16.

20 Techniques of Structural Analysis and Design

Spring 2013

Instructor: Raúl Radovitzky

Aeronautics & Astronautics
M.I.T

February 15, 2013

2
Contents

1 Stress and equilibrium 5

1.1 Internal forces and equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Transformation of stress components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Principal stresses and directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Mohr’s circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Linear and angular momentum balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6.1 Angular momentum balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3
4 CONTENTS
Module 1

Stress and equilibrium

Learning Objectives
• Understand stress as a description of internal forces transmitted in a material.

• Understand the nature of the mathematical description of stress as a second-order

tensor.

• Mathematically describe the implications of local equilibrium at a material point.

• Understand the nature of the symmetry of the stress tensor.

• Quantify stress components in arbitrary orthonormal bases and in particular principal

stresses and directions.

1.1 Internal forces and equilibrium

We are going to consider the relation between the external and internal forces exerted on a
material. External forces come in two flavors: body forces (given per unit mass or volume)
and surface forces (given per unit area). If we cut a body of material in equilibrium under
a set of external forces along a plane, as shown in Fig.1.1, and consider one side of it, we
draw two conclusions: 1) the equilibrium provided by the loads from the side taken out is
provided by a set of forces that are distributed among the material particles adjacent to the
cut plane and that should provide an equivalent set of forces to the ones loading the part
taken out, 2) these forces can now be considered as external surface forces acting on the part
of material under consideration.
The stress vector at a point on ∆S is defined as:

f
t = lim (1.1)
∆S→0 ∆S

If the cut had gone through the same point under consideration but along a plane with a
different normal, the stress vector t would have been different. Let’s consider the three stress
vectors t(i) acting on the planes normal to the coordinate axes. Let’s also decompose each

5
6 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

surface forces

n n
∆S

body forces

Figure 1.1: Surface force f on area ∆S of the cross section by plane whose normal is n.

t(i) in its three components in the coordinate system ei (this can be done for any vector) as
(see Fig.1.2):
t(i) = σij ej (1.2)

t(3)
x3 σ33

σ32 σ23
σ31
e3
x2
σ13 σ22
σ21
e1 e2
t(2) σ12
x1 σ11
t(1)

Figure 1.2: Stress components.

σij is the component of the stress vector t(i) along the ej direction.

1.2 Stress tensor

We could keep analyzing different planes passing through the point with different normals
and, therefore, different stress vectors t(n) and one might wonder if there is any relation
among them or if they are all independent. The answer to this question is given by invoking
equilibrium on the (shrinking) tetrahedron of material of Fig.1.3. The area of the faces of the
tetrahedron are ∆S1 , ∆S2 , ∆S3 and ∆S. The stress vectors on planes with reversed normals
1.2. STRESS TENSOR 7

t(−ei ) have been replaced with −t(i) using Newton’s third law of action and reaction (which
is in fact derivable from equilibrium): t(−n) = −t(n) . Enforcing equilibrium we obtain:

t(n) ∆S − t(1) ∆S1 − t(2) ∆S2 − t(3) ∆S3 = 0 (1.3)

e3
−t(1)

−t(2) t(n)
n̄

e2

e1
−t(3)

Figure 1.3: Cauchy’s tetrahedron representing the equilibrium of a tetrahedron shrinking to

a point.

The following relation: ∆Sni = ∆Si derived in the following mathematical aside:

By virtue of Green’s Theorem:

Z Z
∇φdV = nφdS
V S
applied to the function φ = 1, we get Z
0= ndS
S
which applied to our tetrahedron gives:

0 = ∆Sn − ∆S1 e1 − ∆S2 e2 − ∆S3 e3

If we take the scalar product of this equation with ei , we obtain:

∆S(n · ei ) = ∆Si

or
∆Si = ∆Sni

can then be replaced in equation 1.3 to obtain:

∆S t(n) − (n · e1 )t(1) − (n · e2 )t(2) − (n · e3 )t(3) = 0

8 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

or
t(n) = n · e1 t(1) + e2 t(2) + e3 t(3)


(1.4)
The factor in parenthesis is the definition of the Cauchy stress tensor σ:

σ = e1 t(1) + e2 t(2) + e3 t(3) = ei t(i) (1.5)

Note it is a tensorial expression (independent of the vector and tensor components in a

particular coordinate system). To obtain the tensorial components in our rectangular system
we replace the expressions of t(i) from Eqn.1.2

σ = ei σij ej (1.6)

with:  
σ11 σ12 σ13
σij =  σ21 σ22 σ23 
σ31 σ32 σ33
Replacing in Eqn.1.4:
t(n) = n · σ (1.7)
or:

t(n) = n · σij ei ej = σij n · ei ej = σij ni ej

(1.8)
tj = σij ni (1.9)

Concept Question 1.2.1. Compute the normal and tangential components of the traction
vector as a function of α.

