent in Eq. (9-95). ‘exponent in Eq. (10-83). exponent in Eq. (5-3). arbitrary function in Prob. 7.14 storage routing function, Eq, (9-2). coordinate direction, Sec. 1.5 before Eq. (1-7 number of parameters in Buckinghamt-r theorem, Sec. 1.7 exponent in Eq. (1-21) Manning's resistance coefficient, Eqs. (417) and (4-18). direction normal to flow, Eq. (7-15). rate of outflow from river reach, Eq. (9-1). \wetted perimeter of flow cross-section, Ea. (4-1). drag force, Eq. (1-22). force on grain, Eq. (10-9) wave resistance, Fg. (8-86). pressure, Eq. (1-7) i+ J+ 1, Bq. 0-6). proportion by weight of grain size fraction, Eq, (10-50). pressure cocfiicient (p ~ poW/4ptu*, Ea. (1-23) probability of grain dislodgement, Eq. (10-43). volumetric rate of diseharge Ea. (1-1) discharge under original conditions, Eq. (5-36), or at uniform flow, Ea. (9-87). overrun discharge, Eq. (9-26) , Ea, (2-27). Vertical depth of flow, oF distance in the vertical direction, except in Eqs. (6-17) through (6-22), where it denotes rnormal elevation above the channel bed. depth from surface to centroid of section. Eq. (3-8) yiies Bq, (2-17): mylb, Eq, 2-26), mean fluid particle height above bed, Ea. (8-72) uniform depth, Sec. 43 and in most of text; exceptions are Prob. 6.18, Figs, 612, 7-16, 86, 10-20 and 10-27¢. critical depth, Eq. (2-7). critical depth relative to O,, Ea. (9-22). scour depth, Fig. 10-27e station depth, Eg. (6-34) Qymilab. Eq. (2-26). toval head over spillway, Fig. 6-8. variable of integration, Eqs. (9-82) and (9-83). lms? Vay. Eq. 3-12). height above datum of uid clement, Eq. (1-7); of bed level, Eq (2-3) and in most of text. velocity (energy) coeflicient, Eq. (1-24). longitudinal slope of steep channels, Eq. (2-2) and after Eq, (6-56) weirsnotch angle, Eq. (6-8) bridge pier thickness ratio, Eq, 47-34) coefficient in Eq, (9-95) angle of attack to bridge piers, Fig. 10-29. 5, — 1, Bq. (11-17). velocity (momentum) coefficient, Eq. (1-25). angle in culvert section, Prob. 2.8. Bakhmetels parameter Fr2Sy/S,. Eq. (5-11). shock deflection angle, Eqs. (7-5) and (7-6). ratio of grain to total volume in granular bed, Eq. (10-1). ratio elem, Ea. (10-31). Bogardi’s parameter, 1d 87, Eg. (11-21).watt List oF Sympois specific weight of fluid, Eq. (1-7). small increment of, before Eq, (17) 1 Aepartures of experiment from theory, Fa. (6-45). Chapter 5 boundary layer thickness, Eqs. (1-18) and (6-48) i : 5, BLL. displacement thickness, after Eq, (1-21), Basic Concepts of Fluid Flow o BLL. maximum displacement thickness, Eq, (6-52) kinematic eddy viscosity, or transfer coefficient, Eq. (10-21). a air-bubble transfer coefficient, Eq (6-18). a momentum transfer coefficient Sime ons cocieat PE 03D. 1 height of water surface above ean level, Eq. (8-69) ey viscosity, Eg (10-19). ° bunk side slope angle, Fig. 2-146 and Eq, (10-15) le tan” '(Q/Q,)" in modified Ezra method, Fig. 5-8. 11 intro Lad familiar ‘Tainter gate lip angle, Fig. 6-22. In the text of this book itis generally assumed that the reader is fails angle of deflection: of spillway toe, Fig. 6-12a: of jet at base with the basic laws of fluid flow. However, a brief discussion of ee ma of overfall, Fig. 6-16; of channel bend, Eqs. (7-6) and (7-12), fundamental laws of fluid motion is given in this chapter in are ott ; and near Eq, (7-27). recapitulate material with which the reader is assumed to be fiend familiar, OM angular distance to first wave crest at channel bend, Eq. (7-18). and to emphasize certain points that are of particular interest in later app! ® yon Karman’s constant, Eq. (10-26). ‘eations to open channel flow. 2 coefcient Ld in Einsteins bed-oad argument, Eq, (10-43), # ddynamie viscosity, See. 17. ‘ kinematic viscosity n/p, Fa. (1-18) eae x circular circumference-diameter ratio; also in name of Bucking- Fa Hi hham-m theorem, Sec. 1.7. A. streamline is ins, dan at any isan, aross which thee no flow ’ fd density, Ea (1) and in most of tex component, stat at every pnt on i the resultant Mid veo isn 8 PoP solid and fluid densities, Sec, 10.3 before Fi. (10-7). Gireetion tangential to the streamline, A streamtube may be thought of as fe summation symbol, Eqs. (1-26) and (5-25). bundle of streamlines; it is a tube whose walls are made up of contiguous o submergence factor for broad-crested weir, Fig. 6-272. streamlines, and across which there can therefore be no flow. Neither seca width contraction ratio by (by, Fig. 7-22. Ines or scumtubes have any physial substance: they are geomet Suid surface tension, Eq. (8-97) and after Eq. (11-1) figures which the observer imagines to be drawn within the fowing fuid. t shear stress anywhere in fluid, Eq, (10-19). ‘They are illustrated in Fig. !- t= xfvy + a Prob. 8.7 and before Eq. (9-85), iii flow changes with time: steady flow does not. The difference is To shear stress at solid boundary, Eq, (1-17), not an absolute one, but may be dependent on the viewpoint of the observer. a critical shear stess on the threshold of motion of a granular ‘ bed, Sec. 10.3 after Eq (10-10) ° Breste function, Eq. (5-8) ; Einstein bed-load function, Eq. (10-44), Denar é angle of repose of granular material. Eq (10-10). ( ¥ reeiprocel of Shiels" entrainment Function, Eq, (10-48) ey ® Aid vorticity, See. 1.8. oth ey Escoflier’s stage variable, Eq. (8-52). a eee (or sreennne Figure \-l, The Streamline and the Streamtube.2 Basic Concerts of FLuiD Frow (ent Suppose for example that a landslide fulls into a river and partially blocks it, sending a surge wave upstream as shown in Fig. 1-2. A surge ware, ofien simply called a surge, is a moving wave front which brings about an abrupt change in depth; another example of this phenomenon is the tidal “bore” by which the tide invades certain rivers, e.g., the River Severn in England, Moving suge font» Stray sue tot b Steady lon os seen ty oeerer owing with urge i) Uesteody flow a5 seen by observer on the Bonk Figure 1-2. Alternative Views of the Moving Surge, Seen as Unsteady Flow ‘and as Steady Flow Now an observer on the bank would see this as an unsteady-flow phenoe enon, since the flow changes its velocity and depth as the surge passes him. However, an obsetver who is moving with the surze sees the situation as one of steady flow, at least in the first stages of the movement before the surge bogins to decay. He is level with a stationary wave front, and there is flow of unchanging velocity and depth upstream of him (assuming the river has a uniform slope and cross section) and downstream of him. The distinction being made here is not an academie one, for the equations of motion are very much casier to write down and manipulate for steady flow than they are for unsteady flow. It is one of the most interesting, features of fluid mechanics that one may greatly simplify the analysis of a problem by ‘changing one’s viewpoint from, say, that of a stationary to that of a moving ‘observer, and so changing the flow situation from an unsteady to a steady one. ‘There are, of course, many cases in practice where there is no such de- pendence on the viewpoint of the observer, and the flow would be classified as steady (or unsteady as the case may be} by any observer. Such a case is the progress of a flood wave down a river: a man standing on the bank would clearly see the phenomenon as unsteady and so would another man moving downstream and keeping pace with the peak of the flood, since the magnitude Of the peak discharge itself tends to reduce as the flood moves downstream. Ina problem such as this one cannot take the easy Way out by transposing toa steady-flow case, and the problem must be treated as one of unsteady flow. When the flow is steady, a streamline is also the path followed by an indi- Vidual fluid particle, but when the flow is unsteady this coincidence no longer holds good, and streamlines are distinet from pathlines, Tn uniform flow, as strictly defined, the velocity stays the same, in magnitude and direction, throughout the whole of the fluid: in nonuniform flow it may change from point to point. Usually, however, a somewhat less restrictive definition of uniform flow is adopted, according to which flow is said to be 13 See. 1.3} Consiunry 3 uniform if it does not change in the direction of the flow. For example, if water flows in an open channel of uniform section at a mean velocity and depth which remain the same at all sections along the channel (Fig. 1-3), the flow is said to be uniform although the velocity may vary across the flow as shown this figure. I velocity orefiles — Figure 1-3. Uniform Flow as Usually Defined, ie., Uniform in the Direction of Motion Continuity Consider a case of steady flow through the streamtube shown in Fig. 1-1 Since there is no flow across the side walls of the tube, and since matter ‘cannot be created or destroyed, fuid must be entering one end of the tube at the same rate at which it leaves the other. The term “ rate” must imply 2 rate ‘of mass transfer, which in English units would be measured in slugs per second. If the fluid is incompressible, so that its density remains constant, “rate” can be interpreted as a rate of volumetric transfer, measured in cubic Feet per second, Now the rate at which volume is transferred across a section equals the product c4, where A is the area of the section and v is the mean velocity component at right angles to the section. If the subscripts 1 and 2 are applied to the two ends of the streamtube then we can write byAy = Pads = Q, the discharge aay which is the eguation of continyity for steady flow of an incompressible fui ‘The most common use of the streamtube concept in practice is to apply it to the whole region of flow, so that the boundaries of the streamtube are also the physical boundaries of the pipe, the river, or whatever it may be. When the waterway (as the flow cross section is normally called in open channel flow) divides into branches carrying discharges Qs, Qy,--- Qy. then the equation of continuity must clearly take the form HO FH 4, ay where Q, is the flow in the main waterway upstream of the branches.4 Baste Concrers oF Fiutp FLow [chet Equations (I-1) and (1-2) relate to incompressible fluids, ic., liquids, with ‘which the material in this book will be exclusively concerned except for some remarks on the gas-flow analogy in Chap. 2 Application of the continuity principle to unsteady flow is rather more difficult. Unsteadiness implies change of many kinds: the velocity may be increasing, and the streamlines themselves may be shifting, However in open. channel flow only one complication arises, namely that of a changing water- surface level. We consider the streamtube to embrace the whole cross section of the channel, and to be of very short length Ax, as shown in Fig. 1-8. The Figure 1-4. Definition Sketch for the Equation of Continuity discharges at the two ends are not necessarily the same, but will differ by amount 