Lecture Note1

Stress Tensor
AE51003/AE61009: Applied Elasticity and Plasticity

Prasun Jana
Assistant Professor, Aerospace Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

1 Introduction
Motion and deformation of any solid body give rise to interactions between the material
and its neighboring material in the interior part of the body. One consequences of these
interaction is stress, which has physical dimension force per unit of area.
In this chapter, we would like to introduce the concept of stress within a solid body body
and discuss the properties of traction vector and stress tensor. Each provides a quantitative
method to describe both boundary and internal force distributions within a continuum solid.
Because it is commonly accepted that maximum stresses are a major contributing factor to
material failure, primary application of elasticity theory is used to determine the distribution
of stress within a given structure.
Related to these force distribution issues is the concept of equilibrium. Within a de-
formable solid, the force distribution at each point must be balanced. For the static case,
the summation of forces on an infinitesimal element is required to be zero, while for a dy-
namic problem the resultant force must equal the mass times the element’s acceleration. In
this chapter, we will also develop the equilibrium equations, which become another set of
field equations necessary in the overall formulation of elasticity theory. It should be noted
1
This lecture note should be used for reading purposes only. Many texts of this note may not be original;
are taken directly from some reference materials.

1
that the developments in this chapter do not require that the material be elastic, and thus
in principle these results apply to a broader class of material behavior.

2 Traction vector (or stress vector)

A tensorial approach to the concept of stress was first announced in 1822 by Cauchy as his
famous stress principle. It leads to the same concept of stress as a second-order tensor field
introduced above for the description of internal forces within a continuum solid body.
In order to quantify the nature of the internal distribution of forces within a continuum
solid, consider a general body subject to arbitrary (concentrated and distributed) external
loadings, as shown in Fig. 1. To investigate the internal forces, a section is made through
the body as shown. On this section consider a small area ∆A with unit normal vector n̂.
The resultant surface force acting on ∆A is defined by ∆F . For every such surface element,
the stress or traction vector is defined by

Figure 1: Sectioned solid under external loading and traction vector.

∆F
t = lim .
∆A→0 ∆A

Here, t = t(x, n̂) represents the traction vector. For dynamic problems, t = t(x, t, n̂).
Notice that the traction vector depends on both the spatial location and the unit normal
vector to the surface under study. Thus, even though we may be investigating the same
point, the traction vector still varies as a function of the orientation of the surface normal.

2
 Traction vectors acting on opposite sides of a surface element are equal and opposite (as
per Newton’s (third) law of action and reaction).

t(x, n̂) = −t(x, −n̂)

3 Stress tensor
There exists a Cauchy stress tensor (σ) which maps the normal to a surface to the traction
vector on that surface.

t(x, n̂) = σ(x)n̂

or, in equivalent matrix form,

[t] = [σ][n].

In other words, the traction vector on a plane passing through a given spatial point x
depends only on the unit vector n̂ to the plane.

4 Components of stress tensor (or stress components)

The components of the stress tensor with respect to an orthogonal set of basis vectors êi :

têi = σêi (i = 1, 2, 3)
    
σ11 σ12 σ13 1 σ11
tê1 = σê1 = σ21 σ22 σ23  0 = σ21 
    

σ31 σ32 σ33 0 σ31

= σ11 ê1 + σ21 ê2 + σ31 ê3 .
Similarly,
tê2 = σ12 ê1 + σ22 ê2 + σ32 ê3

tê3 = σ13 ê1 + σ23 ê2 + σ23 ê3

and,
t−ê1 = −σ11 ê1 − σ21 ê2 − σ23 ê3

The positive stress components of the traction vectors têi are shown in Fig. 2. Vector
components on a negative face are just opposites of those on the associated positive face.

3
Figure 2: Positive stress components of the traction vector têi acting on the faces of a cube.

Sign convention of [σij ]

The second index characterizes the plane that the component is acting on and the first
index characterizes the direction of the component. The plane is described by its unit normal.
However, we will prove that the stress tensor is symmetric (see below in Section 5).
Hence, σij = σji . Thus, the following sign convention can also be consider. The first index
characterizes the plane that the component is acting on and the second index characterizes
the direction of the component. The plane is described by its unit normal.
The later convention, shown in Fig. 3, is mostly used by the engineering community.

5 Symmetry of stress tensor

Consider a differential parallelepiped isolated from the body. See Fig. 4.