Concept Question 1.2.2. Stress Components.

Let’s consider the following stress tensor in the (e1 , e1 , e3 ) system of coordinates:
 
σ11 = 80 MPa (T) σ12 = 30 MPa 0
σ =  σ21 = 30 MPa σ22 = 40 MPa (C) 0 
0 0 0
1.2. STRESS TENSOR 9

C C

F e3 F
B A B e1 A
E E
e3 e2 e2
e1 D D

(a) Cube I (b) Cube II

Figure 1.4: Cubes in different coordinate systems.

Let’s consider two cubes in different coordinate systems in Figures 1.4(a) and 1.4(b). These
cubes are comprised of faces A, B, C, D, E, F with the following outward normal for each
of the cubes:
Cube I: A → e2 , B → −e2 , C → −e1 , D → e1 , E → e3 , F → −e3 .
Cube II: A → −e2 , B → e2 , C → e3 , D → −e3 , E → −e1 , F → e1 .

1. Show the non-zero components on the surfaces of the two cubes in different coordinate
systems. Solution: Cube I : The first subscript of σ11 ans σ12 shows
that the outward normal is in the e1 direction, hence these components will be shown
on surfaces C and D in Figure 1.5(a).
The outward normal on surface C is in the negative e1 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 (see notes, chapter 1) is negative. Therefore on Figure 1.5(a):

• The internal force has to be in the negative e1 direction to produce a positive

(tensile) σ11 .
• The internal force has to be in the negative e2 direction to produce a positive σ12

The outward normal on surface D is in the positive e1 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 is positive. Therefore on Figure 1.5(a):

• The internal force has to be in the positive e1 direction to produce a positive

(tensile) σ11 .
• The internal force has to be in the positive e2 direction to produce a positive σ12

The first subscript of σ21 and σ22 shows that the outward normal is in the e2 direction,
hence these components will be shown on surfaces A and B. The outward normal on
surface A is in the positive e2 direction, hence the denominator in the relation 1.1 is
positive. Therefore on Figure 1.5(a):

• The internal force has to be in the positive e1 direction to produce a positive σ21 .
• The internal force has to be in the negative e2 direction to produce a negative
(compressive) σ22
10 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

The outward normal on surface B is in the negative e2 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 is negative. Therefore on Figure 1.5(a):
• The internal force has to be in the negative e1 direction to produce a positive σ21 .
• The internal force has to be in the positive e2 direction to produce a negative
(compressive) σ22
Cube II : The first subscript of σ11 ans σ12 shows that the outward normal is in the e1
direction, hence these components will be shown on surfaces E and F in Figure 1.5(b).
The outward normal on surface E is in the negative e1 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 is negative. Therefore on Figure 1.5(b):
• The internal force has to be in the negative e1 direction to produce a positive
(tensile) σ11 .
• The internal force has to be in the negative e2 direction to produce a positive σ12
The outward normal on surface F is in the positive e1 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 is positive. Therefore on Figure 1.5(b):
• The internal force has to be in the positive e1 direction to produce a positive
(tensile) σ11 .
• The internal force has to be in the positive e2 direction to produce a positive σ12
The first subscript of σ21 and σ22 shows that the outward normal is in the e2 direction,
hence these components will be shown on surfaces A and B. The outward normal on
surface A is in the negative e2 direction, hence the denominator in the relation 1.1 is
negative. Therefore on Figure 1.5(b):
• The internal force has to be in the positive e1 direction to produce a positive σ21 .
• The internal force has to be in the positive e2 direction to produce a negative
(compressive) σ22
The outward normal on surface B is in the positive e2 direction, hence the denominator
in the relation 1.1 is positive. Therefore on Figure 1.5(b):
• The internal force has to be in the positive e1 direction to produce a positive σ21 .
• The internal force has to be in the negative e2 direction to produce a negative
(compressive) σ22

Concept Question 1.2.3. Stresses on an inclined face.

Consider the tetrahedron shown in Figure 1.7. A set of three mutually orthogonal unit
vectors will be defined: l̄ is a unit vector parallel to vector AB, n̄ is the normal to face
ABC, and m̄ is such that m̄ = n̄ × l̄. The stress vector acting on face ABC is then given
by: tn = σnl l̄ + σnm m̄ + σn n̄.
1.2. STRESS TENSOR 11

80
30
C
30 C 80
F 30
A e3
40 B 40 F A
40 B e1 40
E
e2 30 30 E 30 30
e3 30 e2
e1 D 80
D
80
(a) Cube I (b) Cube II

Figure 1.5: Solutions of stress components in cubes in different coordinate systems.

e3

n̄

e2
O B

e1 A

Figure 1.6: Differential tetrahedron element.