5. a9 and this term gives the rate at which the volume within this region is de- creasing. (The partial derivative is necessary because Q may be changing with time as well as with the distance x along the channel.) Now if iis the height of the water surface above datum, then the volume ‘of water between sections 1 and 2 is increasing at the rate where B is the water-surface width. The two terms derived must therefore be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, ic., 2, ch on PG o as) which is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow, such as ‘occurs in the movement of a flood wave down a river. ‘AS mentioned previously, the unit of discharge is one eubie foot per second, 14 Sec. 1.4) Equations oF Morion—GENeRat 5 usually abbreviated as cfs in, the United States. In British countries this unit is commonly termed the “eusee” (pl. cusecs)—-a simple and expressive abbreviation, which will be used throughout this book. The terms “efs"" and eusee” are both used in the literature and may be used interchangeably Equations of Motion—General The discussion so far has dealt with the geometrical concepts of fluid motion, without considering the forces that may give rise to the motion. The study of these forces is essentially one of dynamics, and must therefore be founded on Newton’s laws of metion; of these, the second law =ma () which defines the force F required to accelerate a certain mass m at a certain rate as being equal to the product ma, is the major source of working ‘equations applicable to real physical problems. If both sides of Eq. (1-4) are multiplied by the component of Jength s parallel to the direction of the force and the acceleration (or in general integrated with respect to that length), we have [risa fade mt? =o ws which is the energy equation, stating that the work done on @ body as it moves from s = 5, to s= 5, is equal te the kinetic energy acquired by that body. ‘An important difference between Eqs. (1-4) and (1-5) is that Eq. (1-4) deals with vector quantities, whereas the terms of Eq. (1-5) are obtained by mult plying vector quantities in such ¢ way as to form a scalar product. Energy is a scalar quantity. Now if both sides of Eq. (1-4) are multiplied by, or integrated with respect to, time elapsed, we have [ira m [oar = (oy ~ 04) ao which is the momentum equation, stating that the impulse (force x time) applied to a body is equal to the momentum (mass x velocity) acquired by it Multiplication of the vector quantity force by the scalar quantity time pro- duces the vector quantity, momentum. ‘The concepts of eneray and momentum embodied in Eqs. (1-5) and (1-6) are basic to all dynamics, whether of solids or fluids. While each equation is removed one step from Eq, (1-4), Eq. (1-6) is more closely similar in form to Eq. (1-4), sharing with it the property of dealing with vector quantities.15 6 Basic Conctrrs or Fruip Flow Indeed it is hardly necessary to formulate Eq, (I-6) in order to ‘momentum principle; itis necessary only to refer to Ea, (1-4), interpreting the product ma as a rate of change of momentum, This approach is particu- larly convenient in applications to fluid flow. Equations of Motion—Fluid Flow ‘The term F in Eq. (1-4) is to be interpreted as a net impressed force, i the difference between the total impressed force and any force such as friction ‘or viscous drag which resists the motion of the body. In the following treat- ‘ment these resistance forces will be neglected, to be taken into account at a later stage. ‘The difficulty in applying Eqs. (I-4) through (1-6) to fluid flow is that we are dealing not with a single body but with a continuous mass of moving fluid. The way out of the difficulty is to concentrate our attention on a single fluid element, as shown in Fig. 1-5, having unit thickness at right angles to Lu iow Ns Figure 1-5. Definition Sketch, Forces on a Fluid Element Horizenta the plane of the paper. On this element there can be only two kinds of im- pressed force in any chosen direction 5; that due o the pressure gradient — i.e, ~(@piés\Asdn—and that due to the weight of the element—ie, (7&sAn) sin 8, oF ~(yAsdn) dsjds, where = is the vertical height above datum and 7 is the specific weight of the fluid. If pis the mass density of the fluid, and 4, its acceleration in the 5 direction, then the ma term is equal to (psd), Hence Eq, (I-4) applied to this situation becomes p+ yz) + pa,=0 an which is the Euler equation. It is not so tich in direct applications as integrated form, the Bernoulli equation, and furthermore it tends to repel ‘engineers by the alarming, presence of partial derivative signs; nevertheless it Sec. 1.5] EQUATIONS cf Morton—FLutn FLow 1 does help one’s understanding of certain basic phenomena, and in particular it clarifies the scope and significance of the Bernoulli equation, which will now be dealt with. ‘We may remark first that the term (p + 92) in Eq. (I~7) is known as the piezometric pressure, and according to the principles of hydrostatics it remains constant throughout a body of still water, so that (p + 72)/és = 0 whatever the direction of s may be. The presence of the acceleration term pa, indicates that if the water begins to move the hydrostatic pressure distribution is dis- turbed and (p + 72) no longer remains constant throughout the body of water. To evaluate the term a, we first note that the velocity varies both with time ‘and position, From the theory of partial differentiation, we can write the equation de _asde ae aaa a which indicates the rate at whick the resultant velocity » will appear to change in the eyes of an observer moving in the s direction with velocity dsidr. If we are to interpret the derivative dr/de as a fluid acceleration, the observer must bbe moving with the fluid itself, .e., with the velocity v. We can write a a ae ata provided that s is the direction of fluid motion, It can also be shown that provided the flow is irrotational (which usually means that there is no energy dissipation), then 0-8) av, du, oy an os a9) whether or not s is in the direction of flow. In Eg. (1-9), v is the resultant velocity and r, is its component in the s-direction. The two terms of this equa tion are named convective and local acceleration respectively. ‘The complete form of Eq. (1-7) obtained by substituting from Eq. (1-9) is that required for unsteady-flow problems such as that of a flood wave moving. down a river; meanwhile we confine our attention to steady flow, in which case Eq, (1-7) becomes Hirt) + oS =0 (1-10) hich can be integrated divety to p+ 72+ 4pv? =constant «ey on Pasa E mconstant a) yr 3p which are alternative forms of the well-known Bernoulli equation. Since it8 Baste Concerrs of FLutm Frow ch. was obtained by integrating 2 force equation with respect to distance, it is fan energy equation; in fact it may be deduced divectly from Fq. (1-5). The derivation given here, however, is of some interest as it brings out clearly the dependence of Eqs. (1-11) and (1-12) on steady-flow conditions; if the flow were unsteady there would be an extra term obtained by integrating pév,/dt with respect to s. This operation would involve some difficulties—enough to make their avoidance desirable if itis at all possible. And as pointed out in Sec. 1.2, it often is possible to transpose an apparently unsteady-flow case to ‘one of steady flow by changing the observer's viewpoint. The dimensions of Eq, (I-12) simply amount to length, e.g. feet, or they may be thought of as energy per unit weight, f-lbjlb, In fact, the summation H in Eq, (1-12) is commonly termed the “total energy,” but this usage is misleading, for the pressure term p/ does not represent energy. It is more properly called the “fiow-work” term, as the reader can verify for himself by ‘working through the direct derivation of the Bernoulli equation (Prob. 1.19). In a particular steady-flow problem—for example, the pipe-flow case shown in Fig. 1-6, the size of the terms of Eq. (1-12) can be conveniently shown Figure 1-6, Total Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines in Pipe Flow lly as indicated in the figure, in which the “total energy line” is drawn at a height H 2bove datum and the “ hydraulic grade line” is drawn at ht above datum equal to (pi + 2), the piezomeitie head. If there is energy dissipation due to flow resistance, as there invariably is in practice, then cither the fluid loses energy or more flow work has to be done on the fluid to maintain its energy. In either case the quantity H decreases by the amount of energy dissipated, and the total energy line dips steadily in the direction of flow. Particular features in the path of the flow may give rise to energy losses concentrated at certain localities, and hence to sharp local drops in the total energy line, as shown in Fig. 1-6, To adapt the momentum principle to fluid flow, we again face the difficulty of dealing with a continuum of fluid rather than with a single body. Consider the flow through any streamtube, as in Fig. 1-7, Ina time AJ the block of fluid originally contained between sections | and 2 moves to a new position bounded by sections 1’ and 2’. It has therefore lost momentum equal to that Of the fluid contained between I and I ie. (PALAx D0. = pAwPAt = (Qpr)ydt 16 Sec. 1.6] USE OF THE ENERGY AND Momentum Concerts 9 and similarly has gained momentum equal to that of the fluid contained between 2 and 2’, Le., (Qpr)aAr. The rate of change of fluid momentum is therefore equal to (Qpe)s — (Ope, and this change can be accomplished only by the action of a forward force on the fluid equal to this rate of momentum increase: (Ops — (Op), 13) ‘One can think of the process shown in Fig. 1-7 as the transfer of momentum across sections 1 and 2 at the rates (Qpe), and (Qpr), respectively, due to Figure 1-1, Definition Sketch for the Momentum Equation ress ow atthe ate Qp with meen» per uit masa nica in he ere This vw a he proces conven in eer context, fr example in Sez 1.8 Equation (113 rats to steady condon, an cones nly changes ftom point to pot, not changes Ia ne Tecan Teal be txtened to cover usendy Bow byte alten ofa tr giving the isa {ancos rae of change of momentum iterated though the wle volume toned between Land ls Finney ale Rit hat sect ee ay aie ois ae eae a a ae semen alc Use of the Energy and Momentum Concepts ‘The energy equation always holds true, provided proper allowance is made for energy “losses” (more properly, the dissipation of kinetic energy into heat energy), in writing it down. Similarly the momentum equation always holds true, provided proper allowance is made for all forces acting. The sim- plicity of these two statements is rather misleading, for in some cases a0 Baste Concerts oF Fivip FLow [cnt certain dexterity is needed for the proper application of the equations. Moreover, there are limitations on what each equation is able