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Feminist Studies
Mid-Twentieth-Century Press
Emily Skidmore
As with any new academic field, transgender studies has created its
own pantheon of canonical texts and heroic figures. One of the most cele
brated figures has been Christine Jorgensen, and not without good reason;
when the news announced in late 1952 that the former GI had undergone
sex reassignment surgery in Denmark, it created a maelstrom of media
attention and introduced many Americans to the concept of transsexual
ity. Jorgensen remained in the news throughout the 1950s as she appeared
on television talk shows, starred in her own nightclub show, and her 1967
autobiography was adapted and released as a motion picture, titled The
Christine Jorgensen Story, in 1970. Her engaging personality captured the imag
ination of many Americans, both past and present, and she has remained
the most prominent individual within historical treatments of transsexu
ality.1 However, Jorgensen was not the only public representation of
transsexuality in the mid-twentieth century. In April 1966, for example,
African American transwoman Delisa Newton graced the cover of Sepia,
and her autobiography was the subject of a two-part series featured in the
magazine. Similar to much of the press coverage of Jorgensen, Sepia's
coverage of Newton highlighted her lonely childhood and her fervent
desire to one day be a good wife. However, whereas Jorgensen's story
appeared in numerous mainstream news magazines, such as Time and
Feminist Studies 37, no. 2 (Summer 2011). © 2011 by Feminist Studies, Inc.
270
Newsweek and widely circulated newspapers such as the Los Angeles Times,
Newton's story appeared only in the African American press and tabloid
newspapers such as the National Insider. The disparity between the media
reception of Jorgensen and Newton highlights the significance of race
within media representations of transsexuality and suggests that such
public narratives of transsexuality are not simply about gender but also
about race, class, and sexuality.
Building on the emergent scholarship on transgender studies, this
article denaturalizes the preeminent position Jorgensen has enjoyed with
in historical treatments of transsexuality and highlights the significance of
Jorgensen's whiteness within public representations. By discussing Jorgen
sen in relation to the numerous other transwomen who appeared in the
mainstream media in the mid-twentieth century, I track the formation of
the "transsexual" within popular discourse. Perhaps unsurprisingly, it was
those transwomen (primarily Jorgensen) depicted with the most proxim
ity to white womanhood, who gained the most visibility in the main
stream press and whose stories therefore came to define the boundaries of
"transsexual" identity. In order to illustrate this, I will discuss the repre
sentations of three white transwomen from the 1950s: Christine Jorgensen,
Charlotte McLeod, and Tamara Rees. I argue that these white transwomen
were able to articulate transsexuality as an acceptable subject position
through an embodiment of the norms of white womanhood,2 most
notably domesticity, respectability, and heterosexuality. However, this
maneuver was only possible through the subjugation of other gender vari
ant bodies; as the subject position of the transsexual was sanitized in the
mainstream press and rendered visible through whiteness, other forms of
gender variance were increasingly made visible through nonwhiteness. To
illustrate this, I will discuss the representations of three transwomen of
color who appeared in the mainstream, tabloid, and African American
press in the 1950s and 1960s: Marta Olmos Ramiro, Laverne Peterson, and
Delisa Newton. Although each of these transwomen articulated their
embodiment in ways similar to Jorgensen, McLeod, and Rees, their bodies
were less intelligible as "authentic" (read: white) women, and therefore
they appeared in the mainstream press as subjects of ridicule, not as
"authentic" transsexuals. Taken together, this article highlights the disci
EX-fil BECOME
BLONDE BEAU
Operations Transform Bronx Y t*n * hp i
Fig. 1: The Daily News front page that announced Christine Jorgensen's transformation to
world, December 1, 1952. Photo courtesy of New York Daily News Archive/New York Daily News/Get
images.
ticed among them. I did feel a great sympathy for many of these young
men and women who I met, but I could find no peace of mind among
them.23
license had been denied by the state of New York, the marriage license clerk
refusing since Jorgensen's birth certificate still indicated that she was male.26
Fig. 2: Tamara Rees, posing with tea cups, as seen in the Daily News, November 1954. Photo
courtesy of New York Daily News Archive/New York Daily News/Getty images.