4
Figure 3: Considering symmetry of the stress tensor, sign convention used in the engineering
community for the positive stress components of the traction vector têi acting on the faces
of a cube.

Figure 4: A differential parallelepiped used to show symmetry of stress tensor.

5
 Principle of angular momentum: Taking moment about an axis parallel to x3 axis and
passing through the center of the parallelepiped.

ΣMA3 = −σ21 (∆x2 ∆x3 (∆x1 /2)) − (σ21 + ∆σ21 )(∆x1 ∆x3 (∆x1 )/2) + σ12 (∆x1 ∆x3 (∆x2 /2))
+ (σ12 + ∆σ12 )(∆x1 ∆x3 (∆x2 /2)) + BM 3 (∆x1 ∆x2 ∆x3 )
= I33 α.

Where,
∂()
∆() = ∆xi
∂xi
BM 3 → Body moment per unit volume
α → Angular acceleration
1
ρ(∆x1 ∆x2 ∆x3 )(∆x1 2 + ∆x2 2 )
I33 =
12
Assuming no body moment (BM i = 0) and neglecting the higher order terms, we get

(σ12 − σ21 )∆x1 ∆x2 ∆x3 = 0

⇒ σ12 = σ21 .

Similarly σ13 = σ31 and σ32 = σ23 .

Therefore, σij = σji → Stress tensor is symmetric.

6 Normal and shear stresses

The traction vector tn can be resolved into the sum of a vector along the normal n̂ and a
vector perpendicular to n̂. See Fig. 5. The magnitude of the normal component is called
normal stress (σ) and the magnitude of the perpendicular component is called shear stress
(τ ) acting on the surface element.
Magnitude of the normal stress:

σ = n̂ · t = n̂ · σn̂ = [n]T [σ][n]

σ = (n̂ · t)n̂

If σ > 0 → tensile stress

and,
if σ < 0 → Compressive stress.

6
 Figure 5: Normal and shear stresses at position x.

Magnitude of the shear stress:

τ = t − σ n as t = σ n + τ

Therefore,
p
|τ | = |t|2 − |σ n |2
p
= [[σ][n]]T [σ][n] − σn 2
p
= [n]T [σ][σ][n] − σn 2

Example
State of stress at certain point in a body is
 
2 4 3
[σ] = 4 0 0  MPA.
 

3 0 −1

1. Find t and σn on a plane that passes through the point and parallel to the plane
x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 − 6 = 0
′ ′ ′
2. If ê1 = 31 (2ê1 + 2ê2 + ê3 ) and ê2 = √1 (ê1
2
− ê2 ), Find σ12

7
Solution:

1. Let F = x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 − 6 = 0

Then,
∇F
n̂ =
|∇F |
1
= (ê1 + 2ê2 + 2ê3 )
3
∂F ∂F ∂F
where, ∇F = ∂x 1
ê1 + ∂x 2
ê2 + ∂x 3
ê3 .
Traction vector:
t = [σ][n]
  
2 4 3 1
1
= 4 0 0  2
 
3
3 0 −1 2
 
16
1 
= 4
3
1
1
= (16ê1 + 4ê2 + ê3 ) MPa.
3
Magnitude of normal stress:

σ = n̂ · t
 
1h i 16
= 1 2 2 4
 
9
1
1
= [16 + 8 + 2]
9
= 2.89 MPa.

2. Primed components:

8
 ′ ′ ′
σ12 = ê1 · σê2
  
2 4 3 1
1 h i
= √ 2 2 1 4 0 0  −1
  
3 2
3 0 −1 0
7
= √
3 2
= 1.65 MPa.

7 Principal stress and principal direction

Consider the symmetric stress tensor and its eigenvalue problem

σn̂ = λn̂

or
([σ] − λ[I])[n] = 0
To obtain the eigenvalues we must solve the characteristics equation of [σ],

λ 3 − I1 λ + I2 λ − I3 = 0

Here, the roots are λ1 , λ2 , λ3 . We call them σ1 , σ2 , σ3 . I1 , I2 and I3 are called stress invariants.
They do not change by changing the basis vectors.

I1 = tr(σ) = σ1 + σ2 + σ3
1
I2 = [(tr(σ))2 − tr(σ)2 ] = σ1 σ2 + σ1 σ3 + σ2 σ3
2
I3 = det(σ) = σ1 σ2 σ3
Since the [σ] is symmetric, eigenvectors form an orthogonal basis and eigenvalues are real.
The eigenvalues, σ1 , σ2 , σ3 are called principal normal stresses or principal stresses.
The corresponding three orthogonal eigenvectors are the principal directions of [σ]. Their
related normal planes are known as principal planes.