to describe, so that their relative usefulness depends on just what information is being sought in each particular case. Consider, for instance, the two flow situations shown in Fig, 1-8. In the smooth pipe contraction of Fig. 1-8a, it can be taken that there would be no Force on a Pipe Contractiona Problem in the Use of the Energy and Momentum Equations Figure V8. energy losses, 0 that the Bernoulli expression could be equated at sections 1 and 2, enabling us to caleulate the pressure difference between these two sections for a given rate of flow. Supposing, however, that we wished also to calculate the net thrust F, of the flowing fluid on the contracting pipe walls; the energy equation would have nothing to tell us, first because it does not deal directly with forces as such, and second because it is concerned only with conditions at sections 1 and 2, not with points in between, ‘To discover anything about the size of F, we must have recourse to the momentum equation, having first established the pressure difference (p2 — p1) by the use of the energy equation. This raises the question: is knowledge of the pressure difference enough, or do we also need to know the absolute values of p, and p,? The question is left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 1.4). ‘Consider now the pipe contraction of Fig. 1-8b, in which there is enerey Joss due to the presence of an obstruction in the middle of the pipe. In applying the momentum equation to this case, we have two kinds of force to consider: F,, which causes no energy loss, and the drag force F, on the obstruction, ‘which causes a definite energy loss. It is most important to realize that the momentum equation is concerned with all forces whatever their origin, and therefore makes no distinction between F, and F,. The complete list of forces includes F, . Fy and the pressure forces at sections | and 2. Here another difficulty arises: even if F, is specified in advance, the eneray toss occasioned by the obstacle is still unknown, so we cannot apply the Bernoulli equation to obtain (pz — py). The difficulty can be met hy an approximate assumption, viz., that F, has the same magnitude whether the ‘obstacle is present or not, and this assumption is reasonable provided that 17 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND See. 1.7] MITARITY, " the obstacle is placed well into the contracted section, as in Fig. 1-86. The details are left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 1.5) ‘The general conclusion is that the energy and momentum equations play complementary parts in the analysis of a flow situation: whatever information is not supplied by one is usually supplied by the other. One of the most com- mon uses of the momentum equation is in situations where the energy equa- tion breaks down because of the presence of an unknown energy loss; the ‘omentum equation ean then supply results which can be fed back into the energy equation, enabling the energy loss to be calculated. Other applications are described in the problems at the end of this chapter. Dimensional Analysis and Similarity The theory of dimensional analysis has two major fields of application: the tidying up of arguments involving a large number of physical parameters, and the development of criteria governing dynamical similarity between two flow situations which are geometrically similar but different in size. ‘The basis of the theory is the Buckingham x theorem, which will be given here without proof. It states that if there isa functional relationship between ‘physical quantities all of which can be expressed in terms of k fundamental quantities (¢.g., mass length and time), then (n — k) dimensionless numbers can be formed from the original n quantities, such thet there is a functional relationship between them ‘The term functional relationship implies that if values can be assigned to all ‘but one of the variables concerned, the value of the remaining one can thereby ‘be calculated, at least in theory. In practice it usually implies some deter- smirate physical problem such that ifall but one ofthe parameters have values given to them, Nature will fix the remaining one, even if our knowledge of the problem does not enable us to calculate it In problems of uid flow there are always atleast four parameters involved, Ap, L, and p, where L is a characteristic length dimension and Ap is a pressure difference, which may be replaced in some cases by a head difference ‘ih ot an energy loss AH. Whatever its exact form may be, some such term is always present. Since three fundamental quantities are involved, these four terms give rise to 4—3=1 dimensionless number, namely Apiov?. The addition of more parameters introduces another dimensionless number for ‘each new parameter added: the most important from the viewpoint of this text is the acceleration of gravitj, g, which comes into play if the flow has a free surface, This important result can be deduced by considering first a ‘completely enclosed fluid system. such as a closed pipe cireut round which a liquid is being driven by @ pump. Enersy is imparted to the liquid by the pump impeller and dissipated by the resistance of the eitcuit; provided the liquid remains a iguid, gravity does nothing to assist or retard this basic process,2 Baste Coneeers oF Fiutp FLow ent which would proceed just as effectively if the circuit were disposed hori- zontally, vertically, were turned upside down or even removed to the surface of the moon. The reason for this behavior is made clear by Eq. (1-10); the flow is determined by the distribution of the “piezometric pressure "(p + ‘of which gravity influences only the term yz, If the pressure is free to take any value at all (which is true in an enclosed system), then gravity merely affects the relative size of p and 92 without affecting the total (p + 72). The distribu- tion of this latter quantity would femain the same whether our hypothetical circuit were placed on the earth or on the moon; only the pressures would differ in the two cases, and the only effect this might have on the flow would bbe to promote evaporation of the liquid at low pressures. If this possibility is neglected there is no material difference between the two situations. How, then, can gravity influence the flow pattern? Through the existence of a free surface, on which the pressure p must take a prescribed value (usually atmospheric). Once p is fixed, gravity determines (p + 92), and hence the flow pattern, through its influence on the term yz. Many physical examples amplify this algebraic argument; for example, in the flow of water over a weir there is no pressure difference between the surface water upstream and downstream, for both are exposed to the atmosphere. Any difference between the velocities at the two sections can arise only through a difference in surface elevation and the action of gravity. If gravity is in fact significant, the appropriate dimensionless number is the well-known Froude number Fea If the viscosity ye plays an effective part, this fact introduces the Reynolds number Re =e # If more than one characteristic length dimension is involved, then further dimensionless numbers can be formed from their ratios. ‘Since open channel flow is above all a free-surface phenomenon, we shall find that the Froude number plays a very important part in the appropriate low equations. The Reynolds number plays a somewhat limited part in the theory of open channel fiow, particularly when the flow is on a large scale, for since the Reynolds number is an inverse measure of the effect of viscosity, it has least influence when itis largest. ts significance will be further discussed in the next section. Dimensional analysis is commonly thought of as a means of plagning experimental programs and model studies for dealing with problems that are too complex or difficult for theoretical solution. However, it is also useful in making tidy and convenient arrangements of any kind of equation, including sec. 18 Fiow Resistance a those derived from considerations of pure theory; it will commonly be used for this purpose in the succeeding chapters of this book ts usefulness can be Further extended by taking a broader view of the con- cept of hydraulic simititude; it cannot be too strongly emphasized that the use of the similitude concept need not be confined to the operation and inter- pretation of hydraulic models, asin Chap. 11. To take an elementary example [Enyone learning for the first time that the volume of a sphere varies as the ‘rbe ofits diameter will find it helpful to visualize two spheres, one of which hhas twice the diameter and eight times the volume of the other It will be shown inthe following chapters that such mental exercises in model theory are help- ful in visualizing the interplay and interdependence of the parameters governing a given flow situation, For example, the theory of simiitude states that for dynamical similarity to obtain between model and prototype, the Froude number must be the same in each ease. It follows that, ifthe subscript r indicates a ratio of proto- {ype quantity to model quantity, then eb ie Cra or a= bt where q is the discharge per unit width of channel. It will be found that ex- pressions suggestive of these relationships are constantly occurring in the equations of open channel flow; even when the Froude number does not occur explicitly we shall find terms of the form Q?/g/.* and q?jgL, which have essentially the same function. It should be kept in mind that the occurrence of such a term as one of the determinants of a flow situation has two inter- related meanings: (1) setting the value of this term fixes (or helps to fix) the etailed nature of the situation; (2) two flow situations having the same value of this parameter (and any other significant ones) will have the same detailed nature, ie, they will be dynamically similar. Both these concepts are helpful in obtaining a grasp of the problem. 