Int. J. mech. Sci. P e r g a m o n Press. 1973. Vol. 15, pp. 789-805.

P r i n t e d in G r e a t B r i t a i n

I N F L U E N C E OF THE PLASTIC P R O P E R T I E S OF A
MATERIAL ON THE FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM
FOR SHEET METAL IN TENSION

ZDZISLAW MARCIN~A~, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI a n d TADEUSZ POKORA

Warsaw Technical University, N a r b u t t a 85, Warsaw, Poland

(Received 21 M a r c h 1973)

S u m n m r y - - A development of the theory of the formation of a groove, which appears

before fracture in sheet metal subject to tension is presented, and is based on t h e
assumption of initial non-homogeneity of the material in order to facilitate the deter-
mination of the limit strain of sheet metal subject to hiaxial tension. Additional con-
siderations in the present paper include strain-rate sensitivity, plane anisotropy and the
difference in the values of the fracture strain which depends on the direction of the
fracture with reference to t h a t of rolling. The influence of the above properties of
the material on the limit strain curve is analysed over the entire range of biaxial tension.
Theoretical curves of limit strain are compared with experimental results for sheet
metal in hiaxial tension under conditions which eliminate the influence of friction and
which ensure uniform strain distribution over the entire surface of the test piece, except
in places of strain concentration. The discrepancies between the experimental and
theoretical limit strain curves are analysed.

NOTATION
a strain ratio e~/61 outside the region of the groove
b, c coefficients of planar ani~otropy depending on r 1 and rs, according to definition [19]
el, e~ lengths of the major and minor axis of the ellipse or the sides of the rectangle, for
a n elliptic and rectangular punch, respectively
f coefficient of homogeneity of sheet metal
m exponent of strain-rate sensitivity
n exponent of strain hardening
r 1, r 2 coefficients of anisotropy as determined from uniaxial tension tests in directions
1 a n d 2, respectively
r0, rgo coefficients of anisotropy as determined from uniaxial tension tests parallel and
normal to the direction of rolling, respectively
to initial thickness of sheet metal
t thickness of sheet metal
w width of a test piece subject to uniaxial tension
6 + initial strain of the material

8 representative strain
61 strain in the plane of the sheet, normal to the groove
82 strain in the plane of the sheet, parallel to the groove
8a strain normal to the surface of the sheet
60 strain in rolling direction
690 strain normal to the direction of rolling
6at fracture strain [this being a material property, it is assumed that ea~> 0, there-
fore 6al = In (to/tr) ]
(6~)o fracture strain for fracture parallel to the direction of rolling
(6~,)oo fracture strain for fracture normal to the direction of rolling
(ef)o strain in the rolling direction at the fracture
(61)oo strain in the transverse direction at the fracture
789
790 ZDZIS]SAW M A R C I N I A K , KAZIMIERZ KUCZYNSKI and TADEUSZ POKORA

8* limit representative strain

6" limit strain normal to the groove
e* limit strain parallel to the groove
~(o) limit strain normal to the groove in a plane state of strain
e? limit representative strain outside the groove with reference to fracture occurring
in the groove
6. limit strain in the direction of rolling
6.° limit strain normal to the direction of rolling
representative strain rate
0"1~ 0"2 stresses in the plane of the sheet normal and parallel to the groove, respectively
yield stress

INTRODUCTION
THIS IS a d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e t h e o r y of t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a groove, which a p p e a r s
before f r a c t u r e in sheet m e t a l s u b j e c t to tension. This t h e o r y was s u b m i t t e d
in refs. (1-3), a n d is b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f initial n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y of t h e
m a t e r i a l . I t enables us t o d e t e r m i n e t h e limit s t r a i n o f sheet m e t a l s u b j e c t to
b i a x i a l tension, d e p e n d i n g o n c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l . These p r o p e r t i e s
were considered in refs. (1-3) a n d are: initial n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l ,
s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g , n o r m a l a n i s o t r o p y a n d f r a c t u r e strain. I n t h e p r e s e n t paper,
also a d d i t i o n a l l y considered are t h e s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity, p l a n e a n i s o t r o p y
a n d t h e difference in t h e values o f t h e f r a c t u r e strain, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
direction of t h e f r a c t u r e w i t h reference to t h a t of rolling. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e
influence o f t h e a b o v e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l on t h e limit s t r a i n c u r v e is
a n a l y s e d o v e r t h e entire r a n g e o f biaxial tension.
T h e o r e t i c a l curves o f limit s t r a i n will be c o m p a r e d below w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l
results for t h e biaxial tension of sheet m e t a l u n d e r conditions which eliminate
t h e influence o f friction a n d ensure u n i f o r m s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r t h e entire
surface o f t h e t e s t piece, e x c e p t in places o f s t r a i n concentration. T h e
discrepancies b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l limit s t r a i n curves are also
a n a l y s e d below.

I N F L U E N C E OF T H E S T R A I N - R A T E S E N S I T I V I T Y OF
M A T E R I A L , A N D OF T H E F R A C T U R E S T R A I N , ON T H E
F O R M OF T H E L I M I T C U R V E
An additional factor influencing the process of local stability loss is the sensitivity of
the material to the strain rate. This influence was analysed in ref. (4) in two particular
cases: the case of plane strain and that of balanced biaxial tension. To analyse the
influence of this property of the material on the forming limit curve, we shall consider a
more general case, in which the ratio of principal strains e~/el at a point outside the
region of the groove is constant and equal to any value a = 6~/el satisfying the condition
0~a~<l.
For simplicity, let us assume for the time being that the material is isotropic and its
plastic properties are described by the following relations:
(a) The yield condition for plane stress is, 0"a = 0, so that
0"~ = 0"21-- 0"1 05 ~- 0"~. (1)
(b) The law of plastic flow is
de1 dez des de
2°"1 -- 0"~ 20"2 -- 0"1 -- 0"1 -- 0"2 20"~ (2)
 The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 791
where de is the increment of representative strain
de = 4(}) 4(de~+ de**+ de3*). (3)
(c) The constitutive equation is
a , = k(e" + e)" ~'~. (4)
Let us assume a n orthogonal set of co-ordinates x, y, see Fig. 1, the directions of whose
axes coincide with those of the principal strains and stresses 1 and 2, respectively. Let
us assume also that the sheet metal is not perfectly homogeneous, b u t its initial thickness

fO "/t" t A A_

%..
J

a¢

u.