12 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

1. Determine the stress components, σnl , σnm , and σn , in terms of the stress components
acting on the faces normal to e1 , e2 , and e3 .
Solution: The stress vectors acting on the faces perpendicular to the axes e1 , e2 ,
and e3 are defined by

t1 = σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 + σ13 e3 ,

t2 = σ21 e1 + σ22 e2 + σ23 e3 ,
t3 = σ31 e1 + σ32 e2 + σ33 e3 ,

where σij are the component of the stress tensor.

The normal to the face ABC is defined as n̄ = n1 e1 + n2 e2 + n3 e3 , the unit vector
parallel to AB as l̄ = l1 e1 + l2 e2 , and thus m̄ = m1 e1 + m2 e2 + m3 e3 .
The traction normal to the surface ABC is commonly written as t(n) = t1 n1 + t2 n2 +
t3 n3 . Projecting the normal traction respectively onto n̄, l̄ and m̄ and using the above
expressions for t1 , t2 and t3 allow us to calculate:

• the component σn :

σn = t(n) · n̄ = (σ11 n1 + σ12 n2 + σ13 n3 ) n1

+ (σ21 n1 + σ22 n2 + σ23 n3 ) n2 + (σ31 n1 + σ32 n2 + σ33 n3 ) n3 ,

which can rewritten as

σn = σ11 n21 + σ22 n22 + σ33 n23 + 2σ12 n1 n2 + 2σ13 n1 n3 + 2σ23 n2 n3 .

• the component σnl = t(n) · l̄:

σnl = σ11 n1 l1 + σ22 n2 l2 + σ33 n3 l3 + σ12 (n1 l2 + n2 l1 ) + σ13 n3 l1 + σ23 n3 l2 ,

• the component σnm = t(n) · m̄:

σnm = σ11 n1 m1 + σ22 n2 m2 + σ33 n3 m3

+ σ12 (n1 m2 + n2 m1 ) + σ13 (n1 m3 + n3 m1 ) + σ23 (n2 m3 + n3 m2 ).

1.3 Transformation of stress components

Readings: BC 1.2.1, 1.2.3 (Full 3D)

Readings: BC 1.3.2, 1.3.4 (2D)

1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF STRESS COMPONENTS 13

e3

n̄

e2
O B

e1 A

Figure 1.7: Differential tetrahedron element.

Consider a different system of cartesian coordinates e0i . We can express our tensor in
either one:
0
σ = σkl ek el = σmn e0m e0n (1.10)
We would like to relate the stress components in the two systems. To this end, we take the
scalar product of (1.10) with e0i and e0j :

e0i · σ · e0j = σkl e0i · ek el · e0j = σmn

0
e0i · e0m e0n · e0j = σmn
0
δim δnj = σij0

or

σij0 = σkl e0i · ek el · e0j

(1.11)

The factors in parenthesis are the cosine directors of the angles between the original and
primed coordinate axes.

e∗2 e2

e∗1

θ
e1

Figure 1.8: Coordinate systems E = (e1 , e2 ) and E ∗ = (e∗1 , e∗2 ), where θ = 25◦ .

Concept Question 1.3.1. Stress states on two sets of faces.

14 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

The plane stress state at a point is known and characterized by the following stress tensor:
   
σ11 σ12 250 0
σ= =
σ21 σ22 0 250

in a coordinate system E = (e1 , e2 ), as illustrated in Figure 1.9.

∗ ∗ ∗
1. Determine the stress components σ11 , σ22 , σ12 in a coordinate system E ∗ = (e∗1 , e∗2 ),
where e∗1 is oriented at an angle of 25 degree with respect to e1 . Solution: The
stress tensor σ is given by
   
σ11 σ12 250 0
σ= = .
σ21 σ22 0 250

Herein σ11 = σ22 and σ12 = 0, hence this tensor corresponds to an hydrostatic state
of stress meaning that the stresses acting on a face with any arbitrary orientation are
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
given by σ12 = σ21 = σ12 = σ21 = 0, and σ11 = σ22 = σ11 = σ22 = p, where p is the
so-called hydrostatic pressure. NB: the result is the same for any value of the angle θ.
This problem can be also solved with the approach performed in the Concept Question
1.2.2 on “Stresses on an inclined face”. We know that the stress vectors acting on the
faces perpendicular to the axes e1 , and e2 are defined by

t1 = σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 ,
t2 = σ21 e1 + σ22 e2 ,

where σij are the component of the stress tensor.