1.8 Flow Resistance __In the flow of any real fuid, energy is being continually dissipated, as dicated in Fig, 1-6. This occurs because the fluid has to do work against resistance originating in fui viscosity. Whether the flow is laminar, as at low Values of the Reynolds number Re, oF turbulent, as at high values of Re, the basic resistance mechanism is the shear stress by which a slow-moving layer Of fluid exerts a retarding force on an adjacent layer of faster moving uid. Iw this seetion a brief discussion will be given of the theoretical basis of this action, We note first an important feature of Eq. (1-13). The mass flowa Basic Coxcerrs oF FLurD FLow [out rate Qp in that equation does not have to take place in the same direction as the velocities e, and v4; indeed from the dynamical viewpoint the direction of Qp is unimportant, for itis essentially a sealar quantity representing a rate of mass transfer from one region to another. Force and velocity are the vector quantities in the equation, which may accordingly be written as Fe Qpte—0)) Con) indicating vectors by the usual notation. Equation (1-14) will hold truc even if Qp is transverse to the flow, end if for some reason continuous exchange of material does take place between adjacent layers moving with different velocities there will, by Eq. (I-14), be a retarding force exerted on the Taster-moving layer because itis continually receiving low-velocity fluid and losing high-velocity fluid. ‘This retardation will be in the form of a shear force since it acts parallel to the interface be- tween the two layers. Ia laminar flow this exchange of material and momentum joecurs on a microscopic scale through the random movement of molecules, and in gases forms almost the sole basis of viscous shear. (In liquids the action of momentum exchange is reinforced by molecular cohesion.) In turbulent flow, momentum exchange alone isthe basis of shear resistance; it occurs on c scale, being caused by random Muctuations in velocity whi are continually sending Muid particles back and forth between adjacent layers. Equation (1-14) makes it clear that in both laminar and turbulent flow the action is absolutely dependent on the existence of a velocity difference; such a diference usually arises from a continuous transverse velocity gradient, as in Fig. 1-3. ‘The Boundary Layer In a large number of real flow situations, neither viscous nor turbulent shear can be said to originate a force resisting motion; they merely transmit such a force from its origin, which is often on 2 solid surface. It is well established by observation that fluid actually in contact with a solid surface has no motion along the surface; the transverse velocity gradient so created (Fig. 1-3) enables the solid surface to exert on the moving fluid a drag force which is transmitted outwards through successive faster-moving fluid layers. Flow resistance therefore depends as much on the presence of solid surfaces aas on the strength of the viscosity or turbulence. Accordingly, if one solid surface is isolated in a large expanse of moving fluid (Fig. 1-94), the effects of resistance are confined to a fluid layer of limited thickness—the “boundary layer "—adjacent to the surface. When the fluid is of small viscosity (e.g, air for water) this layer is quite thin and the pressure difference across it is negligible. The pressure distribution on the solid surface is therefore the same 2 itis outside the boundary layer, where the fluid behaves as if it had no viscosity. Sec. 18] Flow Resistance 15 \Within the boundary layer the fluid is transmitting shear stress across the streamlines: each fluid element is therefore subject to opposing shear stresses fon opposite faces, producing a torque which makes the element rotate. It is convenient to measure this rotation by the “ vorticity” w, equal to twice the gular velocity of the element. The strength of the rotation diminishes with jnereasing distance from the sclid boundary, and in fact the vorticity @ can be thought of as a fluid property (like color, salinity, or temperature) which is diffused outwards from the solid boundary. and will he of appreciable ‘magnitude only within-the boundary layer, just as in flow past a hot body there will be a layer of heated fluid close to the body, any hot fluid outside shat layer being swept downstream. Examination of the equations of viscous flow and of heat conduction shows that the analogy described here is an exact FE} Lint of vounry oer Foe jf---- velocity poi o Limit of first boundary layer Limit of second Leanne Figure 1-9, Boundary Layer Formation, (a) on a Flat Plate, (6) in a Channel, @ Second Boundary Layer Growing Within the First It is quite possible for one boundary layer to form within another. As water flows from a lake into a channel (Fig. 1-96) the boundary layer grows and eventually fills the whole channel. If now the velocity is suddenly raised by a channel contraction like the sluice gate in the figure, a fresh boundary layer ‘must begin to grow. Reverting to the heat-diffusion analogy, we may compare the situation to one in which water flowing over a heated bed has reached a. state of thermal equilibrium; ifthe flow now enters a region where the bed is distinctly hotter than before, the water must adapt to the new situation by the growth of «new heated band which will in its tum eventually il the whole ‘channel The leading parameters of the boundary layer must clearly be related to the Reynolds number, which in this context is defined in relation to distance x ‘along the solid boundary. When this boundary is simply a flat plate held16 Baste Conceers or Fiuip FLow [ont parallel othe flow the thicknes and the local drag coeiciet c re ten by the following equion, When the boundary ayes lamina é (ugx\ 82") 1) and «= 066(") j (1-16) where the local shear stress ry at any point on the surface is given by the equation tom ey $000? (4) and r isthe free-stream velocity outside the boundary layer. For a turbulent boundary layer the corresponding equ tees(ey" 18) and ey =0.059(2) (419) for Re = tpx/v <2 x 107 (v= up, the kinematic viscosity). Above this value of Re a logarithmic law holds. The boundary layer becomes turbulent on a smooth surface when Re reaches 5 x 10° approximately, ie, when x becomes large enough; or it may be turbulent right from the leading edge if the edge fr the surface is roughened, The total shear drag over the surface is termed surface drag. \t is obtained by integrating the local shear stress to over the ‘surface; more generally, an overall drag coefficient C, may be obtained by in- tegration from Eqs. (1-16) and (1-19) (Prob. 1.14). “The thickness 4 in the above equations is defined as the distance y from the solid boundary at which r/ry approaches unity ; this definition is not as vague as it may at first appear, for it is usually easy to fit equations such as ny ing (1-20) (the sine curve approximating to the laminar flow profile), or ==(5) “4 ) characteristic of turbulent flow, to observed velocity profiles. The fitting pro- ‘ss itself determines the value of 8 with very little error or uncertainty. The value of 7 in Eq. (I-21) is about + for moderately high values of Re, although it may he less for very high values of Re. ‘An alternative definition, convenient for some purposes (e-g., Prob. 1.13) is the “displacement thickness” 5,, which is the distance by which the sec. 18] Fhow Resistance ” boundary layer displaces the whole flow pattern laterally from the solid boun- Gary. This definition implies that the discharge through any transverse section of the boundary layer is equal to r9(6 — 5), for the effect of the velocity reduction near the solid surface has been to inercase by 6, the width required to accommodate this discharge. Given the above laws of velocity distribu tion for laminar and turbulent flow, it is easly shown (Prob. 1.12) that 5, = (z= Din of approximately 6/3 for the laminar, and approximately 68 for the turbulent, boundary layer. Separation Flow around the upstream, or leading, surface of a solid body, Fig. 1-10, is similar to flow along a flat plate except that outside the boundary layer the ‘velocity is inereasing and the pressure is decreasing. However there is still no pressure change across the boundary layer. Fluid within the boundary layer is steadily losing kinetic energs, with the result that when the downstream, co trailing, surface is reached this fluid may not have enough energy left to make its way into the region of increasing pressure which it finds there. In this event the flow will separate from the solid surface, as shown in Fig. 1-10a, land this separation is most likely to occur when the downstream surface ‘curves sharply away from the flow as in the case of a thick imperfeetly stream- lined body—usually termed a “blunt” body. On a well-streamlined body, Fig, 1-10, separation accurs well downstream, if at al. Minimum Region of steply presure “\ rising pretoure / Fein of Region of gradu Fon (\ foi gion of gradual fot 7 saporction rising presse Region of Flow falling — Stagnation point Separation imaximum pressure) (ol Blu body (0) Steeamlined body Figure 1-10. Examples of Flow Separation If separation occurs, the pressure in the resultant downstream “wake” ipproximates to the low pressure at the comparatively high velocity point of separation. The result is a net thrust on the body due to the pressure difference Detween upstream and downstream faces—the “form drag, tude is substantially independent of Re. This is the major component of the raz force on blunt bodies; on well-streamlined bodies surface drag pre~ dominates. The distinction between these two extremes must clearly be based ‘whose magni-18 Basic Concerts oF Fur Flow Tot con the shape of the trailing rather than the leading surface. Thus a bridge pier may be long and slender, but if its downstream end is square it will un- doubtedly behave as a blunt body. ‘The total drag force on any solid body isa combination of surface drag and form drag. The drag coefficient Cis defined by the equation Py = Cy ASpty? (1-22) where P, is the drag force and 4 is the frontal area of the body— ie. its area projected on a plane normal tothe flow. At sufficiently high values of Re form drag predominates and C, becomes virtually independent of Re. The drag is now due almost entirely o the pressure distribution round the body and it is readily shown (Prob, 1.16) that the drag coefficient Cp may be obtained by integrating the dimensionless pressure coefficient ya Poe * p08 ‘ 23) over the frontal area of the body. In Eq. (I-23), p is the normal pressure on the body surface and the subscript 0 indicates free-stream conditions away from the influence of the body. If the free-stream velocity vg is very high the pressure decrease in the wake may be limited by the approach of absolute zero pressure (Prob. 1.17). Typical values of Cy range from 0.03 for a well-streamtined body through about 1.0 for blunt axisymmetric bodies (¢.2.. 1-12 for a circular disk held ‘normal to the flow) up to 1.5-2.0 for blunt “ two-dimensional” bodies (those in which one dimension normal to the flow is very great, so that flow around the body is in two dimensions only.) An example is the long flat plate held normal to the flow, of which the Cy is 1.9. The most common occurrence of flow resistance in open channel flow is in tong channels where the boundary layer fills the whole channel section (Chap. 4). In this case the Reynolds number Re is usvally so large that it has virtually no influence on the resistance coeflicient. However, it will be seen jn Chaps. 