! X

y a2A B

O"1
4- ~___.
9

FIG. 1.

to a n d the constant k in equation (4) vary. The values of to and k are assumed to be
functions of the co-ordinate x, i.e. to(x ) a n d k(x), a n d to be independent of the co-ordinate
y. The product t o k will, therefore, also be a function of the co-orclinate x. Let us denote
b y the index B t h a t section normal to the x-axis in which the product to(x ) k(x) reaches its
m i n i m u m value t0s ks, and b y the index ,4, the section in which the local strain has a
value equal to the mean value of the limit strain outside the region of the groove. I n
what follows all the values concerning section A will be written without the index A,
that is, the symbol to~ will be replaced by to a n d / % b y k.
The ratio of the values of the product t o k at points B and A is
t0s k8
to k = ]' (5)
and will be termed the coefficient of homogeneity of the material.
Let us analyse the process of the plastic strain of a rectangular strip along the x-axis,
acted on b y tensile stresses al and a2. As a result of the initial non-homogeneity, neither
the strain distribution nor the strain-rate distribution along the x-axis is homogeneous.
I f the representative strain in section A is e, the strain in the direction of thickness, i.e.
the thickness strain, is es and the strain rate is ~; then, at the same instant of time they
assume in section B, the corresponding values es, ess and ~s. We have e s > e and ~s>~.
The thickness of the sheet is, therefore,
t = t0exp(eS), at p o i n t A }
ts = t0s exp (e38), at point B, (6)
and the yield stress is
a~, = k(e" + e)'* ~"*, at point A ]
and (7)
a~,s = k s ( # + es)" ~'$, at point B. J
792 ZDZ~SLAWMARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI and TADEUSZ POKORA

F r o m t h e condition of e q u a l i t y of t h e forces acting in direction 1 in sections A and B,

we find t h e relation
t(r 1 = tB alB, (8)
which can be r e w r i t t e n :

t ~ , ~,,, = t,

T a k i n g into consideration relations (6) a n d (7), we find

toexp(es)k(e" + e)" ~ (a~) = ton exp (esn) kn(e" + en)" @ (~-~)

B e a r i n g in m i n d t h e n o t a t i o n of e q u a t i o n (5) a n d t h e relation e/eB = de/des, we find t h e

differential e q u a t i o n :
(,,,/,,,) { de ]'n = f [ e ' + e n ] "
(aln/arni \'~s] " \ e" + e ] exp (eas -- ca). (9)

The n e x t stage, leading to t h e final form of t h e differential equation, consists in

expressing t h e ratios al/a~ and aisle,s involved, and t h e qualities esn a n d ea in t e r m s of
t h e variables e a n d en.
The ratio of stresses al/a~ in region A is c o n s t a n t during t h e entire d e f o r m a t i o n process
a n d m a y be expressed in t e r m s of t h e ratio of strains e2/e~ = a, as follows :

al a+2
a--~ = 4(3) 4(1 +a+a2)" (10)

The stress ratio aln/q~n in t h e groove is changed. I t can be found b y assuming t h a t t h e

transverse strains a t points A a n d B are e q u a l a n d therefore

e z = e2n or dez =de2n. (11)

I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e n o t a t i o n assumed, t h e strain i n c r e m e n t de2 in region A is

de2 = a de 1
or
des = 4(3)
2 ~/(1 + aa+ a ~ ) de" (12)

F o r a g i v e n i n c r e m e n t des, t h e strain i n c r e m e n t dezn in section B depends on t h e

existing s t a t e of stress as d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e ratio ale/avB, a n d can be found f r o m t h e flow
conditions (2) a n d t h e yield condition (1):

de2n = ~/[1 -- ~(axs/a~s) ~] deB. (13)

On setting equal, in a g r e e m e n t w i t h a s s u m p t i o n (11), t h e transverse strain i n c r e m e n t s
in t h e sections A a n d B, as d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e relations (12) a n d (13), we find an e q u a t i o n
from which t h e v a l u e sought for of t h e ratio aaB/avB can be f o u n d :
~,n 2 J[ 3a2 ,de~ 2]
~--~ = ~-~-~ 1 4(1 + a + a ' ) ~h-~e~] J " (14)

The s t r a i n c o m p o n e n t es n o r m a l to t h e surface of t h e sheet m e t a l in section A can be

found f r o m t h e relation
4(3) l+a
--ca= 2 ~ / ( l + a + a * ) e" (15)

F o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of c o m p o n e n t san, we m u s t t a k e into consideration t h e non-

p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y of t h e strain process in section B.
B y finding f r o m e q u a t i o n (14) t h e t r a n s i e n t v a l u e of t h e ratio (aln/avn), w e can
d e t e r m i n e t h e ratio of i n c r e m e n t s dean/des from t h e conditions of plastic flow (2). On
 The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 793
substituting, we find the relation

desa ~/(3) / [ I 3a' [deCal ~/(3) a (

des : 2 ~[L-4(1H-a+aU)\'~JJ + 4 4(l+-aH-a')~B)' (16)
from which the value of ess can be found b y integration.
On substituting in equation (9) the relations (10), (14) and (15) above, and representing
equation (16) in an integral form, we obtain finally the following set of two equations

x/(1 -- B) (de/des) m _ f (e" + es~"

and t (17)
=
e3s J0 ( ,~/L \des/ j + D des,
where
A = 4(3)
2 '