After writing the axes e∗1 and e∗2 in the components of E = (e1 , e2 ), i.e., e∗1 = cos θ e1 +
sin θ e2 , and e∗2 = − sin θ e1 + cos θ e2 , we can calculate the tractions in the directions
e∗1 and e∗2 as

te∗1 = t1 cos θ + t2 sin θ = (σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 ) cos θ + (σ21 e1 + σ22 e2 ) sin θ,

te∗2 = −t1 sin θ + t2 cos θ = − (σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 ) sin θ + (σ21 e1 + σ22 e2 ) cos θ.

These expressions and the fact that σ11 = σ22 = p and σ12 = σ21 = 0 enable us to
compute
∗
σ11 = te∗1 · e∗1 = σ11 cos2 θ + σ22 sin2 θ + 2σ12 sin θ cos θ = p,
∗
σ22 = te∗2 · e∗2 = σ11 sin2 θ + σ22 cos2 θ − 2σ12 sin θ cos θ = p,
∗
= te∗1 · e∗2 = (σ22 − σ11 ) sin θ cos θ + σ12 cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 0.


σ12

We can achieve the same conclusion through a rotation of stresses (see the statement
of the Problem 1.3.2).
1.3. TRANSFORMATION OF STRESS COMPONENTS 15

e∗2 e2

e∗1

θ
e1

Figure 1.9: Coordinate systems E = (e1 , e2 ) and E ∗ = (e∗1 , e∗2 ), where θ = 25◦ .

Concept Question 1.3.2. Stress rotation formulae in matrix form.

Specialize the general expression for the transformation of stress components Equation
(1.11) in the class notes to two dimensions and show that they can be expressed in the
following two ways:
 ∗    
 σ11  cos2 θ sin2 θ 2 sin θ cos θ  σ11 
σ∗ = sin2 θ cos2 θ −2 sin θ cos θ  σ22
 22∗ 
σ12 − sin θ cos θ sin θ cos θ cos2 θ − sin2 θ σ12
 

1. Show that this formula can be recast in the following compact matrix form
 ∗ ∗
    
σ11 σ12 cos θ sin θ σ11 σ12 cos θ − sin θ
∗ ∗ =
σ12 σ22 − sin θ cos θ σ12 σ22 sin θ cos θ

Solution: In the
solution of the Problem 1.3.1 we explain how to derive the relation between the stress
∗ ∗ ∗
components σ11 , σ22 , σ12 expressed in a coordinate system E ∗ = (e∗1 , e∗2 ), and the stress
components σ11 , σ22 , σ12 expressed in a coordinate system E = (e1 , e2 ). That relation
∗ T
is written here in matrix form: {σ11 ∗ ∗
σ22 σ12 } = A {σ11 σ22 σ12 }T .
Although the matrix A seems to represent a rotation transformation between two vec-
tors, it actually represents
 ∗ the∗ rotation
 transformation between two tensors (remember
σ σ
that the tensor σ ∗ = 11 ∗
12
∗ is symmetric, and thus it can be written as a vector
σ12 σ22
∗ ∗ ∗
turning to the Voigt notation). It means that the relation between {σ11 σ22 σ12 } and
{σ11 σ22 σ12 } can be also expressed as a change of coordinates between the tensors σ ∗
and σ, i.e.
σ ∗ = RT σR,
 
cos θ − sin θ
where R = in this case.
sin θ cos θ
It is clear now why the plane stress rotation formula and the compact matrix form are
equivalent.
16 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

1.4 Principal stresses and directions

Readings: BC 1.2.2 (Full 3D)
Readings: BC 1.3.3 2D
Given the components of the stress tensor in a given coordinate system, the determination
of the maximum normal and shear stresses is critical for the design of structures. The normal
and shear stress components on a plane with normal n are given by:
tN = t(n) · n
= σki nk ni
q
tS = kt(n) k2 − t2N

It is obvious from these equations that the normal component achieves its maximum tN =
kt(n) k when the shear components are zero. In this case:
t(n) = n · σ = λn = λIn
or in components:

σki nk = λni
σki nk = λδki nk (1.12)


σki − λδki nk = 0
which means that the principal stresses are obtained by solving the previous eigenvalue
problem, the principal directions are the eigenvectors of the problem. The eigenvalues λ are
obtained by noticing that the last identity can be satisfied for non-trivial n only if the factor
is singular, i.e., if its determinant vanishes:
 
σ11 − λ σ12 σ13 

|σij − λδij | =  σ21 σ22 − λ σ23  = 0
 σ31 σ32 σ33 − λ
which leads to the characteristic equation:
−λ3 + I1 λ2 − I2 λ + I3 = 0
where:
I1 = tr[σ]
= σii = σ11 + σ22 + σ33 (1.13)
I2 = tr[σ −1 ]det[σ]
1


= σii σjj − σij σji = σ11 σ22 + σ22 σ33 + σ33 σ11 − σ12 σ21 + σ23 σ32 + σ31 σ13 (1.14)
2
I3 = det[σ]
2 2 2
= σ11 σ22 σ33 + 2σ12 σ23 σ31 − σ12 σ33 − σ23 σ11 − σ13 σ22 (1.15)
1.4. PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND DIRECTIONS 17

are called the stress invariants because they do not depend on the coordinate system of
choice.