Does principal planes have shear stress?

No. Because, traction vectors are normal to the principal planes.

t = σn̂ev = λn̂ev

Traction vector is along the normal direction, so no shear component.

9
8 Extremal normal stress
8.1 Method 1: (Lagrange multiplier method)
Let the traction vector on an arbitrary oriented surface normal is t(x, n̂) = σ(x)n̂. We wish
to find the unit vector n̂ at x indicating the direction of maximum and minimum values of
normal stresses σn .
In order to obtain these maximum and minimum (or so called extremal) values of σn , we
may apply the Lagrange multiplier method and claim the stationary position of a functional
ζ to be
ζ(n̂, λ) = n̂ · σn̂ − λ(|n̂|2 − 1)

Here,(|n̂|2 − 1) = 0 characterizes the constraint condition and λ the lagrange multiplier.

In matrix form,
ζ(n̂, λ) = [n]T [σ][n] − λ([n]T [n] − 1)

For the stationary position

∂ζ/∂n = 2[σ][n] − 2λ[n] = 0
∂ζ/∂λ = [n]T [n] − 1 = 0
We get,
σn̂ − λn̂ = 0

and
|n|2 = 1

which is an eigen value problem and λ is the eigenvalue.

Therefore, n̂ corresponding to the maximum and minimum normal stress are the principal
directions.

8.2 Method 2: (working with the principal directions)

Think of the basis vectors along the principal directions. Say, n̂1 , n̂2 , and n̂3 are the
three basis vectors. And,  
σ1 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ2 0 .
 

0 0 σ3

10
 Now, let us take any arbitrary plane and it’s associated unit vector (m̂) as
m̂ = m1 n̂1 + m2 n̂2 + m3 n̂3

The normal stress on that plane

σm = m̂ · σ m̂
  
h i σ1 0 0 m1
= [m]T [σ][m] = m1 m2 m3  0 σ1 0  m2 
  

0 0 σ1 m3
 
h i m1
= [σ1 m1 σ2 m2 σ3 m3 ] m2 
 

m3
= σ1 m1 2 + σ2 m2 2 + σ3 m3 2
Now, m̂ is a unit vector, Therefore
m1 2 + m2 2 + m3 2 = 1

m1 2 = 1 − m2 2 − m3 2
Since,
σm = σ1 (1 − m2 2 − m3 2 ) + σ2 m2 2 + σ3 m3 2
= σ1 + (σ2 − σ1 )m2 2 + (σ3 − σ1 )m3 2
Now, for the extreme value of σm
∂σm /∂m2 = 2(σ2 − σ1 )m2 = 0
∂σm /∂m3 = 2(σ3 − σ1 )m3 = 0
For a general case
σ1 6= σ2 6= σ3

so m2 = 0 and m3 = 0
so,
m̂ = ±n̂1 (m1 = ±1)
Similarly, we can consider other two cases (by a suitable change in Eq.(2)) where we get

m̂ = ±n̂2 and m̂ = ±n̂3

and these are the principal planes. Therefore, maximum and minimum normal stress lies on
the principal planes.

11
8.3 Method 3:
Following Method 2 (working along the three principal directions as the basis vectors) we
have  
σ1 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ2 0  andm̂ = m1 n̂1 + m2 n̂2 + m3 n̂3 .
 

0 0 σ3
Without loss of generality, we can assume σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3

σm = σ1 m21 + σ2 m22 + σ3 m23 and m21 + m22 + m23 = 1.

Now, we see that

σ1 = σ1 (m21 + m22 + m23 ) ≥ σ1 m21 + σ2 m22 + σ3 m23 .

Hence,
σ1 ≥ σm

Also,
σm = σ1 m21 + σ2 m22 + σ3 m23 ≥ σ3 (m21 + m22 + m23 )

and
σm ≥ σ3

Therefore,
σ1 ≥ σm ≥ σ3

Thus, the maximum and minimum value of the principal stresses are the maximum and
minimum value of the normal stresses.

9 Extremal shear stress

Consider the basis vector along the principal directions
 
σ1 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ2 0 
 

0 0 σ3

n̂1 , n̂2 and n̂3 are the three basis vectors.