3a ~
B=
4(l+a+a~) '
C = 4(3) 1-Fa (18)
2 ~/(1+ a + a ~ ) '
and
D = 4(3) a
4 4(1 -t-a+aZ)"
On eliminating e3s, the set of equations (17) reduces to a single integro-difforential
equation involving e and e~ only. A numerical solution of this equation, b y means of a
computer a n d making use of the R u n g e - K u t t a method, enables us to determine the
function e/e.. I t describes the process of formation of a groove on the surfaco of tho sheet
metal, the properties of which axe described b y the constants m, n, e' and f and the
m a n n e r of loading determines the strain ratio e~/ex = a.
Fig. 2 represents a n u m b e r of curves which have been computed for various values of
the exponent m representing the strain-rate sensitivity of the material. From this graph,
it follows that with increasing values of the exponent m, the process of local strain con-
centration becomes slower in the weakest section B. This effect is observed even for very
small values of the exponent m, e.g. ra = 0.0120. With higher values of the exponent m
(e.g. m = 0"3), the process of local stability loss is so slow that a very large limit strain
is possible, which is observed in reality for superplastic materials.
For strain-rate-insensitive materials, therefore, if the exponent m in equation (4) is
zero, the stress concentration process is ended at point B, see Fig. 2, beyond which region
A is no longer strained, so that de/des = 0. The ordinate of point B m a y be considered to
represent the limit strain e*, with reference to the local stability loss.
F r o m the analysis of equation (17) and the curves represented in Fig. 2, it follows
immediately that for strain-rate-sensitive materials described b y equation (4), these
curves increase continually. I t follows that de/des is greater t h a n zero for a n y value of
es. As a result, the notion of limit strain, defined as the ordinate of the point at which
de~des = 0, loses its meaning.
Under such conditions, it is necessary to introduce a new definition of the limit strain
6*. There are two possible ways.
(1) To assume that the limit strain e~' is represented by the ordinate of point F, see
Fig. 3, corresponding to the fracture of the sheet metal in the weakest section B (when
68 = E~), o r
(2) To assume that the limit strain corresponds to point G, at which the difference in
thickness between sections A and B reaches a certain limit value which is determined b y
the strain difference, e s s - c a = Aes, see Fig. 3.
794 ZDZISLAWMARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI a n d TADEUSZ I~OKORA

2.00 I I I I I i ',

1 75--

0
1"50

~ I "25

05C

rr 0-25

0 0"25 0,50 0'75 1"00 1.25 l'50 1.75 2'0

Representative strain in the groove, (a

FzG. 2. T h e influence o f s t r a i n - r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y ( e x p o n e n t m) o n t h e
p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t i o n o f t h e groove, n = 0.22; e" = 0.01; r = 1.0;
F = 0.98 a n d a = 1.0.

(~3f

Ob

-I-

"0

0
._c

O3
L
~y
S~rain in the groove, c38

FIG. 3.

T h e l a t t e r definition o f t h e l i m i t s t r a i n is, t h e r e f o r e , b a s e d o n t h e atlrnlasible

i r r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e surface or t h i c k n e s s n o n - u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e s h e e t m e t a l .
 The f o r m i n g l i m i t d i a g r a m for sheet m e t a l in tension 795

I n w h a t follows we shall use t h e first definition, in which t h e l i m i t strain depends on

t h e f r a c t u r e strain e*/8ar. I t is assumed also, in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l results
discussed f u r t h e r on in t h e paper, t h a t t h e v a l u e of t h e f r a c t u r e strain ear has, for a g i v e n
m a t e r i a l , a v a l u e which is a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t ; therefore, it is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e
m a n n e r in w h i c h t h e t e s t piece has been s t r a i n e d (i.e. t h e v a l u e of a).

3'0
I I I I I ~//

~U- 2'5

?
>=,~~u- 2"0
v
4- 1"5

c I'O

~
0"5
.c_I 4c-
4-

05 I'0 i'5 2"0 2'.5 5"0

Limit strain parallel to the groove ,. _ ~
Limit strain in plane st"rain (~z/el = O) ~'(o)

FIG. 4. The influence of strain-rate s e n s i t i v i t y (exponent m) on t h e

f o r m i n g limit curve, r = 1.0; n -- 0.22; e" = 0.01 a n d F -- 0"98.

T h e d i a g r a m in Fig. 4 illustrates t h e influence of t h e v a l u e of t h e e x p o n e n t m on t h e

shape of t h e f o r m i n g l i m i t curve. A l o n g t h e co-ordinate a x e s are m e a s u r e d t h e ratios of
t h e l i m i t strains $1" a n d 8~* for a g i v e n v a l u e of a = e~/el, to t h e v a l u e o f limit s t r a i n ~1"c0)
in t h e case of plane stress, i.e. i f a = 0. The d i a g r a n ~ in Fig. 4 h a v e been p l o t t e d for several
m a t e r i a l s differing only in t h e v a l u e of t h e e x p o n e n t m. C o m p u t a t i o n of t h e values of t h e
l i m i t strain has b e e n carried o u t for t h e following d a t a concerning t h e r e m a i n i n g properties
of t h e m a t e r i a l : e p = 0.01, n - 0.22, r~ -- 0.012 a n d f = 0.98.
I t should be observed t h a t a n increase in t h e e x p o n e n t of t h e s t r a i n - h a r d e n i n g c u r v e
n exerts on t h e limit strains a n influence which is similar to t h a t of a n increase in t h e
e x p o n e n t m expressing t h e s t r a i n - r a t e sensitivity of t h e m a t e r i a l ; these t w o properties of
t h e m a t e r i a l are t h u s seen to be in some sense e q u i v a l e n t .
A n essential influence is e x e r t e d on t h e f o r m i n g l i m i t c u r v e b y t h e liability of t h e
m a t e r i a l to fracture, i.e. t h e v a l u e of t h e strain ear p r o d u c e d in t h e n e c k a t t h e i n s t a n t of
fracture. This r e l a t i o n is illustrated b y t h e curves of t h e g r a p h in Fig. 5 corresponding to
various values of t h e f r a c t u r e strain ear.
F r o m t h e d i a g r a m s in Figs. 4 a n d 5, it follows t h a t t h e f o r m o f t h e c u r v e of limit
strain m a y v ~ w i t h i n v e r y wide limits, d e p e n d i n g on t h e properties o f t h e m a t e r i a l .
F o r sheet m e t a l s characterized b y h i g h v a l u e s of t h e e x p o n e n t n or m a n d a low v a l u e o f
ear, t h e c u r v e of limit strain m a y t u r n d o w n w a r d s a t t h e passage f r o m t h e p l a n e s t a t e o f
s t r a i n to b a l a n c e d biaxial tension. Such a n e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e was o b t a i n e d for brass
b y P o i n t e r a n d Pearce. 5 A sharp u p w a r d t r e n d of t h e f o r m i n g limit c u r v e m a y be e x p e c t e d
for m a t e r i a l s w i t h low values o f m a n d n a n d high v a l u e s o f t h e fracture strain ear.
796 ZDZISLAW MARCII~IAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI and TADEUSZ POKORA

i 2.5 [ /
I I I

~i~"20
o S -
=- I'~ ,.5-

-g

.E
~ C
"~ "~ 0.5
4- 4--
:3
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Limit strain parallel to the groove,_~_
Limit strain in plane strain (~z/~l=O) C~(o}

Fro. 5. T h e influence of f r a c t u r e strain eat on t h e forming limit curve.

r = 1-0; n = 0.22; e' = 0.01; m = 0.012 a n d F = 0.98.