Concept Question 1.4.1. Principal stresses.

Let’s consider the following state of stress:
   
σ11 σ12 σ13 200 50 −80
σ =  σ21 σ22 σ23  =  50 300 100  .
σ31 σ32 σ33 −80 100 −100

1. Determine both, the principal stresses and the principal directions.

Solution: We have a stress tensor σ given by
 
200 50 −80
σ =  50 300 100  .
−80 100 −100

To determine (1) the principal stresses and (2) the principal directions we have to
compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors, respectively. After the calculation, we obtain
a stress tensor σ ∗ with the eigenvalues in the diagonal, and a matrix M ∗ with the
corresponding eigenvectors in columns:
 
331.64 0 0
σ∗ =  0 215.12 0 ,
0 0 −146.76

and  
−0.2562 −0.9335 0.2508
M ∗ =  −0.9510 0.1970 −0.2381  .
−0.1729 0.2995 0.9383

We can calculate the invariants I1 , I2 and I3 of the stress tensor to verify is these results
are correct. We obtain I1 = I1∗ = 400, I2 = I2∗ = −8900, and I3 = I3∗ = −10470000. It
means that is the same tensor but expressed in different coordinate systems. As one of
the matrices is diagonal, we can conclude that is the matrix of the principal stresses.

Concept Question 1.4.2. Principal stresses and transformation.

Let’s consider the following state of stress:
 
3 1 1
σ= 1  0 2 .
1 2 0

1. Using the stress invariants, determine both, the principal stresses and directions.
18 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM
p
2. Determine the traction vector on a plane with a unit normal n = (0, 1, 1)/ (2).
Solution: 1. First, we calculate the three invariants:
I1 = tr(σ)
= σkk
= σ11 + σ22 + σ33
= 3
I2 = tr(σ −1 )det(σ)
1
= (σii σjj − σij σji )
2
2 2 2
= σ11 σ22 + σ22 σ33 + σ11 σ33 − σ12 − σ23 − σ13
= −6
I3 = det(σ)
2 2 2
= σ11 σ22 σ33 + 2σ12 σ23 σ31 − σ12 σ33 − σ23 σ11 + σ13 σ22
= −8
This leads to the following characteristic equation:
det[σij − λδij ] = −λ3 + I1 λ2 − I2 λ + I3 = 0
= −λ3 + 3λ2 + 6λ − 8 = 0
The roots of this equation are found to be λ = 4, 1 and −2. Back-substituting the
first root into the fundamental system gives:
(1) (1) (1)
−n1 + n2 + n3 = 0
(1) (1) (1)
n1 − 4n2 + 2n3 = 0
(1) (1) (1)
n1 + 2n2 − 4n3 = 0
Solving this system,
p the normalized principal direction is found to be
n(1) = (2, 1,
p 1)/ (6). In similar fashion,
p the other two principal directions are n(2) =
(−1, 1, 1)/ (3) and n(3) = (0, −1, 1)/ (2).
2. The traction vector on the specified plane is calculated by using the relation:
    √ 
3 1 1 0√ 2/√2
Tin =  1 0 2   1/√2  =  2/√2  .
1 2 0 1/ 2 2/ 2

Concept Question 1.4.3. Stress invariants for plane stress state.

Let’s introduce the following two quantities:
I1 = σ11 + σ22 ,
2
I2 = σ11 σ22 − σ12 .
1.4. PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND DIRECTIONS 19

1. In the case of plane stress problems, show that these two quantities are invariant.

2. Prove this invariance by showing that these quantities are identical when computed in
terms of the principal stresses and in terms of stresses acting on a face at an arbitrary
orientation.
Solution: The invariants of the stress
tensor are the quantities that remain unchangeable under coordinate transformations.
In the three-dimensional case they are defined as

I1 = σ11 + σ22 + σ33 ,

2 2 2
I2 = σ11 σ22 + σ22 σ33 + σ11 σ33 − σ12 − σ23 − σ13 ,
2 2 2
I3 = σ11 σ22 σ33 − σ11 σ23 − σ22 σ13 − σ33 σ12 + 2σ12 σ13 σ23 .