the series, Rees described her marriage to a woman in similar terms: "I was
sent to Camp McCall, N.C., where, in July of 1943, I married a Southern
girl. It wasn't at all successful. She, I think, primarily wanted freedom
from her family. I felt that marriage would automatically clear me of the
homosexual implication that I have always bitterly resented."29
In May of 1954, the San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco Examiner, and New
York Sunday Mirror all reported the sex reassignment of thirty-year-old
Marta Olmos Ramiro, a native of Mexico City. Similar to the coverage of
Jorgensen and McLeod, in interviews Ramiro articulated her sex reassign
ment surgery as the fulfillment of a lifelong dream, one that she hoped
would include marriage and children. The San Francisco Chronicle reported
that she felt "feminine impulses" and "liked to cook and sew and keep the
house. . . . Although I was strong, I didn't rough house with the other
boys. I finally took this step to end my torment."32 However, Ramiro's
coverage within the mainstream press was very different from that of the
white transwomen discussed earlier, and no credit was given to the skill of
the Mexican doctors who performed Ramiro's sex reassignment surgery.
Throughout the mainstream press, linguistic markers were deployed to
signal their lack of professional credentials, with the San Francisco Examiner
referring to them as "interns" and the New York Sunday Mirror calling them
"Mexican Medics."33 In this way, Ramiro's status as a woman was rendered
less legitimate because the doctors who performed the surgery were ren
dered as illegitimate, a theme that became even more prevalent when
Ramiro's story was told in the tabloid magazine Whisper.34
Indeed, Ramiro's visibility within the mainstream press was very brief,
but her story did reappear in the April 1955 issue of Whisper in an article
titled "Mexico's Hush-Hush Clinic: Sex Surgery While You Wait!" Ac
cording to the magazine, news of Ramiro's sex reassignment surgery
"kicked up a fuss in his homeland" which "inspired several Mexican legis
latures to consider making their country a haven for guys and gals who
want to be gals and guys." Whisper suggested that Ramiro's transformation
motivated the Mexican government to consider loosening legal regula
tions controlling sex reassignment surgery in order to attract tourists,
reporting: "Mexico has embarked on a determined campaign to steal
Copenhagen's crown as the mecca for mixed-up kids who don't like what
the doc wrote on their birth certificates." Whisper suggested to its readers
that this campaign was already underway and devoted the bulk of the arti
cle to efforts being made by Mexican lawmakers and doctors to cater to
U.S. clients. The article discussed a clinic (or "fairy factory") operated by
Alfredo Martinez that allegedly boasted rapid service and low cost. While
Fig. 3: Laverne Peterson, as seen in the Sunday Star-Bulletin and Advertiser, November 1964. Reprinted
with permission from the Honolulu Advertiser.
reader of the National Insider was not interested in seeing Newton posing
with a broom but was anxious to read about her experiences with domes
tic violence and interracial sex.52 Whereas Sepia provided Newton the space
to articulate her story in her own words, the editors of the National Insider
narrated her story for her, shaping it to conform to mid-America's racial
ized gender expectations.
However, the National Insider's scandalized portrayal of Newton should
not be blamed entirely on its readership's appetite for stories of African
American women as victims of domestic violence; rather, these represen
tations must be considered within the larger field of representations of
race and gender in the mid-twentieth century. This period was one of
tremendous racial turmoil within the United States, as white mobilization
against the black freedom movement powerfully illustrated how invested
many whites were in maintaining the status quo. White anxiety about
protecting racial boundaries was often expressed through the policing of
gender and sexuality, as illustrated by the brutal lynching in 1955 of four
teen-year-old Emmett Till for allegedly whistling at a white woman.53
Acts of violence against black men (or boys, in Till's case) were normalized
in part through the demonization of black masculinity within popular
culture.54 Indeed, black men were often represented as antithetical to white
women; whereas black men were cast as violent, incapable of controlling
their emotions or sexual drive, and uneducated, white women were cast
as chaste, moral, and refined. To mainstream audiences well acquainted
with these images, it seems likely that African American men would have
been perceived as poor candidates for "passable" women. The visual disso
nance produced by black men inhabiting the normative scripts of femi
ninity—scripts created in reference to whiteness—holds the potential to
highlight the performativity of race and gender. Thus, in order to natural
ize white womanhood as the universal ideal (and thereby maintain the
legitimacy of strict racial boundaries), it was vital that the mainstream
press either ignore cases such as Newton's or treat such individuals as
objects of ridicule for attempting to present themselves as "real" women.