INFLUENCE OF PLANAR ANISOTROPY

In reality, the plastic properties of sheet metal are ummlly somewhat different in the
direction of rolling from those in the tr~_sverse direction, which means that there is
p l a n a r anisotropy. This is m a n i f e s t e d a m o n g o t h e r things b y t h e fact t h a t t h e coefficients
r0 a n d r ~ for t e s t pieces c u t o u t parallel to a n d n o r m a l to t h e direction of rolling h a v e
different values. A s s u m i n g t h a t we are concerned w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r case of o r t h o t r o p y ,
a n d t h a t t h e directions of o r t h o t r o p y coincide w i t h t h e directions of t h e principal stresses
1 a n d 2, t h e p l a n a r a n i s o t r o p y of t h e sheet can be described b y two coefficients :
rl -- ~s/ea, for tension in direction 1 (~s = a~ -- 0)
and
rz = ez/ea, for tension in direction 2 (al = aa = 0).
I n w h a t follows, t h e symbols b a n d c defined below will be used for b r e v i t y :

b def= 1 + r s and c def~._ _+I r 1 (19)

rs rl
I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e general proposal of Hill for anisotropic bodies, e t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e
e q u a t i o n s (1)-(3) m a y be written, in t h e p a r t i c u l a r case of planar anlsotropy, in the
following form.
(1) T h e yield condition:
, ~ = , , ~ - (2/c) az "2 + (b/c} a~. (Is)
(2) T h e laws of plastic flow:
del des des de
(2a)
c(h--a s ba2--al - - ( c - ]) a l - - ( b - 1) az c~
(3) T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e strain i n c r e m e n t :
/[.btdel)~ + 2 ae~ d~s + c(d~s)s.]
d e = d(c), ~ / [ be-- 1 j. (3a)

The r e l a t i o n expressing t h e influence of t h e strain e a n d t h e strain r a t e ~ on t h e v a l u e

of t h e yield stress a~ will be assumed in t h e form of e q u a t i o n (4), which r e m a i n s unchanged.
 The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 797
Proceeding in a m a n n e r analogous to that described above and making use of relations
(la), (2~) and (3a) instead of (1)-(3), we arrive at the same set of equations (17). The
coefficients A, B, C and D involved now depend additionally on the anisotropy constants
b a n d c, i.e.

B = ( b c - 1) a ~
bib+ 2 a + ~ 2 ) '
J(~_~_~) l+a (20)
C = ~f(b+ 2a + ca s)
and
b-1 Ir bc-1
D = -.....-~-/II[c(b + 2a + ca2)J1 a.

The principal directions 1 and 2 considered in the present analysis are related to the
direction of the groove which is, in agreement with the assumption, normal to the
direction 1.
To take into account the differences in the plastic properties of the sheet metal in the
direction parallel and normal to t h a t of rolling, we must consider two eases of position
of the fracture.
(I) When the fracture preceded b y the formation of a groove is parallel to the direction
of rolling, we have r~ = rgo and r~ = r0.
(II) W h e n the fracture is normal to the direction of rolling, we have rl = r0 and
r 2 ~ ~'9o"
Each of these cases corresponds to different values of the coefficients b and c a n d there-
fore also of the coefficients A, B, C and D, which are obtained according to relations (20).
A numerical solution of the set of equations (17) in these two cases enables us to determine
two branches of the forming limit curve corresponding to the two possible positions of
fracture with reference to the direction of rolling as represented in Fig. 6. The limit
strains used in t h a t figure are t a k e n with reference to the local stability loss. By contrast
with the case of a n isotropic material, the two branches of the limit curve obtained are
not symmetric about the straight line eg0 = e0 b u t intersect at a point M lying outside
the bisecting line 0 N . At the point M, the direction of fracture is turned through 90 °.
N
0.5 I [

%0 0 . 4 -

~ 0"2
.[,
4-
O'l

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

L i m i t strain in tronsverse direction, ~ o

FIG. 6. The influence of plane anisotropy on the forming of the limit

curve, n---- 0.22; e'--- 0.01; m = 0.012; r 9 = 0.9; rg0-----1.4 a n d
F = 0"98.
53
798 ZDZISLAW MARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZV~SK~ and TADEUSZ POKORA
A n additional factor which m a y cause a s y m m e t r y of t h e limit curve involves different
values of t h e fracture strain. I f t h e crack is parallel to t h e direction of rolling, t h e v a l u e
of t h e fracture strain is usually lower t h a n if it is n o r m a l to t h a t direction :

(~sl)o < (e~,)~o.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
I n order to verify e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h e t h e o r y j u s t presented, sheet m e t a l s of three
kinds, 1 m m thick, were tested. A n n e a l e d steel a n d a l u m l n i u m a n d copper of m o d e r a t e
hardness were selected for tests. T a b l e 1 shows t h e characteristics of these materials.
I t contains n u m e r i c a l values of those features of t h e m a t e r i a l which are necessary for t h e
theoretical d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e two branches of t h e c u r v e of limit strain discussed above.
T h e values of n, m, e', r0 a n d rs0 h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d f r o m u n i a x i a l tension tests. The
values of (831)0 a n d (e~)90 were found on t h e basis of t h e results of tests to be discussed
later.