In the plane stress approach we assume that σ33 = 0, σ13 = 0, and σ23 = 0. By
replacing these stresses in the above equations we obtain the invariants for the plane
stress state

I1 = σ11 + σ22 ,
2
I2 = σ11 σ22 − σ12 ,
I3 = 0,

which correspond with the values indicated in the statement of the problem.
Given the stress components σ11 , σ22 and σ12 on two orthogonal faces, we can write
p p
the principal stresses σ11 and σ22 as

p σ11 + σ22
σ11 = + ∆,
2
p σ11 + σ22
σ22 = − ∆,
2
q
σ11 −σ22 2

2
where ∆ = 2
+ σ12 .
These expressions make straightforward the following calculations

I1p = σ11
p p
+ σ22 = σ11 + σ22 ⇒ I1p = I1 .
p 2
p p
I2p = σ11 σ22 − (σ12 ) = σ11 σ22 − (σ12 )2 ⇒ I2p = I2 .

If the stress components σ11 , σ22 and σ12 on two orthogonal faces are known, the
stresses acting on a face with an arbitrary direction θ can be calculated as
 
∗ σ11 + σ22 σ11 − σ22
σ11 = + cos 2θ + σ12 sin 2θ,
2 2
 
∗ σ11 + σ22 σ11 − σ22
σ22 = − cos 2θ − σ12 sin 2θ,
2 2
 
∗ σ11 − σ22
σ12 = − sin 2θ + σ12 cos 2θ.
2
20 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

These expressions make straightforward the following calculations

I1∗ = σ11
∗ ∗
+ σ22 = σ11 + σ22 ⇒ I1∗ = I1 .
∗ 2
∗ ∗
I2∗ = σ11 σ22 − (σ12 ) = σ11 σ22 − (σ12 )2 ⇒ I2∗ = I2 .

1.5 Mohr’s circle

Readings: BC 1.3.6

The Mohr’s circle, named after Christian Otto Mohr (1835-1918), is a two-dimensional graph-
ical representation of the state of stress at a point M . A point M , belonging to the circle,
has the coordinates (σ M , τ M ) in the reference axes (σ,τ ) corresponding to the normal and
shear stresses at this point, respectively. Figure 1.10 shows a point M belonging to a Mohr’s
circle corresponding to the following state of stress:
 
M σ11 σ12
σ =
σ12 σ22

The principal stresses, herein denoted σI and σII (Figure 1.10), are located on the axis
σ for which the shear component is zero. The center of the circle, giving the value of the
average normal stress, is located on the horizontal axis a distance 21 (σI + σII ) from the origin
and the radius of the circle is given by:
s 2
1 2
R= (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12 (1.16)
2

The principal stresses are obtained as follows:

s 2
1 1 2
σI = (σ11 + σ22 ) + (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12
2 2
s 2
1 1 2
σII = (σ11 + σ22 ) − (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12 (1.17)
2 2
max
Also, the maximum shear stress σ12 is obtained on the Mohr’s circle (Figure 1.10) and
is equal to the value of the radius of the circle. The stress components of a point M are
acting on a particular plane oriented at an angle θ to the principal directions. In practice,
on the Mohr’s circle, the diameter of the circle joining the coordinates (σ22 , σ12 ) and (σ22 ,
-σ12 ) of the point M makes an angle of 2θ with the horizontal axis, as depicted in Figure
1.10. Therefore, the circle describes the stress state of any point located on plane at all
orientations, i.e 0 < θ < π.
1.5. MOHR’S CIRCLE 21

τ
max
σ12
b

(σ22 ,−σ12 ) M b

R
σ22
∗
σ11
∗

b b b
σ
2θ

M (σ11 ,σ12 )

Figure 1.10: Mohr’s circle for two-dimensional stress

Concept Question 1.5.1. Mohr’s circle derivation.

∗ ∗
Let’s consider a Mohr’s circle of radius R and principal stresses σ11 and σ22 which are
points belonging to both, the circle and the σii axis.
1. Derive the expression of the radius R as a function of the stress components.
2. Derive the expressions of the principal stresses.
Solution: 1. In Figure 1.11, from the Pythagore theorem we have:
2 2
σm + σ12 = R2
and
σ11 − σ22
σm =
2
hence:  2
σ11 − σ22 2
+ σ12 = R2
2
finally we obtain the following relation for the radius of the circle:
s 2
1 2
R= (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12
2
2. The value of principal stresses is equal to the ordinate of the origin ( 21 (σ11 + σ22 )) of
the Mohr’s circle + or − the radius of the circle R:
s 2
∗ 1 1 2
σ11 = (σ11 + σ22 ) + (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12
2 2
s 2
∗ 1 1 2
σ22 = (σ11 + σ22 ) − (σ11 − σ22 ) + σ12 (1.18)
2 2
22 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

σij

(σ22 ,σ12 ) b

σ22
∗ σm σ11
∗

b b b σi
2θ ∗

R
b

(σ11 ,−σ12 )

Figure 1.11: Mohr circle.