6 and 7 that there is occasion to consider also the resistance of bodies (ea, bridge piers) placed in the stream, and the growth of the boundary layer ‘on structures such as weirs and spillways. In this latter case Re is of some significance, as Eqs. (I-15), (I-16), 1-18), and (1-19) indicate Velocity Coefficients In the preceding discussion of the energy and momentum equations it has been assumed that the velocity is constant across the whole section of the flow This is never true in practice because viscous drag makes the velocity lower near the solid boundaries than at a distance from them. If the velocity does vary across the section, the true mean velocity head across the section, (07/29)m, sec, 1.9] Vevociry Coerricients 19 will not necessarily be equal (9 0/2a (the subscript m indicating the mean Salus), The true mean velocity head is obtained by the following argument “The weight flow through an element of area dA is equal to jedi the kinetic energy per unit weight of this flow is e*/2g; hence the rate of transfer of kinetic energy through this element is equal to we yu Hence the kinetic energy transfer rate of the whole flow is equal to and the total weight rate of flow is equal to 7 since the mean velocity 1, is by definition equal to Q/A. Hence the mean velocity head, or kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid, is equal to Yon where a is a correction coefficient to be applied to the velocity head as eal- culated from the mean velocity. Jt is sometimes known as the Coriolis co- efficient. Hence finally f aa aap (2g ‘The same considerations apply to the calculation of the momentum term (Qp0)_. The rate of transfer of momentum through an element of area da is equal to po*dA; thence by an argument similar to the preceding one we can deduce that the momentum correction coefficient is equal to: 05 Qn The coefficients x and fare never less than unity; they are both equal to ‘unity when the flow is uniform across the section, and the further the flow departs from uniform, the. greater the coefficients become. The form of Eqs. (1-24) and (1-25) makes it clear that a is more sensitive to velocity varia~ tion than 8, so that for a given channel section, x > f Values of « and f are easly calculated for idealized two-dimensional velocity distributions such as those of Eqs. (1-20) and (1-21), replacing 6 by the full depth of low yy. The 8 (1-28)2 Basie Concerts oF Fevip FLow [ent results show (Prob, 1.18) that x and ff individually are strongly dependent on the kind of velocity distribution, but that the ratio (a ~ 1)((B = 1) varies only slightly, in the region 2.7-2.8, as the flow changes from laminar to turbulent. The high value of « appropriate to laminar flow is of limited interest, since laminar flow is so rare in practical problems. For turbulent flow in regular channels a seldom exceeds 1.15, and it is doubtful whether the precision attainable with channel calculations warrants its inclusion, particularly as the experimental data on values of « are rather sparse and not always consistent. However the above remarks are true only when we consider the smooth and gradual velocity variation within a single well-defined channel, as in Fig. I-11a, Natural rivers, on the other hand, frequently flow in channels that can be subdivided into distinet regions, each with a different mean velocity. This is particularly true in time of flood, when the river overflows on to its flood plains, or “berms,” producing the kind of channel section shown in Fig. 1-116, In this case there are in effect three separate channels; over the berms the mean velocity will be materially less than in the main channel, because of higher resistance to the flow, partly due to the smaller depth over the berms, and partly to the rougher surface that they usually possess. Velecity eenteurt ® (} Single chanvel (| Naturat iver chanvet ae is 22 approx. Figure I-11. Typical Cross-Sections with Values of the Velocity Coefficient a “This stepwise variation in mean velocity among the different flow sections is in fact responsible for values of much higher than those produced by gradual variation within a given section, so much higher as virtually to swamp any contribution to the value of a produced by gradual velocity variation. Accordingly, itis usually accurate enough to compute x by assuming the velocity to be constant within eaci subsection of the waterway; Eq. (1-24) then becomes by2Ay Opa +s" Fe Delay + An + AD) vyAs + 0yAg + Oss where fn Ai + Ay + Ay Proniems a ‘or we may write in a more compact form Boy Ay(EAy)? = ae? G26) It will be shown in Chap. 5 how the above equation is combined with flow- resistance formulas so as to produce numerical values of a, whose magnitude may in some cases be well over 2. Only in the above ease of a divided waterway will the velocity coefficients be taken into account in this book. In other applications they will be neglected, since they represent only second-order corrections, and present knowledge of experimental values is imperfect. Problem 1.6 shows, a8 a matter of interest, 1 special experimental situation in which precise knowledge of the momentum coefficient is required; Prob. 1.7 shows, on the other hand, the way in which this requirement is avoided in a typical open channel problem. Problems (Take » for water = 1.2 x 10-* ft/ses) 1.1, Classify the following flow cases as steady or unsteady, from the viewpoint of the appropriate obser Case Observer 1. Ship steaming across a lake, (a). Standing on ship. (©) Standing on shore. 2. Flow of river around bridge piers. (a). Standing on bridge. (©) In boat, drifting with current. 3. Ship steaming upstream in a river. (a). Standing on ship. (©) Standing on bank. (©) In boat, drifting with current. 4, Movement of flood down 2 valley (a)_Standing on bank at dam site. after the collapse of a dam, (b) Running downstream on bank, ‘Keeping pace with surge that forms At the front of the flood wave. 1.2, A small navigation canal of rectangular section contains still water 6 ft deep. ‘The sudden opening ofa lock gate sends a surge I ft high moving down the ccanal with a velocity of 15.6 Fysec; find the mean velocity of the water bochind the surge. 13. You are observing the rising stage of a major flood in a large river; at your observation point it is seen that at a certain time the discharge is 75,000 ceusecs, and that the wate level is rising at the rate of I ft per hr. The surface width of the river at this point, and for some miles upstream and downstream, is } mile, You are asked to make a quick estimate of the present magnitude of the discharge at a point 5 miles upstream, What is your estimate?2 Basic Concerts oF FLui Frow In the horizontal pipe contraction shown in Fig, 1-82, water i fo rate of 1 cuses, and the diameters at sections 1 and 2 are 6 in. and 3 in. respectively. Find the thrust F, on the walls of the contraction if the gage pressure at section 1 is (a) 10 Ib/sq in.; (b) 20 tbjsq in. Neglect the small change in pressure across the diameter of the pipe. ‘The situation is as in Prob. 1.4, except that there isa instrument mounted in the center of the contracted section, as in Fig, 1-8b. The drag force on this instrument is 10 Ib; assuming that the thrust F, is the same as in Prob. 1.4, find the gage pressure at section 2 when the gage pressure at Section | iS (a) 10 Ibjsqin.; (6) 20 Ibjsq i. ‘A water (unnel bas I-f square section, and runs full. A testis made on a 3:in. diameter eylinder (see figure) which runs the full width of the tunnel. It is found that there is a difference in pressure head of 8.57 in. of water between sections 1 and 2, and that the piezometsic head is uniform across cach section. At soction 1 there is a uniform velocity of 10 fi/see, and at section 2 the velocity distribution is as shown graphically in the figure, Find by graphical methods the momentum coefficient 8 at section 2, and the drag force on the cylinder. eee = 1 2 Problem 1-6 Wire [The reader is assumed to be familiar withthe diflerential-head and total- head Pitot tubes, one of which would have been used to obtain the velocit Ey, ¢»0 and hence q+ 0. Similarly when y-+0, g-+ 0, whence Figure 2-5, The Discharge-Depth Curve for Given Specific Energy and there will clearly be a maximum value of g for some value of y between O and £,. (Manifestly y cannot be greater than F,). We find this maximum by recasting Eq. (2-5) into the form @ = 2uy*Ey~y) 2-10) See.23) Critica FLow 37 and differentiating with respect to rah sayy ~ 609? oO when 6gy" = 4gyEy is, i which is essentially Eq. (2-9) representing critical flow: Eqs. (2-7) and (2-8) can be deduced from it. We have therefore established another important property of critical flow: it connotes not only minimum specific energy for a aiven discharge per unit width, but also maximum discharge per unit width for a given specific energy. Any one of the three Eqs. (2-7) through (2-9) might be used to define critical flow, and all have their uses in the calculations required in problems concerning critical flow. Equation (2-9), for instance, shows that the crests of E-y curves drawn for all values of g can be joined by a straight line having the equation y = 2£/3, as in Fig. 2-3b; Eq. (2-8), showing that yz increases with g, verifies our previous conclusion that curves having 2 high value of ¢ are 10 the right of those having 2 low value of q (Fig. 2-30). However our immediate interest centers on Eq. (2-7), for it has an important physical meaning. Critical Velocity and Wave Velocity Equation (2-7) states that at eritcal flow the velocity i equal to jj. Now this term is equal to the velocity with which a long wave of low amplitude propagates itself in water of depth y, and herein lies the most important physical Feature of ertical flow. Proof of this statement should be given before we praceed to discuss its significance, There are two kinds of waves to be considered—oscllatory waves, such as form in the sta at some distances from the shore (See. 8.6), and “ surges,” which were discussed in Sec, 1.2. The former of these move with substantially no energy loss the latter may have broken turbulent fronts With substantial energy losses. Considering fst the oscillatory wa thatthe velocity < shown in texts on hydrodynamics © of waves of length L in water of depth y is given by the equation ah 2 2 saon ZL eu compared with y, 2ny/L is small, so that8 ‘The ENERGY PRINCIPLE IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ton. wherice =o 12) which is the required result. For the surge wave, itis convenient to consider the wave as being generated by the horizontal movement of a vertical plate into a channel of unit width containing still water, as shown in Fig. 2-6. The argument is restricted to surges of small amplitude; the velocity of the plate is Av, as is the velocity of the water immediately to the left of it and throughout all the water behind the surge which forms and moves to the left as soon as the plate begins t0 ‘move. The height of the surge is Ay, and its