T A B L E 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SHEET METALS TESTED

Copper of
moderate
Steel hardness Aluminium

E x p o n e n t of t h e n 0.22 0.36 0.235

strain -hardening
tulle
E x p o n e n t of m 0"012 0.01 0.0125
strain-rate
sensitivity
Initial strain e' 0.01 0"09 0.001
Coefficient of r0 0.90 0.80 0.384
anisotropy rg0 1.40 1.00 0.522
F r a c t u r e strain (e~)0 0.66 0.82 2.86
(esl)90 0.81 0.946 2.91

F o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e values of t h e limit strains, a m e t h o d o t h e r

t h a n t h a t used in refs. (5), (7) a n d (8) was used, in which various values of a - e~/el were
o b t a i n e d b y a p p l y i n g h y d r a u l i c loads to sheet m e t a l c l a m p e d in dies w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e
elliptic holes. T h e m e t h o d a d o p t e d in this p a p e r consists in a p p l y i n g to a plane piece of
sheet biaxial tension in such a m a n n e r t h a t t h e v a l u e of t h e r a t i o of t h e principal strains
is c o n s t a n t (a = const) o v e r t h e entire region. This c o n s t a n t v a l u e of a concerns, of
course, o n l y those regions of t h e sample in which there is no local strain concentration.
T h e essential features of t h e m e t h o d can be m o s t easily explained in t h e case of
b a l a n c e d biaxial tension of sheet metal, i.e. a = 1. T h e plane p a r t of t h e t e s t piece
constitutes t h e b o t t o m of a s t a m p i n g f o r m e d b y a cylinderical punch. I n order to increase
t h e strain of t h e b o t t o m , t h e disk of sheet m e t a l used for s t a m p i n g is c l a m p e d along its
edge. The forces of friction b e t w e e n t h e sheet and t h e r o u n d e d edge of t h e p u n c h impede,
h o w e v e r , t h e r e d u c t i o n in thickness of t h e b o t t o m of t h e pressing. As a result, there is
usually a circumferential fracture w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y small strain at t h e b o t t o m . I n order
to produce a fracture in t h e plane p a r t of t h e test piece t h e h a r m f u l influence of friction
should be eliminated. This is a c h i e v e d b y s t a m p i n g two disks c l a m p e d t o g e t h e r along their
periphery. D u r i n g t h e s t a m p i n g process t h e p u n c h is in c o n t a c t w i t h t h e auxiliary disk,
which has a hole in it, see Fig. 7. As a result, t h e v e l o c i t y V~ w i t h which a p o i n t of t h e
 The forming limit d i a g r a m for sheet m e t a l in tension 799

/,
, /

\\',~
\ \ \ \ ~

/
I
I
I

\ \\'4
\
\

' i

v,>~

" ~ Fric'l'ion forces

FIG. 7. D i a g r a m m a t i c v i e w of the device for u n i f o r m biaxial tension of sheet m e t a l .

b o t t o m of t h e a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g m o v e s a w a y s f r o m t h e axis is higher t h a n t h e v e l o c i t y
of t h e p o i n t of t h e pressing tested. The friction forces occurring a t t h e r o u n d e d edge
b e t w e e n t h e two sheets act in a direction which is opposite to t h a t of t h e friction forces
b e t w e e n t h e a u x i l i a r y pressing a n d t h e r o u n d e d edge of t h e punch. Thus, t h e friction
forces b e t w e e n t h e two sheets facilitate t h e stretching of t h e b o t t o m of t h e s t a m p i n g
t e s t e d (Fig. 7). I t follows t h a t d u r i n g t h e s t a m p i n g process high friction resistance b e t w e e n
t h e t w o sheets is of a d v a n t a g e , b u t care should be t a k e n t h a t t h e friction forces b e t w e e n
t h e a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g a n d t h e p u n c h are as small as possible. T h e k i n d of material, t h e
thickness a n d t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e hole in t h e a u x i l i a r y disk can always be selected to
produce a fracture of t h e b o t t o m of t h e s t a m p i n g tested. T h e m e t h o d for b a l a n c e d
biaxial s t r e t c h i n g of sheet m e t a l just described has been successfttUy applied for lead b y
t h e a u t h o r s in, a m o n g s t o t h e r works, those described in ref. (2). The applicability r a n g e of
t h e m e t h o d has n o w been widened, because it can also be used in t h e case of 0 < a ~< 1.
I n order to a p p l y a load p r o d u c i n g a state a p p r o a c h i n g a plane s t a t e of strain (a ~ 0),
a r e c t a n g u l a r p u n c h of a side ratio el/e ~ = 4.6 was used. F o r i n t e r m e d i a t e loads, b e t w e e n
t h e plane state of strain a n d t h a t of balanced biaxial tension, t w o punches w i t h fiat
b o t t o m a n d elliptical cross-sections were used, the ratio of t h e axes being el/e ~ = 1.7 a n d
1.35. The dimensions of t h e cross-sections of the punches were so selected t h a t t h e areas
of t h e plane parts of t h e test pieces were equal to t h e corresponding areas of t h e t e s t piece
f o r m e d b y a cylindrical p u n c h 75 n u n dia. Such a selection of t h e dimensions of t h e
punches ensured for all t h e tests an equal p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of definite non-
homogeneities in t h e sheet metal.
The blanks for a u x i l i a r y s t a m p i n g s h a d holes of t h e s a m e shape as t h e stamp. T h e
dimensions of t h e holes were established e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .
F o r s t a m p i n g w i t h t h e r e c t a n g u l a r punch, r e c t a n g u l a r blanks of sheet m e t a l
102 x 216 r a m were prepared. F o r t h e r e m a i n i n g biaxial tension tests, blanks o f 155 m m
dia. were used. The surfaces of all t h e test pieces were covered b y m e a n s of a photo-
graphic m e t h o d b y a 2-5 x 2.5 m m ~ m e s h w o r k e x t e n d i n g o v e r t h e central oblong region
of t h e t e s t piece, which constituted, after t h e s t a m p i n g process, t h e b o t t o m of t h e stamping.
P h o t o g r a p h s of broken test pieces of all t h e t y p e s are shown in Fig. 8.
800 ZDZISLAW MARCINIAK, KAZIMIERZ KUCZY~SKI a n d TADEUSZ POKORA