Concept Question 1.5.2. Mohr’s circle.

Let’s consider the following state of stress:
 
80 40
σ= .
40 −20

1. Draw the Mohr’s circle of this state of stress

2. Using the Mohr’s circle, determine the principal stresses and the corresponding direc-
tions.

3. Using the Mohr’s circle, calculate the stresses on axes rotated 60 degrees counterclock-
wise from the reference axes.

4. Compare these results with the ones obtained analytically? Solution: The stress
tensor σ is given by    
σ11 σ12 80 40
σ= = .
σ21 σ22 40 −20
1. We obtain the Mohr’s circle (Figure 1.12) by plotting the two points with the co-
ordinates (σ22 ,−σ12 ) and (σ11 ,σ12 ), respectively. The line between these two points
intersects the σii −axis at the center of the circle.

2. The principal stresses are the stresses for which the shear components are zero,
∗ ∗
i.e when the stress matrix is diagonal. Hence, σ11 and σ22 are the two intersection
∗
points between the circle and the σii −axis. These stresses are (σ11 )plot ≈ 94 MPa and
∗
(σ22 )plot ≈ −34 MPa, respectively. The direction is given by the angle 2θ between the
1.5. MOHR’S CIRCLE 23

line joining (σ22 ,−σ12 ) and (σ11 ,σ12 ) and the σii −axis. Herein, (θ∗ )plot ≈ 19o .

3. For an angle 2θ equals to 60o from the reference axis (or σii −axis), we obtain the
stresses σ11 ' 39.6 MPa, σ22 ' 20.3 MPa and σ12 ' −63.3 MPa.

4. The principal stresses and corresponding directions are calculated analytically with
the following equations

∗ σ11 + σ22
σ11 = + ∆,
2
∗ σ11 + σ22
σ22 = − ∆,
2
2σ12
tan 2θp =
σ11 − σ22
q
σ11 −σ22 2

2
where ∆ = 2
+ σ12 is the shear stress component, around 0 when the stress
tensor is expressed in the principal directions system of coordinates.

s 2
80 − −20
∆ = + (40)2
2
= 64.0312 MPa

so
∗ 80 − 20
σ11 = + 64.0312
2
= 94.0312 MPa

and
∗ 80 − 20
σ22 = − 64.0312
2
= −34.0312 MPa

and
2 × 40
tan 2θp =
80 + 20
= 0.8
p p
Hence, we obtain σ11 = 94.0312, σ22 = −34.0312, and θp = 19.33, and these results are
in agreement with our previous results.
24 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

σij
(σ11 , σ12 )
b

b
(σ11 ,σ12 )

σ22
∗
= −34 MPa 2θ σ11
∗
= 94 MPa
2θ∗
b b b σi

(σ22 ,−σ12 ) b

(σ22 , −σ12 )

Figure 1.12: Mohr circle.

1.6 Linear and angular momentum balance

Readings: BC 1.1.2 (derivation by local equilibrium of differential volume element)

We are going to derive the equations of momentum balance in integral form, since this is
the formulation that is more aligned with our “integral” approach in this course. We start
from the definition of linear and angular momentum. For an element of material at position
x of volume dV , density ρ, mass ρdV which remains constant, moving at a velocity v, the
linear momentum is ρvdV and the angular momentum x × (ρvdV ). The total momenta of
the body are obtained by integration over the volume as:
Z Z
ρvdV and x × ρvdV
V V

respectively. The principle of conservation of linear momentum states that the rate of change
of linear momentum is equal to the sum of all the external forces acting on the body:
Z Z Z
D
ρvdV = f dV + tdS (1.19)
Dt V V S

D
where Dt
is the total derivative. The lhs can be expanded as:
Z Z Z
D D ∂v
ρvdV = (ρdV )v + ρ dV
Dt V V Dt V ∂t
D
but Dt
(ρdV ) = 0 from conservation of mass, so the principle reads:
Z Z Z
∂v
ρ dV = f dV + tdS (1.20)
V ∂t V S

Now, using what we’ve learned about the tractions and their relation to the stress tensor:
1.6. LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM BALANCE 25

Z Z Z
∂v
ρ dV = f dV + n · σdS (1.21)
V ∂t V S

This is the linear momentum balance equation in integral form. We can replace the surface
integral with a volume integral with the aid of the divergence theorem:
Z Z
n · σdS = ∇ · σdV
S V

and then (1.21) becomes: !