Conclusion
This article has illustrated that the interrogation of race and racis
be central to the study of media representations of transsexualit
far, scholarship on the history of transsexuality in the United S
focused on Jorgensen to the exclusion of other transwomen and h
to interpret the significance of her whiteness. This elision has allo
the public discourse of transsexuality to be analyzed as if it w
about gender, whereas, as this article has shown, narratives of tra
ity are always already about race, class, and sexuality as well as gen
placing representations of Jorgensen in conversation with the re
tions of other transwomen in the postwar period, I have sho
Jorgensen's ability to "humanize" her story was dependent u
performance of the scripts of white, middle-class womanhood.
Indeed, it was not just Jorgensen, but also Rees and McLeod, w
public pioneers of transsexuality, had the opportunity to put for
clusive display of gender variance. Instead, they each sought to c
identity "just like" other women, and in calling upon the no
universal sisterhood, they conflated transsexuality with whiteness
sexuality, and middle-classness.55 This maneuver should not be vie
personal failure on the part of these transwomen but, rather, sh
taken as evidence of the strong disciplinary mechanisms within
tural ideology of race, gender, and sexuality. As Hillary Harris has
"Whiteness is invested in, like property, but it is also a means of a
ing property and keeping it from others."56 Thus, as public repres
of transsexuality became visible through whiteness, white transw
were motivated to articulate transsexuality in exclusionary ways
to protect their respectability because, as Harris explains, the ide
power of white womanhood (and the bi-gender system that it su
rests in large part in the exclusive nature of its construction.
The implications of this exclusivity can be seen not only in rep
tions of the white transwomen discussed here but also within th
sentations of transwomen of color. Whereas Jorgensen's whiteness
her ascension to the category of "woman," Peterson's Pacific
heritage ensured that she would be characterized not as a "real" w
but rather as a "sexual enigma." Peterson was not ridiculed in th
stream press for her desire for sex reassignment, perhaps due in part to the
ways in ways Asian men have been effeminized within mainstream U.S.
popular culture. In contrast, African American and Latino men have both
been hypermasculinized in the media, making their bodies virtually
incompatible with mainstream expectations of femininity. As a result,
when Latina or African American transwomen appeared in the media in
the mid-twentieth century, they did so as objects of ridicule, as evidenced
by the coverage of Ramiro and Newton in the tabloid press.
In order to think through the implications of these insights, it is
productive to draw upon Lisa Duggan's notion of homonormativity. Dug
gan defines homonormativity as "a politics that does not contest domi
nant heteronormative assumptions and institutions, but upholds and
sustains them, while promising the possibility of a demobilized gay
constituency, and a gay culture anchored in domesticity and consump
tion."57 Although Duggan defines homonormativity with specific refer
ence to gay culture and articulates the notion as having a particular
relationship with neoliberalism, the concept is nonetheless still useful
here and provides a rubric for understanding how certain queer subjects
can be produced as acceptable while other queer subjects are produced as
pathological. In addition, it allows for a more complicated understanding
of queer subjectivity in relation to dominant power structures, highlight
ing contingency and normative investments.