TO d e t e r m i n e t h e l i m i t s t r a i n s in t h e case of a g r o o v e p a r a l l e l a n d n o r m a l to t h e
d i r e c t i o n of rolling, t w o sets of t e s t pieces were p r e p a r e d . T h e r e c t a n g u l a r b l a n k s differed
a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s b y t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e edges w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling.
T h e d i s k s for s t a m p i n g w i t h elliptic p u n c h e s were m a d e for d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s of t h e
o b l o n g r e g i o n c o v e r e d b y t h e m e s h w o r k , t h e m a j o r axis of t h i s r e g i o n b e i n g p a r a l l e l or
n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling. F o r t e s t s of b a l a n c e d b i a x i a l t e n s i o n , a single set of
discs was sufficient, b e c a u s e in a g r e e m e n t w i t h ref. 9 t h e f r a c t u r e of s h e e t m e t a l w i t h
m a r k e d p l a n e a n i s o t r o p y occurs in s u c h a t e s t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e coefficient of
a n i s o t r o p y h a s a s m a l l e r value. I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e lines of t h e m e s h w o r k were also
p a r a l l e l a n d n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of roiling.
All t h e b i a x i a l t e n s i o n t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g a tensile t e s t i n g m a c h i n e . T h e
p u n c h m o v e d a t a r a t e of 0.012 m / r a i n , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a m e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t r a i n
r a t e s o m e w h a t b e l o w 10 -~ p e r sec. I n t h e course of t h e s t a m p i n g process, t h e surface of
t h e t e s t piece w a s c h e c k e d . A f t e r f r a c t u r e , t h e m a c h i n e w a s i m m e d i a t e l y s t o p p e d . T w e n t y
successful t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t for e a c h elliptic or r e c t a n g u l a r s t a m p , 10 t e s t s for a
f r a c t u r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling a n d 10 for a f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h a t direction.
T e n s t a m p i n g s were m a d e w i t h e a c h c y l i n d r i c a l s t a m p .
T h e v a l u e s of t h e l i m i t s t r a i n e~ (parallel) a n d e*0 ( n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling)
were d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h t e s t piece. E a c h of t h e s e v a l u e s w a s f o u n d as a m e a n of t h e
s t r a i n s for four t o e i g h t m e s h e s e v e n l y s p a c e d o v e r t h e p l a n e b o t t o m o f t h e s t a m p i n g .
A f t e r d e f o r m a t i o n of a t e s t piece, m e a s u r e m e n t s were t a k e n b y m e a n s of a microscope
f r o m m e s h e s sufficiently r e m o t e f r o m t h e f r a c t u r e a n d d i s t i n c t grooves. T h e v a l u e of t h e
f r a c t u r e s t r a i n , ca1 = In (to/t1), was d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h t e s t piece s u b j e c t t o b i a x i a l t e n s i o n .
T o f a c i l i t a t e m e a s u r e m e n t of t h i c k n e s s tI, pieces o f s h e e t m e t a l a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r a c t u r e
were c u t out, t h e places selected for t h i s b e i n g t h o s e a t w h i c h r u p t u r e o c c u r r e d first.
T h e s e pieces c a n b e seen o n t h e p h o t o g r a p h s of s o m e t e s t pieces s h o w n in Fig. 8. T h e
m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e t h i c k n e s s a t t h e r u p t u r e were c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s of a t o o l m a k e r ' s
microscope. T h e v a l u e of t1 was d e t e r m i n e d as a m e a n o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a t five p o i n t s
of t h e f r a c t u r e .
T h e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n ear w a s d e t e r m i n e d a d d i t i o n a l l y for n a r r o w a n d wide t e s t pieces
s u b j e c t t o u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n . T h e w i d t h - t o - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o w a s w i t o -- 3 for n a r r o w a n d
w i t o --- 30 for wide t e s t pieces. I n b o t h cases, t h e t e s t pieces were c u t o u t p a r a l l e l a n d
n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of rolling. T w o p a r a l l e l lines were r u l e d o n t h e surface of wide
t e s t pieces o n b o t h sides o f t h e axis, 3 m m a p a r t . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of t e s t pieces b r o k e n
w a s 20; 10 w i t h p a r a l l e l a n d 10 w i t h n o r m a l a x e s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of roiling.
T h e t h i c k n e s s tt a t t h e f r a c t u r e w a s m e a s u r e d , a n d t h e v a l u e o f ~ar was c o m p u t e d for e a c h
t e s t piece. T h e s t r a i n (el)0 or (el)00 i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n w a s also d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e
b a s i s of m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e w i d t h o f t h e t e s t piece before d e f o r m a t i o n a t t h i s f r a c t u r e .
F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a n a l o g o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e lines p a r a l l e l t o
t h e axis o f t h e t e s t piece were c a r r i e d o u t for wide t e s t pieces.
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d g r a p h i c a l l y in Figs. 9-11 b y p o i n t s i n a p l a n e
s y s t e m of t h r e e a x e s o f c o - o r d i n a t e s ~90, ca, ~0, a t angles of 120 °. F o r r u p t u r e i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f rolling, t h e s e p o i n t s were d e t e r m i n e d as follows.
(a) F o r t e s t pieces s u b j e c t t o u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s of t h e s t r a i n s
(ca1)0 a n d (el)0 were m e a s u r e d a l o n g t h e a x e s ea a n d ~0, a n d f r o m t h e p o i n t s t h u s o b t a i n e d
n o r m a l s t o t h e s e a x e s were d r a w n . T h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e n o r m a l s d e t e r m i n e s all
the principal strains at the fracture.
(b) F o r t e s t pieces s u b j e c t t o b i a x i a l t e n s i o n , a n a l o g o u s n o r m a l s were d r a w n b y
m e a s u r i n g t h e v a l u e of (ear)0 a l o n g t h e ea axis a n d t h e v a l u e o f t h e l i m i t s t r a i n ~* d e t e r -
m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y for t h e t e s t piece c o n s i d e r e d a l o n g t h e e0 axis.
T h e a s s u m p t i o n of e q u a l f r a c t u r e s t r a i n a n d l i m i t s t r a i n in t h e d i r e c t i o n of f r a c t u r e
(~I)0 = ~0* is i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h r e l a t i o n (11).
F o r f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f rolling, t h e a b o v e p o i n t s were d e t e r m i n e d i n
a n a n a l o g o u s m a n n e r m a k i n g use of t h e v a l u e s of t h e s t r a i n s (ca1)00, (et)oo a n d eg*0.
Figs. 9-11 s h o w also b o t h b r a n c h e s of f o r m i n g l i m i t curves. O n e of t h e m c o r r e s p o n d s
t o p a r a l l e l f r a c t u r e , t h e o t h e r t o f r a c t u r e n o r m a l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f roiling. T h e y were
d r a w n b y c o n n e c t i n g p o i n t s o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y for all t h e k i n d s of t e s t pieces. T h e
OOt~ "tl'J
•qso,~ uo!suo~ i~!x~!q oq:~ aoj sooo!d ~soq 30 q d ~ a ~ o ~ o q d V "8 ' ~ I A
 The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 801

Specimens:
0 • Circular I
A • Elliptical ~,1.35l
/ o .,,,oc,o~,o,.~...
~I
"~ - ^~v-Froctunl stm in
0 Wide ~ = 30 I Unioxiol
V • Narrow-~= • 3 j tension
A

Limit strain curve

(fracture In tmnsw Fracture strain
direction) :~..)~,0.66
~Umit strain curve
(fracture Inrolling
direction)

~K~loturol strain in transverse direction

/
Steel

FIG. 9. Experimental results for steel.