Z
∂v
ρ − f − ∇ · σ dV = 0
V ∂t
Since this principle applies to an arbitrary volume of material, the integrand must vanish:
∂v
ρ −f −∇·σ =0 (1.22)
∂t
This is the linear momentum balance equation in differential form. In components:
∂vi
σji,j + fi = ρ
∂t

Concept Question 1.6.1. Stress and equilibrium.

Let’s consider an elastic structural member for which the stress field is expressed as
follows:  
−x31 + x22 5x3 + 2x22 x1 x33 + x21 x2
σ =  5x3 + 2x22 2x31 + 21 x22 0 .
3 2 2 3
x1 x3 + x1 x2 0 4x2 − x3
1. Determine the body force distribution for equilibrium in static. Solution: We
apply the following relation of equilibrium:

∇·σ+F =0

∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13

 
+ +
 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 
 ∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23 
∇·σ = + +
 
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

 
 ∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33 
+ +
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Which leads to:

−3x21 + 4x2 + 3x1 x23 + F1 = 0

x2 + F 2 = 0
2 3
−3x3 + x3 + 2x1 x2 + F3 = 0
26 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

The body force distribution, as obtained from these expressions, is therefore:

F1 = 3x21 − 4x2 − 3x1 x23

F2 = −x2
F3 = −2x1 x2 − x33 + −3x23

The state of stress and body force at any specific point within the member may be
obtained by substituting the specific values of x1 , x2 and x3 into the previous equations.

Concept Question 1.6.2. Stress fields in static equilibrium.

Let’s consider a structure in equilibrium and free of body forces. Are the following stress
fields possible?

x22
 
 c1 x 1 + c2 x 2 + c3 x 1 x 2 −c3 − c1 x2 
1. σ =  2 .
x2
−c3 2 − c1 x2 c4 x 1 + c1 x 2
2
 
3x1 + 5x2 4x1 − 3x2
2. σ = .
4x1 − 3x2 2x1 − 4x2
 
x21 − 2x1 x2 + cx3 −x1 x2 + x22 −x1 x3
3. σ =  −x1 x2 + x22 x22 −x2 x3 . Solution: To solve this
−x1 x3 −x2 x3 (x1 + x2 )x3
problem we turn to the momentum equation

∂σji ∂ 2 ui
+ ρfi = ρ 2 .
∂xj ∂t

As the structure is in equilibrium (steady state) and free of body forces, the terms
2
ρ ∂∂tu2i and ρfi are null. Then, the equilibrium equations become

∂σji
= 0.
∂xj

For a 2D stress field we have:

∂σ11 ∂σ12
 
+
∂σji  ∂x 1 ∂x2 
= (1.23)
 
∂xj

 ∂σ ∂σ22 
21
+
∂x1 ∂x2
1.6. LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM BALANCE 27

For a 3D stress field we have:

∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13
 
 ∂x1 + ∂x2 + ∂x3 
 
 
∂σji 
 ∂σ21 ∂σ22 ∂σ23

= + + (1.24)

∂xj  ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3


 
 
 ∂σ31 ∂σ32 ∂σ33 
+ +
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

1. For the first stress field we obtained:

   
∂σji c1 + c3 x2 + −c3 x2 − c1 0
= = (1.25)
∂xj c1 c1
This stress field does not satisfy the equilibrium equation.
2. For the second stress field we obtained:
   
∂σji 3−3 0
= = (1.26)
∂xj 4−4 0
This stress field does satisfy the equilibrium equation.
3. For the third stress field we obtained:
   
2x1 − 2x2 − x1 + 2x2 − x1 0
∂σji 
= −x2 + 2x2 − x2 = 0  (1.27)
∂xj
−x3 − x3 + x1 + x2 −2x3 + x1 + x2
This stress field does not satisfy the equilibrium equation

1.6.1 Angular momentum balance and the symmetry of the stress

tensor
The principle of conservation of angular momentum states that the rate of change of angular
momentum is equal to the sum of the moment of all the external forces acting on the body:
Z Z Z
D
ρx × vdV = x × f dV + x × tdS (1.28)
Dt V V S

It can be conveniently written as

Z Z Z


∂vj ∂vi

xi tj − xj ti dS + xi fj − xj fi dV = ρ xi − xj dV
S V V ∂t ∂t
28 MODULE 1. STRESS AND EQUILIBRIUM

Using ti = σki nk , the divergence theorem and (1.22), this expression leads to (see homework
problem): Z
(σij − σji )dV = 0
V
which applies to an arbitrary volume V , and therefore, can only be satisfied if the integrand
vanishes. This implies:

σij = σji (1.29)