In Joanne Meyerowitz's pathbreaking How Sex Changed: A History of Trans
sexuality in the United States, she argues that the emergence ofJorgensen in the
1950s destabilized gender norms and introduced the public to a more fluid
understanding of the relationship between sex and gender. However, as I
have sought to illustrate here, Jorgensen and other white transwomen
who appeared in the mainstream press in the mid-twentieth century artic
ulated their acceptability through their performance of the scripts of white
womanhood and by implication, normative investments in heterosexual
ity, consumerism, and white supremacy. Their ascension to respectability
was dependent upon the subjugation of other forms of gender variance,
particularly drag queens and homosexuals. Jorgensen, McLeod, and Rees
created a narrative of the "good transsexual," and this narrative helped to
Notes
This article is the winner of the 2008 Feminist Studies Award for the best article submitted
by a graduate student.
1. In this article, I focus only on the media discourse around male-to-female transsexuals
as they were far more visible than female-to-male transsexuals in the mid-twentieth
century, and thus in many ways transsexuality was first understood as a phenomenon
that affected only those born male. I use the term "transwomen" to refer to male-to
female transsexuals in order to highlight the specificity of this discussion, as the
dynamics regulating the visibility of female-to-male transbodies are much different.
2. I use the term "white womanhood" to refer to the norms of white femininity in
order to signify both their disciplinary ideological implications as well as their institu
tional power.
3. See Joanne Meyerowitz, "Sex Change and the Popular Press: Historical Notes on
Transsexuality in the United States, 1930-1955," GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies
4, no. 2 (1998): 159-87. Lisa Duggan interrogates the formation of what she terms the
"lesbian love murder story" in the 1890s, and her insights on the relationships
between the mass circulation press and the formation of social identities are particu
larly useful here. See her Sapphic Slashers: Sex, Violence, and American Modernity (Durham,
NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 33-34.
4. Stuart Hall, "Cultural Identity and Diaspora," in Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial
Theory, ed. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1994), 395.
5. Often in this article I will focus on the popular press rather than more "serious" news
magazines because of the broad reach of many popular daily newspapers. For exam
ple, in 1952, New York's Daily News had an average daily circulation of 2,251,430, well
over four times that of the New York Times (507,281) and almost three times that of the
weekly circulation of Newsweek (851,036). See N.W. Ayer & Son, Inc (comp.), A. W. Ayer
& Son's Directory: Newspapers and Periodicals, 1952, ed. R. Bruce Jones (Philadelphia: N.W.
Ayer & Son, 1953), 695,710.
6. Lizabeth Cohen, The Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America
(New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 126. For literature on gender roles in the 1950s, see
Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic
Books, 1988); Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar
America, 1945-1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); and Beth Bailey, Sex
in the Heartland (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994).
7. Craig Loftin, "Unacceptable Mannerisms: Gender Anxieties, Homosexual Activism,
and Swish in the United States, 1945-1965 "Journal of Social History 40 (Spring 2007): 577.
8. bell hooks, Outlaw Culture: Resisting Representations (New York: Routledge, 1994), 20.
9. "Former Boy Real Girl, Writer Says," San Francisco Examiner, 13 Feb. 1953, Christine
Jorgensen Scrapbook, Louise Lawrence Collection, Kinsey Institute for Research in
Sex, Gender, and Reproduction (hereafter referred to as LLC and KI).
10. Theo Wilson, "Folks Proud of GI Who Became Blonde Beauty," Daily News, 1 Dec.
1952, Christine Jorgensen Scrapbook, LLC.
11. Christine Jorgensen, "The Story of My Life," American Weekly, 15 Mar. 1953, 13. For
circulation information, see A. W. Ayer & Son's Directory, 665.
12. Fay Hammond, "Christine's Femininity Charms Interviewer," Los Angeles Times, 9 May
1953, Christine Jorgensen Scrapbook, LLC.
13. bally Quinn, Christine, Washington Post and Times Herald, 8 July 1970, Bl.
14. Jorgensen, "Story of My Life."
15. Christine Jorgensen, Christine Jorgensen: A Personal Autobiography (New York: Paul
Ericksson, 1967), 83.