V Specimens:

~.<~. ~ > r -~- &Elliptical .-~I-e2=1.35}

o ,, 0 llEllJpticol ~=1.7 I Bioxiol
< tension
~"~ <~ ~I' Rect°ngulor""~2 =4"6 .J'

°~
~,~#~'tum in - - ~
~t~nsvenle . ~
[ u v
°.:: ":} w
~
=
Uen~:~°nl

~ xv

No. n
~
I i ~ . u-- t I I I I I,,11 I l I I I _
-0"4-0"3-0"2 -0,I ~ ' ~ 0"I O,l'O'l 0"4 0"8 0"6 a.7,..,a,i 0,9 l,O I-I l.l 1,3 1,4

FzG. 10. Experimental results for copper.

802 ZDZTSLAWMARCT~TTAK,KAZII~IIERZ KUCZYI~SKI and TADEUSZ I~OKORA

location of these points is found b y m e a s u r i n g on t h e r e l e v a n t axes the m e a n values of

t h e limit strains ~* a n d ~* or e*0 o b t a i n e d f r o m 10 tensile tests.
The graphs discussed show also, for test pieces of each kind, the points representing
t h e m e a n values of the principal strain c o m p o n e n t s at the fracture. F o r test pieces which
broke parallel a n d also n o r m a l to the direction of rolling, these points lie, a p p r o x i m a t e l y ,
on normals to t h e e3 axis. I n Figs. 9-1 1 t h e y arc represented b y d o t t e d lines. The distance
of these normals f r o m the origin of co-ordinates corresponds to the m e a n vahms of (~31)0
a n d (e31)~oof all the tests.

Specimens :
0 • Circular I
.[ ~ • Elliptical--~ez=l'351
~'~ e | Biaxial
~_.~"~.... El • Elliptical -~=17 ~ tension

" L I~.rac~, r e ~ ! n ' ~ " ~ ' ~ # ~ . . 0 Wide t'~o:50 /UniaxiaI

w tension

/" ~ Fracture strain

\?,
o lUre
I I I I I I [ ~ I [ [ I I _-
"0~0 ~ ~v~D ~ 0'"50 2 o.Te
5 pea 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2. 5 3<)0 3.2e 3.Bo 3 ~ 4,00
" ~~' / ~e~'~~ / / e Natura! strain in transverse direction

Fro. 11. E x p e r i m e n t a l results for Muminium.

F r o m t h e a b o v e r e m a r k s it follows t h a t t h e thickness strain at t h e fracture is approxi-

m a t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e ratio of principal stresses. The absolute v a l u e of this strain
depends, h o w e v e r , on t h e direction of t h e fracture a n d is distinctly larger if t h e fracture
is n o r m a l to t h e direction of rolling. These differences are clearly seen for steel a n d copper,
see Figs. 9 a n d 10. The values of ( ~ ) 0 a n d (e~)80 d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e m e t h o d just described
are for all t h e m e t a l s t e s t e d shown in Table 1.
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l branches of t h e forming limit curve corresponding to fracture
parallel a n d n o r m a l to t h e direction of rolling are a s y m m e t r i c a b o u t t h e ~a axis. These
branches intersect at a p o i n t M outside t h a t axis es, see Figs. 9-11. F o r t h e principal
strains corresponding to t h a t point, t h e direction of fracture is, therefore, r o t a t e d t h r o u g h
90 ° . This m e a n s t h a t for steel sheet for instance, see Fig. 9, f o r m e d b y m e a n s of a n
elliptic p u n c h t h e shape of which approaches t h a t of a cylinder, fracture will occur in t h e
•direction of rolling e v e n if t h e higher principal stress acts in t h a t direction. I n a g r e e m e n t
w i t h t h e theoretical considerations, this a s y m m e t r i c location of t h e two branches of t h e
f o r m i n g limit c u r v e results f r o m plane a n i s o t r o p y of t h e sheet m e t a l a n d different values
of t h e f r a c t u r e strain parallel a n d n o r m a l to t h e direction of roiling.
The theoretical shape of b o t h branches of t h e f o r m i n g limit c u r v e was d e t e r m i n e d
t h e o r e t i c a l l y for all t h e sheet m e t a l s tested. T h e values of t h e limit strains e~' a n d e~0
were d e t e r m i n e d for a definite v a l u e of a = ~2/el and a definite direction of fracture b y
 The f o r m i n g l i m i t d i a g r a m for sheet m e t a l in tension 803

solving numerically, b y m e a n s of a c o m p u t e r , t h e set of e q u a t i o n s (17). T h e values of

t h e constants A, B, C a n d D i n v o l v e d are d e t e r m i n e d f r o m relation (20). The c o m p u t a t i o n
was carried o u t for a s s u m e d values of t h e coefficient of h o m o g e n e i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l / .
T h e values of t h e r e m a i n i n g q u a n t i t i e s necessary for solving t h e set of e q u a t i o n s are g i v e n
in T a b l e 1. T h e influence of f r a c t u r e strain ( ~ ) 0 or (~3t)90 on t h e v a l u e of t h e limit stress
was t a k e n into consideration.
The theoretical f o r m i n g limit curves were drawn, for some values of t h e coefficient f ,
in t h e es0/~0
* * s y s t e m of co-ordinate axes. F o r steel, copper a n d a l u m i n i u m these curves
are s h o w n in Figs. 12-14, respectively. The s a m e d i a g r a m s show all t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
p o i n t s a n d t h e points corresponding to t h e m e a n values of t h e principal strains ~9"0a n d
e0* for all t h e tests of t h e s a m e type. T h e l a t t e r points enable e x p e r i m e n t a l curves of limit
strains to be p l o t t e d .
T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e for steel closely approaches t h e theoretical c u r v e for f = 0.99,
see Fig. 12. The dashes across t h e theoretical c u r v e m a r k t h e places beginning f r o m which
t h e influence of t h e f r a c t u r e s t r a i n becomes manifest. This influence is observed for t h e
r a t i o of principal strains a = 1 a n d s o m e w h a t below t h a t value. F o r such loads, t h e form
of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e also closely approaches t h e theoretical. T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
values of t h e limit strains are seen to be lower t h a n t h e theoretical ones. T h e p o i n t of
intersection M 1 of t h e branches of the theoretical c u r v e a n d t h e p o i n t of intersection M
of t h e branches of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e are located on t h e s a m e side of t h e ~9"0= ~*
line at a considerable distance f r o m it.