velocity is ¢, which in general is much greater than Ae. Figure 2-6. The Elementary Surge of Small Amplitude The normal method of treating this problem js that suggested by the di cussion in Secs, 1.2 and 1.6; ie. the situation is changed from unsteady 10 steady flow by changing the viewpoint of the observer, and the momentum equation is applied since energy may be dissipated at the face of the surge. This method will be developed fully in Chap. 3; however, since the surge in this case is of small amplitude the energy dissipation will be small and the energy equation may be used as an alternative to the momentum equation It is left to the reader to show (Prob. 2.1) that this approach leads to the result ay 212) as forthe oscillatory wave. Both arguments are limited to long waves of low amplitude, and it is this type of wave which is most often generated in channels by the operation of controls and the existence of obstructions. We can conclude therefore that the wave velocity e= gy is the velocity with which a disturbance in open channel flow tends to move over the water surface, and this velocity is of course measured relative to the water, aot to the banks. ‘Subcritical and Supercritical Flow We have now established that at eritical flow the water is moving just as fast, relative to the banks, as the wave resulting from a small disturbance See. 2.4] SUACRITICAL AND SUPERCRITICAL FLow » ‘would move relative to the water. One front of such a wave would therefore appear stationary to an observer standing on the bank: the opposite front (assuming the wave were spreading both upstream and downstream) would appear to the observer to be moving downstream twice as fast as the water Indeed, “standing waves” are characteristic of flow which is at or near the ion, but a fact of more far-reaching interest is that when the stream velocity is les than eritical, the wave from @ disturbance ean make its way upstream (from the viewpoint of the stationary observer) but when the velocity is greater than critical such a wave must be swept downstream, and no disturbance can propagate its influence in the upstream direction. The former type. of flow (o< Jy) is called subcritical, and the latter (© > Vay) supercritical. The two types of low are clearly represented by the upper and lower limbs of the Ey curve respectively; the same statement can be made of the g-y curve drawn for a given £ (Fig. 2-5). It should be just as clear, even to the reader unfamiliar with thermodynamics and gas flow, that since subcritical and supereritical low are defined in relation to a natural ‘wave velocity, they are closely analogous to subsonic and supersonic flow, ‘which are defined in relation to the natural velocity of a compression wave in a gas, ie, the velocity of sound. This conclusion has already been suggested in the remarks made in Sec. 2.2. The Froude Number We define the Froude number as the quantity v/a. ics the ratio of the stream velocity t0 the wave velocity. It will be designated by the letters Fr in all subsequent discussion. The Froude number is analogous to the Mach number in gas flow, i.., the ratio of gas velocity to son velocity. In the open channel case, the flow is supercritical or subcritical according as Fr is greater or less than unity; for this and other reasons Fri a very convenient parameter in the manipulation of the equations of open channel flow. For example, we note that the deriva- tive of Eq, (2-5) may be simply expressed as a 2 Brink (213) ‘The Froude number as defined above is easily recognized as the square root of the Froude number 2s derived from dimensional analysis, i, /gL, ‘where L is some characteristic length dimension. This difference in definitions need not cause any confusion. ‘The arguments developed in this and subsequent chapters will demonstrate convincingly the truth of the conclusion arrived at in the theory of dynamic similarity—that the Froude number is a kind of universal indicator of the state of affairs in free-surface flow. Many equations can be expressed in terms ‘of the Froude number in such a way as to make it clear that once the value of Frisknown, we know all that isrequired to describe a particular low situation.25 0 ‘Tue ENERGY PRINCIPLE 1 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW [ch2 Upstream and Downstream Control ‘The preceding discussion about the ability of a disturbance to move up- stream has a simple, practical, and most important significance. In subcritical flow, a disturbance can move upstream; what this means in practice is that a control mechanism such as a sluice gate can make its influence felt on the flow uupstveam, so that subcritical flow is subject ro downstream conirol. Conversely, supercritical flow cannot be influenced by any feature downstream, and can therefore only be controlled from upstream. ‘These general principles are perfectly illustrated by the simple sluice gate, whose setting determines the velocity-depth relationship both upstream and downstream of the gate itself (Fig. 2-7). The upstream flow is suberitical and stein, Figure 2-7. The Sluice Gate as a Generator of Subcritical and Supercritical Flow is controlled by a feature downstream of itself; the downstream flow is super- critical and is controlled by a feature upstream of itself. It is left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 2.2) to prove that the two flow regimes are in fact sub= critical and supercritical, and not, for instance, both subcritical, ‘A memory device often used by practicing engineers is the statement that in supercritical low " the water doesn't know what's happening downstream,” and this statement does indeed convey the truth of the matter in a way that is accurate as well as expressive, ‘The Occurrence of Critical Flow; Controls ‘The argument so far has dealt with the type of problem in which both q and E are prescribed initially: however, there is a further underlying problem which is of great practical interest, Its this: given a value of g. what factors determine the specific energy £, and hence the depth y? conversely, if E is ven, what factors determine q? ‘The answer to these questions is, as might be expected, that there are many different kinds of control mechanism which can dictate what the depth must be for a given g, and vice versa, An obvious example is the sluice gate; for & given setting of the gate there is a certain relationship between q and the Sec.25] THE OccURRENCE 9F CRITICAL FLOW; ContRoLs, 4 upstream depth, and similarly for the downstream depth. Weirs and spillways are further examples of this kind of mechanism, We might also expect that flow resistance due to the roughness of the channel bed will have some effect, and the detailed treatment of this subject in Chap. 4 will show that this is indeed the case In fact the flow situation in any particular channel is substantially deter- mined by the control mechanisms operating within it. The notion of a “con- trol”~any feature which determines a deptt-discharge relationship—is therefore of paramount importance in the study of open channel flow, but it ‘cannot be fully developed until flow resistance is treated in Chap. 4, Controls are mentioned here by way of introducing the fact that there are certain Features in a channel which tend to produce critical flow, and are therefore controls of a rather special kind To determine the nature of these features, we first consider the general problem of flow without losses in a channel of rectangular section and constant width, whose bed level may vary. This is in a sense a general reconsideration of the transition problem introduced in Sec. 2.2, but with a somewhat different emphasis. Since the total energy H and g are constant, we can write: aoa Hoyt 2ay E+ constant (244) whence, differentiating with respect to x, the distance afong the channel dE dz atm? 4@ result which may be written ac dyad dz aaa Whence from Eq, (2-13) we have apy 4 Fa rey+F-0 45) is noteworthy that the Froude number Fr plays a prominent, indeed a critically important, part in this equation, The equation demonstrates in com- pact form a result deduced previously from the form of the E-y curve: if there ‘san upward step in the channel bed, ie. if dzidy is positive, then the produet (l= FrPidy'dx must be negative. Hence if the flow is suberitical (Fr < 1), dpi will be negative and the depth will decrease over the step. Similarly, if the flow is supercritical the depth will increase. Corresponding conclusions can easly be arrived at for a downward step, with ded negativea ‘THe ENERO PRINCIPLE IN OFEx CHANNEL Flow [on However, our main concern here is with the case dzidx = 0, ic. that of a horizontal channel bed. Since the product (1 — Fr*)dyidx is then equal to 2er0, it follows that either Fr = (critical flow) lity clearly has a real physical meaning: in the step-transition problem 0 and dyide =0 both upstream of the step and over the step, and in both cases Fr # 1 It is not so obvious that the second possibility is a physically real one. The question is: ean we visualize a situation in which dz/dx = 0 and dyjdx #0? ‘The answer is found in the case shown in Fig. 2-8, in which water is released * £ tore Figure 2-8, Free Outflow from a Lake—an Example of Critical Flow from a lake over a short (but not sharp-edged) crest so that it can fall freely downstream. ‘This latter condition implies either a free overfall a short dis- tance downstream or a slope so steep that the bed resistance imposcs no effective restraint om the flow, At the crest 4, dzdx 0, but since the water is accelerating at this point, dylds # 0. The conclusion is that Fr must be equal to unity, and the flow will be critical, The cases of a sharp-edged (e-g., weir) crest, and a completely free overfall, are excluded because the pressure distribution would not then be hydrostatic; for the same reason the curvature of the crest should be fairly gentle so that vertical accelerations due to flow curvature will not be large. However even if the vertical accelerations are large, as at the edge of a completely free overfall, the flow is still quite close to the critical condition. Experimental evidence shows that the flow depth right at the brink of an over- fall is approximately 5y,/7, and that y = y-ata distance back from the overfall equal to two to three times y., depending on the discharge. For the sharp- ‘edged weir of infinite height, the discharge is remarkably close to that ob- tained by assuming critical flow at the crest, despite the pronounced vertical curvature of the flow. Details of this case are left as an exercise for the reader (Prob. 2.3). Both the free overfall and the sharp-edged weir will be discussed in more detail in Chap. 6. . Sec.25] Tw OCCURRENCE oF CrITICAL FLow; ContROLS 8 Granted that the pressure distribution is hyérostati, we conclude that when ‘water is released from a lake