16. Roy Aid, "Christine Jorgensen," True Confessions, September 1954, 64.
17. Joanne Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002), 96-97.
18. "In Christine's Footsteps," Time, 8 Mar. 1954, 63.
19. "Charlotte Home, Battles Photog Like the Charles She Used to Be," Daily News, 14
Apr. 1954; "Untitled," New York Sunday Times, 9 May 1954, all from Christine Jorgensen
Scrapbook, LLC.
20. "Ex-GI Changes Sex after Surgery," Chicago Daily Tribune, 25 Feb. 1954, B2.
21. "Charlotte "Would Wed," San Francisco Examiner, 25 June 1954, Christine Jorgensen
Scrapbook, LLC.
22. Alan Betrock, Unseen America: The Greatest Cult Exploitation Magazines, 1950-1966 (New
York: Shake Books, 1990), 57.
23. Charlotte McLeod, "I Changed My Sex," Mr., December 1956, 12, Transsexualism
Vertical File (folder 1), KI.
24. "Sex-Change CI a Bride," News-Call Bulletin, 13 Nov. 1959; "Sex Change, Ex-GI Now Is a
Bride," New York Herald Tribune, 14 Nov. 1959, both in Transsexualism Vertical File
(folder 2), KI.
25. Dreama Moon, "White Enculturation and Bourgeois Ideology: The Discursive
Production of 'Good (White) Girls,'" in Whiteness: The Communication of Social Identity, ed.
Thomas K. Nakayama and Judith Martin (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999), 182.
26. "Bars Marriage Permit," New York Times, 4 Apr. 1959, 20.
27. Tamara Adel Rees and Henry Lee, "Tamara Tells Her Story: A Boy Wanted to Grow
Up as a Girl" (11 Nov. 1954, 12) and "Tamara Joined Paratroopers as Test of
Manhood" (12 Nov. 1954, 3,24), both in the Daily News.
28. "Tamara Tells Her Story."
29. "Tamara Joined Paratroopers as Test of Manhood," Daily News, 34.
30. Meyerowitz, How Sex Changed, 52.
31. Louise Lawrence to Harry Benjamin, 23 Feb. 1953, 1, Correspondence on Christine
Jorgensen and Cross Dressing, 1953, Harris Whefled Collection, Bullough Collection
on Human Sexuality, California State University, Northridge.
32. "Male Clerk Now Wants to Be a Mother," San Francisco Chronicle, 7 May 1954, Christine
Jorgensen Scrapbook, LLC.
33. "Mexican Medics in Miracle Make-Over Turn Him into Her," New York Sunday Mirror,
30 May 1954; "Surgery by Interns Turns Mexican Man into Woman," San Francisco
Examiner, 6 May 1954, both in Christine Jorgensen Scrapbook, LLC.
34. Whisper magazine was known for its features on adventures and oddities and had a
circulation in the mid-1950s of about 600,000. It began in 1946 as a girlie magazine, and
pinups were still a common feature by 1955, so it appears as though the imagined
Whisper reader was a heterosexual male. For information on Whisper, see Betrock,
Unseen America, 111.
35. Juan Morales, "Mexico's Hush-Hush Secret: Sex Surgery While You Wait!" Whisper,
April 1955, 24-26, 43, Transsexualism Vertical File (folder 2), KI.
36. Ibid., 25.
37. Ibid., 25.
38. Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial
Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 7-8.
39. For a discussion of the feminization of Asian males in U.S. culture, see, for example,
David L. Eng, Racial Castration: Managing Masculinity in Asian America (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 2001); and Richard Fung, "Looking for My Penis: The Eroticized
Asian in Gay Porn Video," in How Do I Look? ed. Bad Object Choices (Seattle: Bay Press,
1991), 145-68. For examples of literature on media exoticizing of Asian women, see
Marina Heung, "Representing Ourselves: Films and Videos by Asian American/
Canadian Women," in Feminism, Multiculturalism, and the Media: Global Diversities, ed.
