Next: 3.2 Kinematic equations: displacements Up: 3. Fundamentals of Solid Previous: 3.
Fundamentals
of Solid Contents
Subsections
3.1.1 Cauchy's equations of stress equilibrium
3.1.2 Application of Cauchy's equations for total vertical stress calculation
3.1.3 Continuum mechanics solution of an arbitrary problem
3.1 Stress tensor
Consider a 3D space with a given right-handed orthogonal coordinate system , , in directions 1, 2
and 3 (Figure 3.2). In a right-handed coordinate system, the first element of the base is your index
finger, the second element of the base is your middle finger, and the third element of the base is
your thumb (all in your right hand).
The number that represents the value of a scalar (such as temperature or pore pressure ) at a given
point is independent of the coordinate system orientation and origin (Figure 3.1). However,
the numbers that represent the value of a vector (such as velocity or force ) or a tensor depend on
the coordinate system. A tensor, like stress, also depends on the coordinate system used to express its
numerical values. Read the values as the stress on face perpendicular to base vector in the
direction of base vector . is positive if after a displacement , points in opposite direction to
(Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.1: Examples of scalar, vector and tensor quantities in a shale reservoir.
All stresses can be written as a matrix (Figure 3.2). The diagonal terms correspond to normal
stresses. The off-diagonal terms correspond to shear stresses. Off-diagonal stresses are symmetric
( ) because of angular momentum equilibrium (the element does not spin around any
axis). Hence, the stress tensor is symmetric with respect to the diagonal (top-left to bottom-right).
Figure 3.2: Graphical and mathematical representation of the stress
tensor. Read as the stress on face perpendicular to in the
direction . is positive if after a positive displacement ,
points in direction opposite to the directions of the base element .
All stresses in this figure have been drawn to be positive.
Since the stress tensor is symmetric and is composed by all real numbers, there exist 3 real-valued
eigenvalues that we call principal stresses and denote . Each principal stress (eigenvalue)
is associated with a principal direction (eigenvector). Principal directions are always perpendicular to
each other in a cartesian coordinate system. When we write the stress tensor in the coordinate system
aligned with directions of the principal stresses, the stress tensor results in diagonal elements populated
by the principal stresses and zeros in the off-diagonal places. Usually, the principal stresses are ordered
from top to bottom starting with at the top (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Principal stresses and directions. Every tensor with non-zero
off-diagonal terms can be simplified to a principal stress tensor with zero
off-diagonal terms at the orientation that coincides with the directions of
principal stresses.
3.1.1 Cauchy's equations of stress equilibrium
Equilibrium of stresses requires summation of forces in all directions to be zero when the object is not
moving (no acceleration , thus ). Consider the schematic in Figure 3.4. Summation of forces in
direction 1, where the term is the body force component, proportional to the solid mass density
and volume , and the acceleration component , requires
which eventually reduces to the following equation when canceling terms and dividing by the element
volume
(3.1)
Figure 3.4: Equilibrium of forces in direction 1. ,
and are applied on the
non-visible faces of the solid element.
A generalization of equilibrium in all directions with all stresses (Figure 3.2) yields the Cauchy's
equilibrium equations:
(3.2)
3.1.2 Application of Cauchy's equations for total vertical stress
calculation
Consider a half-space where the surface coincides with the origin of the coordinate system and gravity
points in direction 3, hence in Eq. 3.2. We assume infinite extension in directions 1 and 2,
therefore there are no variations in directions 1 and 2, such that . Notice there
are 6 unknowns and 3 equations in Eq. 3.2 (remember ). The only equation we can solve is the
third one. Integration of the third equation yields the (vertical) stress ,
(3.3)
equivalent to Eq. 2.11.
Figure 3.5: Stress gradient in a solid half-space and
derivation of total vertical stress as a function of
depth.
You may wonder “what about and ? The horizontal stresses cannot be determined with the
current equations. The solution to this problem will be developed in section 3.3.4.
3.1.3 Continuum mechanics solution of an arbitrary problem
Figure 3.6 shows an example of an arbitrary shaped continuous solid subjected to external stresses ,
external forces , body forces , and displacement constraints (bottom fixture). As highlighted before,
notice that there are 6 unknowns (9 unknowns if displacements are included) and 3 equations in
Cauchy's equations of equilibrium (Eq. 3.2). The solution of a general problem with arbitrary boundary
conditions requires more equations to have a determined problem (as many equations as unknowns).
The solution of such problem requires knowledge of the material properties. We need equations that
relate displacement to stresses. These equations divide in two types:
kinematic equations, that relate displacements to strains, and
constitutive equations, that relate strains to stresses.
The following section describes the simplest form of kinematic and constitutive equations.
Figure 3.6: A general equilibrium problem. The solution of a general
continuum mechanics problem requires knowledge of material
properties and solid deformation.
Next: 3.2 Kinematic equations: displacements Up: 3. Fundamentals of Solid Previous: 3. Fundamentals
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