without any downstream restraint critical low ‘occurs at the section of maximum vertical constriction: such a section is, therefore a control, It is easily shown that critical flow will oocur at a corre sponding horizontal constriction; if we assume a horizontal channel bed and a variable width b, we can write again differentiating Eq, (2-14) with respect to x, but this time taking z a5 a constant and q as a variable: ay dx ay dx odo bas ie, 1 — Fr?) — Fr’ 0 (2-16) whence, as from Eq, (2-15), we cin conclude that at the outflow from a lake critical flow will occur when dbjds = 0, ie. ata section of maximum hori zontal constriction. It is left to the reader to show that critical flow could not ‘occur at a section of maximum width, but only at one of minimum width (Prob. 2.4). It will be shown in Sec. 2.7 that Eqs. (2-15) and (2-16) can be generalized to fit any shape af channel cross section and that the same inference can be 20. Hence both E, and Q tend to infinity. In practice, critical flow could never occur when the water surface nears the top of the culvert because the standing waves which are a feature of critical flow would then touch the top of the culvert and cause it to run full, at least intermittently. This effect would occur when yD > 0.9 approx. (£,/D > 1S approx.) $0 beyond this point the curves forthe circular culvert are of little practical interest. Although the circular-culvert line on Fig. 2-16 is curved, parts of it are approximated very closely by straight lines. In the range 0 < £,/D <0.8 such a straight line has the equation 7 ny a2 1 and Fr < 25. Consider a channel of irregular and varying cross section, but with the low point of the section remaining at the same level along the channel. There is no resistance to the flow. Prove from Eq. (2-19) that yd Bax where bis the average wicth of the section. Hence show that critical flow can ‘occur at a section of minimum average width 26, Prove that for a given specific energy in a channel of unrestricted cross- sectional shape, the discharge is a maximum when the flow is critical 2.7. By expressing the area 4 and surface width B of a trapezoidal section as functions of b, », and m, derive Eq, (2-26) from Eq. (2-22). If the angle # is defined as in the accompanying sketch of flow in a circular culvert, prove that if the flow is critical the following equation is true: 28, @ _G—sinBcos fy 2 =D 68s29. 210, 2a 242. 23, 214 2s, 216. 247 28 TwE ENERGY PRINCIPLE IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW [on ‘Choose three points on the appropriate curve of Fig. 2-15 and verify that they are in accordance with this equation Problem 2-8 Derive Ea. (2-30) from Eq, (2-2), Prove that Eq, (2-36) is true for flow in a trapezoidal channel. By differen- tiation from this equation, verify that Eq. (2-26) is satisfied at critical fow. Water is flowing at a velocity of 10 ft/sec and a depth of 10 fein a channel of rectangular section. Find the change in depth and in absolute water level produced by (a) a smooth upward step of 1 ft; (b) a smooth downward step of 1 fi, in the channel bed. Also, (¢) find the maximum allowable size of ‘upward step for the upstream flow to be possible as specified, ‘The same as Prob. 2.11 except that the upstream velocity is 15 fisec, the depth 2 ft, and the height of step 6 in “The upstream conditions are as in Prob. 2.11, and the width is 10 ft, Find the change in depth and in absolute water level produced by (a) a smooth contraction to a width of 9 ft; (6) a smooth expansion in width to 11 ft. ‘Also (6) find the greatest allowable contraction in width for the upstream ow to be possible as specified. ‘The same as Prob. 2.13 except that the upstream velocity is 15 fsee, the depth 2 ft, and the amount of contraction or expansion in width is 2 ft. ‘The upstream conditions are as in Prob. 2.13 and there is then a smooth upward step of 2 ft in the channel bed. What expansion in width must simultaneously take place for the upstream flow to be possible as specified ? Water lows from a lake into a steep rectangular channel 10 ft wide, and the lake level is 10 ft above the channel ed at the outfall. Find the discharge. ‘Water flows from a lake into a steep rectangular channel over a broad crest Which is 8 ft below the lake level; the bed then dips down 2 ft below the crest. “Assuming that the flow is supercritical at this section just below the crest, find the velocity, depth, and Froude number there. |A channel of rectangular section is to take a certain discharge @ at critical flow; prove that for the “wetted perimeter,” P= b-+ 2y, to be a minimum, the water depth must be three-quarters of the width ‘A river diversion canal discharges into a concrete flume of rectangular ~ section running down a steep slope, The walls and floor of the flume are to be I ft thick, and the allowance for freeboard is to be 1 ft. For Q= 1,200 218. 2.20. 221, 222. 223, 224. 225, 226. Prostas 8 ‘eusees, find the width of flume that will minimize the cross-sectional area of the concrete at the head of the steep slope, where the flow is critical. Cal- culate also the cross-sectional area of the conerete for this channel width. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 20 f, side slopes of 2H: 1V, ‘and carries a flow of 750 cusees. (a) Find the flow depth at the head of a steep slope; (b) if there is a short but smooth transition to a rectangular section 20ft wide just before the head of the steep slope, find the depth at the upstream and downstream ends of the transition, assuming that the specific energy remains unchanged through the transition. ‘The situation is as in Prob. 2.19, except that the width of the rectangular section is not yet fixed. What width must this section be in order to produce 1a depth of 5.20 f atthe trapezoidal end of the transition? ‘Atthe outfall from a lake into a steep channel, the channel is of trapezoidal section with a base width of 20ft and side slopes of 2H : 1V, and the bed of the channel is 10 fe below the lake level. Find the discharge in the channel. ‘A lake is 10 discharge 2,000 cusecs into a steep channel, which at the lake outlet is to be trapezoidal in section, with side slopes of 2H: 1V. It is re- ‘quired that the channel bed at the outlet shall be 8 ft below the lake level: find the necessary base Width of the channel and the cross sectional area of the channel from the bed up to lake level. ‘Water discharges from an irrigation pond through a short horizontal circu lar pipe 3ft in diameter, ard the entrance to theculvert is smoothly rounded. Find the discharge throush the culvert for the following heights of pond level above the pipe “invert,” ie. the lowest point on the inner circum. ference of the pipe: 0.5 ft, 1.01, 1.5 ft, 20 ‘A circular pipe, discharging as in the previous problem, is to take a flow of 75 cusecs without running more than half full. Find the minimum diameter (of pipe required. ‘A trapezoidal channel of base width 10 ft and side slopes of 2H : 1V catries 2 discharge of 250 cusecs at a depth of 4.8 ft. The channel isto pass under a highway, and a cireular culvert is proposed with a smooth transition from the channel to the culvert; it is required that the culvert shall not act as a ‘choke, (a) Ifthe invert af the culvert isto be level with the channel bed, find the required culvert diameter. (b) If it is further required that the culvert soffit” (ie. the high point of its inner circumference) shall not be more than 6 ¢ above the channel bed, determine whether this condition can be met by dropping the culvert invert below the channel-bed level—also meeting ‘the further condition that the water depth within the culvert shall not be ‘greater than 0.8 of its diameter. Find (¢) the minimum width required for a rectangular culvert A trapezoidal channel with a base width of 20 ft and side slopes of 2H : 1V carries a low of 2,000 cusees at a depth of 8 ft. There is a smooth transition to a rectangular section 20 ft wide accompanied by 2 gradual lowering of the channel bed by 2 fl. Find the depth of water within the rectangular sec- tion, and the change in the water surface level. What isthe minimum amount bby which the bed must be lowered for the upstream flow to be possible as specified?2m. 228, 229. 230. 231. 222 2.33. 234. ‘The ENERGY PRINCIPLE IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW feon.2 ‘With the situation as inthe previous problem, find the amount by which the bed should be lowered to produce a drop in the water surface level of (a) zero, (b) 1.0 ft ‘The upstream conditions are as in Probs. 2.26 and 2.27, and there is then a ‘smooth contraction in width without any change in the bed level or the side slopes. Find the maximum allowable reduction in the base width if the up- stream flow is to be possible as specified. Ifthe width is actually reduced by ‘only balf this amount, find the downstream depth. ‘The upstream conditions are as in the previous problem, and there is then a smooth upward step in the bed with the sidewalls running on in their original alignment. Find the maximum allowable magnitude of the upward step if the upstream flow is to be possible as specified. If the actual size of the step is only half this amount, find the downstream depth and the change in the water level, ‘Water discharges from a lake, of surface elevation 97.0 ft above datum, into 2 stoop channel of irregular section. At the lake outlet the channel section isas follows: Height above datum, ft 91.0 91.5 92.0 92.5 93.0 93.5 940 94.5 95.0 95.5 96.0 96.5 Width, «0-9 «1S 18 19522 27 29 31 34 37 40 Find the discharge in the channel For the circular culvert shown in Prob. 2.8, prove that psa oe gesainiaa|-sSsiasiae D~D* gDxB— sin Fcos BF ‘Hence, using the result y/D = (1-~ eos 8/2, plot a curve of ED vs. y/D for the case Q/D* (gD) = 0.2. For what rate of flow in a 3-t diameter culvert would the curve plotted in ‘the previous prablem be applicable? Given that water is flowing at this rate in the cuNer, determine the critical depth and the depth alternate to y = 2 ft Derive Eqs. (2-38) and (2-39) from Eqs. (2-22) and (2-37). ‘A steep flume of triangular section and apex angle of 90° runs from a large ‘tank in which the water surface level is 2 & above the fume invert where it Joins the tank. Find the discharge in the flume, Computer Programs cu. Write and operate a program to compute simultaneous values of £/D and yD for a circular culvert, for values of Q/D*/gD ranging from 0.1 to 1.0, in steps of 0.1, Plot the appropriate curves of F/D vs. y/D and compare them with those of Diskin (4). Computer PRocrans 6s (C22. Write and operate a program to compute simultaneous values of mE/b and ‘mylb for a trapezoidal channel (Fig. 2-146), for values of Z = Qr?!