Angharad N. Valdivia (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995), 82-104.
40. Honolulu's Star-Bulletin was founded in 1882 by J.W. Robertson and Company, and
from its inception, its political views were aligned with the interests of white capital
rather than of indigenous Hawaiians. In 1964, the paper was owned by a group of
local investors headed by Elizabeth Farrington, a former Republican representative.
For information on newspapers in Hawaii, see Patricia Leigh Gibbs, "Alternative
Things Considered: A Comparative Political Economic Analysis of Honolulu
Mainstream and Alternative Print News Communication and Organization" (Ph.D.
diss., University of Hawai'i, 1999).
41. Honolulan, "Unhappy as a Male, Becomes a Woman through Surgery," Sunday Star
Bulletin and Advertiser, 1 Nov. 1964, A14, in Transsexual Vertical File (folder 2), KI.
42. See, for example, Willie Sabb, "My Mother Was a Man," Ebony, June 1953, 75; "Male
Dancer Becomes Danish Citizen to Change His Sex," Jet, 25 June 1953, 26; "Male Shake
Dancer Plans to Change Sex, Wed GI in Europe," Jet, 18 June 1953, 24-25.
43. Display Ad 12, Chicago Defender, 26 Mar. 1966, national edition, 4.
44. Delisa Newton, "From Man to Woman," Sepia, April 1966, 9.
45. Sherilyn Brandenstein, "Prominent Roles of Black Womanhood in Sepia Record, 1952
1954" (master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1989), 77-78.
46. Delisa Newton, "From Man to Woman," Sepia, May 1966, 66.
47. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist
Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 185-229.
48. Jose Esteban Munoz, Disidentif cation: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics (Min
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), 11-12.
49. See John W. Williams and Mrs. M.L. Anderson, letters to the editor, both in Sepia, July
1966, 6; and J. A. Wilmington, letter to the editor, Sepia, May 1966, 6.
50. Delisa Newton, "My Lover Beat Me," National Insider, 20 June 1965, 4-5, and "Why I
Could Never Marry a White Man," National Insider, 18 July 1965, 17.
51. For a discussion of the construction of the pathological black female in the 1960s, see
Robin D.G. Kelley, Yo' Mama's DisfunktionaU: Fighting the Culture Wars in Urban America
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1997), 15-42,78-102.
52. The National Insider was founded in 1962, and while its weekly readership averaged
between 65,000 and 70,000 throughout the mid-1960s, millions more people viewed its
headlines while waiting in line in supermarkets. See Bill Sloan, "I Watched a Wild Hog
Eat My Babyf" A Colorful History of Tabloids and Their Cultural Impact (New York:
Prometheus Books, 2001), 69.
53. Although many scholars have discussed the murder of Emmett Till, Davis Houck's
"Killing Emmett," Rhetoric and Public Affairs 8, no. 2 (2005): 225-62, does an excellent job
of discussing the role of newspapers in shaping the conditions that allowed both his
murder and for his murderers to be acquitted.
54. Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentricism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New
York: Routledge, 1994), 137-204.
55. Emi Koyama makes a similar claim in her essay, "Whose Feminism Is It Anyway? The
Unspoken Racism of the Trans Inclusion Debate," in The Transgender Studies Reader, ed.
Susan Stryker and Stephen Whittle (New York: Routledge, 2006), 698-705.
56. Hillary Harris, "Failing 'White Woman': Interrogating the Performance of Respect
ability," Theatre Journal 42, no. 2 (2000): 185.
57. Lisa Duggan, The Twilight of Equality? Neoliberalism, Cultural Politics, and the Attack on
Democracy (Boston: Beacon, 2004), 50.
58. Dan Irving, "Normalized Transgressions: Legitimizing the Transsexual Body as
Productive," Radical History Review, no. 100 (Winter 2008): 39.
59. Susan Stryker, "Transgender History, Homonormativity, and Disciplinarity," Radical
History Review, no. 100 (Winter 2008): 153.