Scope, or dimension

No novel can theoretically be too long, but if it is too short it ceases to be a novel. It may
or may not be accidental that the novels most highly regarded by the world are of
considerable length—Cervantes’ Don Quixote, Dostoyevsky’s Brothers Karamazov,
Tolstoy’s War and Peace, Dickens’ David Copperfield, Proust’s À la recherche du temps
perdu, and so on. On the other hand, since World War II, brevity has been regarded as a
virtue in works like the later novels of the Irish absurdist author Samuel Beckett and
the ficciones of the Argentine Jorge Luis Borges, and it is only an aesthetic based on
bulk that would diminish the achievement of Ronald Firbank’s short novels of the post-
World War I era or the Evelyn Waugh who wrote The Loved One (1948). It would seem
that there are two ways of presenting human character—one, the brief way, through a
significant episode in the life stress, in psychology and biology, any environmental or
physical pressure that elicits a response from an organism. In most cases, stress
promotes survival because it forces organisms to adapt to rapidly changing
environmental conditions. For example, in response to unusually hot or dry
weather, plants prevent the loss of water by closing microscopic pores called stomata on
their leaves. This type of adaptive stress is sometimes described as eustress. However,
when an organism’s response to stress is inadequate or when the stress is too powerful,
disease or death of an organism may result. Such maladaptive stress is sometimes
referred to as distress. Humans respond to stress through basic physiological
mechanisms, similar to all other organisms; however, in humans, stress is an especially
complex phenomenon, influenced and complicated by modern lifestyles and
technologies.
Types of stress and effects
Stress may be acute, chronic, or traumatic. In humans, acute stress is characterized by
immediate danger that occurs within a short span of time and that activates the fight-or-
flight response of the sympathetic nervous system; narrowly avoiding an automobile
accident and being chased by a dog are examples of acute stress. Chronic stress is
characterized by the persistent presence of sources of frustration or anxiety that a
person encounters every day. An unpleasant job situation, chronic illness, and abuse
incurred during childhood or adult life are examples of factors that can cause chronic
stress. This type of stress involves long-term stimulation of the fight-or-flight
response. Traumatic stress is characterized by the occurrence of a life-threatening event
that evokes fear and helplessness. Tornadoes, fires, and wars are examples of events
capable of causing traumatic stress; these events sometimes lead to the development
of post-traumatic stress disorder.
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In the case of chronic stress, there is little doubt that an individual’s success or failure in
controlling potentially stressful situations can have a profound effect on his or her
ability to function. The ability to “cope” with stress has figured prominently in
psychosomatic research. Researchers have reported a statistical link between coronary
heart disease and individuals exhibiting stressful behavioral patterns designated “Type
A.” These patterns are reflected in a style of life characterized by impatience and a sense
of time urgency, hard-driving competitiveness, and preoccupation with vocational and
related deadlines.

Discover how the various parts of the brain play a key role in controlling the fear
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Biochemical changes play an important role in mediating physiological responses to
stress; these chemical changes can result in psychological disturbances. Most chemical
changes associated with stress are a result of stimulation of the sympathetic nervous
system, specifically the fight-or-flight response. In acute stress, this response triggers
the release of substances called catecholamines, which include epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and cortisol, from the adrenal glands. These substances prepare the
body to react to immediate danger by increasing heart rate, increasing oxygen delivery
to the brain, dilating blood vessels in skeletal muscles, and increasing
blood glucose levels.

In chronic stress, continuous stimulation of the fight-or-flight response leads to

constant production and secretion of catecholamines. This has a variety of physiological
consequences, including hyperglycemia (high blood glucose levels), which can lead to
type II diabetes mellitus, and hypertension (high blood pressure), which can lead
to cardiovascular disease. Because some catecholamines such as norepinephrine act
as neurotransmitters in the brain, these substances can alter cognition and other mental
processes, leading to poor concentration, mood swings, agitation, depression, and
anxiety. In addition, long-term stress-induced cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands
can depress immune function, leading to increased risk of illness. High levels of cortisol
also are associated with weight gain, particularly with the accumulation of excess
abdominal fat. Prolonged norepinephrine release directly by neurons of the sympathetic
nervous system can lead to depletion of stem cell populations in hair follicles, resulting
in premature graying of the hair.

Research suggests that persons who consume a high-calorie diet are

especially vulnerable to weight gain when under chronic stress, owing to elevated levels
of the hormone insulin. High insulin levels in a part of the brain known as
the amygdala eventually desensitize neurons to the hormone. Once desensitized, the
neurons increase their secretion of the neurotransmitter molecule neuropeptide Y,
which promotes eating and weight gain.