o.so i I I i I I I I I /
/
0 - 4 5 -- / --

0"40 -- ~..~I / _

o.3o~-~" / ,o~" ~/ \ -
"- I ~ ~7--~Theore'Hca I ~ \
IAr-/ /
o'251--~ / ,w\\ \; _-
c 0"20
-~ •
0 - 1 5 -- / ,~/e • Circular _ - -

'7 el

/ / I eRectongulor
e--~-ez~=4.6
o o..- / /..,k. s,eo,
/ I I I i( -]" I I I I I
o 0.05 o.to oq5 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Limit strain in transverse direction, e~o

FIG. 12. F o r m i n g limit c u r v e for steel.

T h e r e m a r k s m a d e for steel are valid for copper. The e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e a p p r o a c h e s

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e for / - - - 0-97 a n d f = 0.98, see Fig. 13. F o r states of stress
a p p r o a c h i n g u n i f o r m tension, t h e real limit strains are d i s t i n c t l y below t h e theoretical
strains.
F o r a l u m i n i n m , t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l curve,
see Fig. 14, is considerable. T h e theoretical c u r v e for f = 0"95 is t h a t for w h i c h this
difference is t h e smallest. D e s p i t e t h e low v a l u e o f f , t h e r e is no influence of t h e fracture
s t r a i n on t h e v a l u e of t h e limit strain, owing to a v e r y high v a l u e of (e~). Despite t h e
large difference b e t w e e n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e theoretical curve, t h e corresponding
804 ZDZISLAW
MARCII~IAK,KAZIMIERZ KUCZYI~SKI and TADEUSZ I~OKORA

0,55
I I I I I i I J ]

0'50

045

0'40

0"55
,I-
o
03( - I I :
"0

0"2!
o
e- 0"2C
e-

0.1~ - - / / /~ • Circular
0-,0 / / ~ " Ellipticai~Jez'l'55"
E
.J
/ //'7 i • ~,,,~,,ca, ~.,.,

/ I I I'*~**P I I I I .,
o (~o~ o-lo o.1~ 0.20 0.25 0.~0 0.35 0.40 045 0~0
L i m i t s t r a i n in t r a n s v e r s e direction, ( 9*0
FIG. 13. Forming limit curve for copper.

0"45 1- - J ~ t n I i i EA,,/

%*
o.oV/
0.351"-
._o ~ , ,- c/__~./

s_ 0,20
._=
Specimens:
".~ 0.15 •Clrcular
• • • & E l l i p t i c a l - - ~ =I,351

°°: • ..°,o~.~'.m
l 1
:e iAluminium I i
0.05 o.lo 0 . 1 5 0~0 0.25 o-~o 0.~5 0.4o o48
Limit e t r a i n in t r a n s v e r s e direction, e~o

FIO. 14. Forming limit curve for aluminium.

 The forming limit diagram for sheet metal in tension 805
points of intersection M and M 1 of the branches of these curves lie on the same side of the
e*o -- e* line (Fig. 14). This confirms the correctness of the manner in which plane aniso-
tropy of sheet metal was taken into consideration in the theoretical analysis.

CONCLUSIONS
(1) The strain-rate sensitivity of the material essentially increases the v a l u e
of the limit strain, even for v e r y low vMues of the exponent m, a n d influences
the shape of the forming limit curve.
(2) The form of the curve of limit strains m a y v a r y within v e r y wide
limits, a n d is a function of the vMues of t h e material constants m, n, f a n d es/.
Depending on the properties of the materiM, this curve m a y fall or rise at the
passage from plane strain to balanced biaxial tension.
(3) As a result of planar anisotropy, a n d the difference between the values
of the fracture strain in the direction of rolling a n d normal to it, the curve of
limit strains for real sheet metM is composed of two branches, a~ymmetric
about the ~* -- ~* line, and intersecting at a point M, where the direction of
the fracture is r o t a t e d t h r o u g h 90 ° . For complete representation of the ability
of sheet metal to be deformed pla~ticMly, it is, therefore, necessary to draw
b o t h branches of the strain curve in the co-ordinates e0*,~90,* which represent
the strain in the direction of rolling a n d normal to it, respectively.
(4) I f the real properties of the material axe considered, above all, its strain-
rate sensitivity m, plane anisotropy r 0 a n d rg0 a n d fracture strain es/, the
theoretical curves of limit strains for steel a n d copper approach t h e experi-
m e n t a l ones. F o r Muminium, the difference of form is v e r y large.
(5) Confrontation of the curves of limit strain obtained theoretically a n d
experimentally shows a certain regularity. F o r balanced biaxiM tension, the
real limit strain is always below its theoretical value. I t is supposed t h a t one
of the causes of this discrepancy is the assumption of isotropie strain hardening,
i.e. the rejection of the generMized Bauschinger effect. This effect occurs in the
case of balanced biaxial tension as a result of variations of the stress ratio in
the groove and results in the limit strain being lower t h a n t h a t following from
the assumption of isotropic strain hardening.

REFERENCES
I. Z. M.a~CXNIAK, Archiwum Mechaniki Stosowanej 4, 17 (1965).
2. Z. M ~ c ~ I ~ : and K. K v c z ~ s ~ , Int. J. mech. Sci. 9, 609 (1967).
3. Z. M~cIN~ax, La MetaUurgia 8, 701 (1968).
4. Z. MARcI~x, Rozprawy In~ynicrskie 1, 18 (1970).
5. M. J. PAINTERand R. I ~ c E , Seventh Congress of JDDRG, Amsterdam (1972).
6. R. HIT.T., The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Oxford University Press, London (1950).
7. M. I. YOUSIT, J. L. D~r~CANand W. JOHNSON, Int. J. mech. Sci. 12, 959 (1969).
8. R. YE~rER, W. JOHNSONand M. C. DE l~AT,n~ja~., Int. J. mech. Se/. 18, 299 (1971).
9. K. KUCZYI~SKI,Reports Ann. Meeting of the Committee for Meta~rgy, Polish Academy
of Sciences (1971).