** gb ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 in steps of 0.1. Plot the appropriate curves of Elo vs, myib for Z=03, 04, 05,05, C23. Use the two sets of curves 0 obtained to rework Probs, 2.25 through 2.29.3a The Momentum Principle in Open-Channel Flow ‘The Hydraulic Jump We can begin by summarizing certain conclusions that arise out of the discussion in Sees, 2.4 and 2.5 on controls and the response to control of subcritical and supercritical flow. They a: 1. Suberitical flow is produced by downstream contol, and supercritical flow by upstream control. 2. A control fixes a certain depth-discharge relationship in its own vicinity; it follows from the previous conclusion that it may also fix the nature of the flow for some distance upstream or downstream. If it does, it will therefore produce subcritical flow upstream and supercritical flow downstream, 3. A control will normally extend its influence both upstream and downstream, unless of course it stands at the end of a channel. This dual influence of a control is well illustrated by the sluice gate, discussed in See. 2:4, Now the existence of both upstream and downstream influence from con- trols sets an interesting special problem. Consider the length of channel Fig. 3-1) having a control at each end, typified by the sluice gates shown in TAIT OTT OTTO OOOO: Figure 3-1. The Conflict Between Upstream and Downstream Control the figure. The upstream gate produces supercritical flow downstream of itself, and the downstream gate produces subcritical flow upstream of itself. The result is a conflict between the influence of the two controls, one of which is seeking to impose supercritical flow, the other suberitical flow, on the length of channel between them. The conflict can be resolved only if by 66 Sec.32] THe Momentum FUNCTION—RECTANGULAR CHANNELS 67 some means the flow can pass from the one regime to the other; we have seen in Sec. 2.2 that this can happen if a specially proportioned constriction is provided in the channel, but we have no right to assume that such a feature will exist in the present situation, which is created solely by the two controls at the ends of the channel. To solve this problem we must in fact appeal to experimental evidence, which shows quite clearly that flow can transfer abruptly from the super- critical to the subcritical condition through a feature known as the hydraulic jump, the change being accompanied by considerable turbulence and energy loss, 28 in the case of an abrapt expansion in a pipe, Figure 3-2 shows a Figure 3-2. The Hydraulic Jump photograph of a hydraulic jump in a laboratory channel, in which the violent turbulence occasioned by the jump can be clearly seen ‘The next problem is that of producing equations describing the jump. Since there is an unknown energy los, this is clearly a case where the breakdown of the energy equation forces us fo have recourse to the momentum equation ‘The Momentum Function—Rectangular Channels Although the following investigation of the momentum equation has been prompted by the particular problem of the hydraulic jump, the analysis can be made as general as possible, so as to cover other cases besides the hydrat jump. We consider therefore the general situation shown in Fig, 3-3, in which ‘there may or may not be an energy loss between sections 1 and 2, and there ‘may or may not be some obstacle on which there is a drag force P,. In Fig, 3-36 ‘Tux Momestum PrinctrLe IN OFEN-CHANNEL Flow [Ch.3 the direction of P, is that of the force exerted by the obstacle on the flow: it is this force (not the drag on the obstacle) which is to be written in the ‘momentum equation, dealing as it does with forces on the block of water between sections I and 2, ” por Figure 3-3, Definition Sketch for Application of the Momentum Equation ‘The following are some of the particular cases that will be covered by the general argument: 1. Energy loss AE=0, P, #0 (the sluice gate) 2, QE#0, P, =0 (the simple hydraulic jump) 3. SEXO, P, £0 (the hydraulic jump with its formation assisted by some ‘obstacle in the low such as a dentated sil) Assigning the usual meanings to the symbols used, we have ‘4(Qp0) = (Ope); — (2p), Forward force on the block of water 1-2 = Fay ~ Fan Pr en ‘where Fi is the hydrostatic thrust oa one end of the block. For the particular case of a rectangular channel, we need consider only a ‘unit width of the channel, so that Eq. (3-1) becomes: wep 2 2 Py Where P, is now defined as the force per unit width of the channel. This equation could be used in its present form to solve any particular problem, but it is more conveniently rearranged thus: ge mi") (ao ms) p= (£24 Be) _ (C2 Be a @ 2 ) & 2 902 — 490 = ‘making the substitution v ~ gy. Dividing throughout by y, we now have Py ( Fe (£ ee) Pro (@ gmt) (a), wt) Ft 2) Gat =M.-M, en Sec. 32] THE Momentum FuNcTION—RecTANGULAR CHANNELS o where Gs) and is termed the momentum finction. Strictly speaking, the force P, should include the resistance of the channel bed and the weight of the block of water resolved down the slope (if any). In many cases these forces are minor corrections only and may be neglected: they will not be taken account of in the present argument, but will be con- sidered in connection with some special cases in a later chapter. For the simple hydraulic jump, P, = 0 and Eq, (3-2) can be written uit) @ Oe wy) =Hrty) The substitution q = 0,3, leads to on which is the wellknown equation of the hydraulic jump. The purpose of dividing the preceding equation by y, was to achieve a result expressed in terms of dimensionless numbers; again the Froude number Fr plays a key role, Equation (3-4) is a quadratic in y3/y,, whose solution is given by Seti FaFK? 0) es These two equations between them cover adequately the usual forms in which the problem occurs in practice; a third form can easily be deduced (Prob. 3.1) to deal with those cases in which only the downstream conditions are known. It is: vn ° G/T + BFF? - 1) G6) In general, since each of Eqs. (3-4) through (3-6) contains three independent ‘quantities, it is necessary to know two of them in advar from these the third may be calculated. For example, if the upstream conditions (o, and y,) ‘re known, the downstream depth may be calculated. But itis most important to realize that this downstream depth is caused not by the upstream conditions but by some control acting further downstream. If this control produces the fequired depth y,, a jump will form; otherwise it wll not. The corresponding38 0 ‘Te MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE IN OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW [Ch.3 depths y, and y, are said to be conjugate, or sequent, to each other (both ‘terms being in common ust). Since a jump will form only if there isa certain special relationship among 4, Yo, and yp, We are not really entitled to assume that a jump will always form in the situation shown in Fig. 3-1. We can visualize the event by imagin- ing that in the first instance the correct relationship obtains, so that there 1 clearly defined jump in the reach between the two controls. If y, now increases, the jump Will be forced upstream until the outlet of the upstream sate is “drowned; if yz decreases, the jump will be forced downstream until the upstream supercritical flow strikes the downstream gate directly. Eyen if y; has the correct value, conjugate to y,, it would seem that the jump could form anywhere in the channel between the gates and therefore ‘would not have any one stable position, but would tend to drift up and down thechannel. This unstable behavior can in fact be observed in the laboratory; wwe shall see in a later chapter that flow resistance tends to make the jump more stable, but over short distances, where the effect of flow resistance is slight, special devices may still be required to hold the jump stable in one position, in those cases where it is desirable to do so. “There is litle that need be said about further applications of Eq. (3-2). ‘Clearly itis applicable whether or not there is energy loss; it may, for instance, be used to calculate the force ona sluice gate, or the force on a step or sidewall contraction such as occurs in the problems dealt with in the last chapter. It can readily be applied to cases which involve energy loss and a force on some intermediate obstacle, such as flow around bridge piers, and the den- tated sill as an aid to hydraulic-jump formation. However there are com- plications in these latter cases which make it desirable to postpone their full, ‘treatment until a later chapter. Just as in pipe flow, there are certain cases (e.g., Prob. 3.10) where there may appear to be a conflict between the energy and momentum equations. ‘The confict can always be resolved by careful thought about the scope and applicability of each equation, as discussed in Sec. 1.6. ‘The M-y Relationship There is a good reason for casting the momentum equation into the par- ticular form of Eq. (3-2) and introducing the momentum function Mf. It is that for a given value of g, an M-y curve may be plotted (Fig. 3-4) which is similar in many ways to the E-y curve, except that it has only one asymptote, y «0, It has upper and lower limbs representing subcritical and supercritical flow respectively, for itis easily shown (Prob. 3.2) that at the crest C, where Misa minimum, the flow is critical ‘On this curve the solution of the hydraulic.jump problem can readily be displayed, for a vertical line will clearly cut the curve at points representing Sec. 33] Tae Mey RELATIONSHIP n ‘conjugate depths. By setting the E-y curve for the same g alongside the M-y ccurve (Fig. 3-4), the energy less in the hydraulic jump can be shown as a lateral displacement on the E-y curve. The inverse case of the sluice gate can be traced on the same pair of curves, indicating the thrust on the gate as a ° Wo Figure 3-4, Behavior of the Specific Energy and Momentum Function in Flow under a Sluice Gate and through a Hydraulic Jump displacement on the M-y curve. The situation which is actually traced on Fig. 3-4 is that of a sluice gate followed by a jump, so that: E, = Ey, but My # Mz My = My, but E # Ey ‘Other conclusions brought out by the form of the My curve are: 1. Of two conjugate depths, y, and yz, one must be subcritical and the other supercritical—a fact that can also be deduced from the algebraic argu- ment (Prob. 3.3). 2. If the upstream depth y, is increased (g remaining the same) then its conjugate depth y, will decrease, and vice versa. This fact is of some importance in the location of the hydraulic jump when flow resistance is taken into account. The subject will be treated in Chaps. 4 and 5. Dimensionless Treatment of the M Function As with the specifie energy equation, the momentum function ee Malye 3 ay 2 ite! can be reduced to dimensionless form. We divide throughout by y.2, obtaining Moe y ve oye" Bye whence, setting M’ = M/y,%, y’ = y/ye) and making the substitution g? = gy.>, we obi en