12
 Take one arbitrary plane (the normal vector) as

m̂ = m1 n̂1 + m2 n̂2 + m3 n̂3

2
τm = |τm |2 − σm
2

= (σ12 m21 + σ22 m22 + σ32 m23 ) − (σ1 m1 2 + σ2 m2 2 + σ3 m3 2 )2

Constraint condition:
m21 + m22 + m23 = 1

m23 = 1 − m21 − m22

2
τm = [σ32 + (σ12 − σ32 )m21 + (σ22 − σ32 )m22 ] − [σ3 + (σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 ]2
2
∂τm /∂m1 = 2m1 (σ12 − σ32 ) − 4m1 (σ1 − σ3 )[σ3 + (σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 ]
= 2m1 (σ1 − σ3 ){(σ1 + σ3 ) − 2[σ3 + (σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 ]}
= 2m1 (σ1 − σ3 ){(σ1 − σ3 ) − 2[(σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 ]}
Similarly, we can get
2
∂τm /∂m2 = 2m2 (σ2 − σ3 ){(σ2 − σ3 ) − 2[(σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 ]} = 0

Now solve for m1 and m2 :

The first (obvious) solutions are:

1. m1 = m2 = 0 and m3 = ±1.

2. Now, by suitable utilization of the constraint equation, we can get

m2 = m3 = 0 and m1 = ±1.

3. Similarly,
m3 = m1 = 0 and m2 = ±1.

Therefore, the unit vectors are:

m̂ = ±n̂1 , m̂ = ±n̂2 , m̂ = ±n̂3 ,

which corresponds to the principal directions of the stress tensor. On these plane τ = 0.
Thus, on these planes the value of τ 2 is a minimum (in fact, zero).

The second solution:

13
 1. Assume m1 = 0 and m2 = 0, which gives m2 = ± √12 and m3 = ± √12 .

2. Assume m2 = 0 and m1 6= 0, which gives m1 = ± √12 and m3 = ± √12 .

3. For m3 = 0, similar procedures will give m1 = ± √12 and m2 = ± √12 .

By substituting these results, the associated external values of τ 2 can be obtained;

1 1 1
m̂ = ± √ n̂2 ± √ n̂3 , τ 2 = (σ2 − σ3 )2
2 2 4
1 1 1
m̂ = ± √ n̂1 ± √ n̂3 , τ 2 = (σ1 − σ3 )2
2 2 4
1 1 1
m̂ = ± √ n̂1 ± √ n̂2 , τ 2 = (σ1 − σ2 )2
2 2 4
The maximum magnitude of the shear stress denoted by τmax is the largest of the above
three values. Without loss of any generality we can assume σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 . Then,
1
τmax = (σ1 − σ3 )
2
Note: The maximum shear stress acts on the plane that is shifted about an angle ±45◦ to
the principle plane in which the maximum (σ1 ) and minimum (σ3 ) principle stresses act.
Normal stresses σm associated with τmax has the value:
σmax + σmin σ1 + σ3
σm |τmax = = .
2 2

Third solution: (Possible??)

Let, m1 6= 0 and m2 6= 0
That gives
(σ1 − σ3 )
(σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 =
2
(σ2 − σ3 )
(σ1 − σ3 )m21 + (σ2 − σ3 )m22 =
2
In the above two equations the left side are the same while the right hand side terms are
different. Hence, this solution is not possible!

14
10 Mohr’s circle of 3D state of stress
σn = n̂T σn̂
|τ |2 = |t|2 − σn2
= n̂T σ σn̂ − σn2
Think of the basic vectors along the principal directions.
 
σ1 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ2 0 
 

0 0 σ3

and assume σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 .
Take an arbitrary plane
m̂ = m1 n̂1 + m2 n̂2 + m3 n̂3 .

Then,
σm = m̂T σ m̂
= σ1 m21 + σ2 m22 + σ3 m23
2
τm = m̂T σσ m̂ − σm
2

= σ12 m21 + σ22 m22 + σ32 m23 − σm

2

1 = m21 + m22 + m23 .

Solving these three equations for m2i , we get
2
τm + (σm − σ2 )(σm − σ3 )
m21 = ≥0
(σ1 − σ2 )(σ1 − σ3 )
2
2 τm + (σm − σ3 )(σm − σ1 )
m2 = ≥0
(σ2 − σ3 )(σ2 − σ1 )
τ 2 + (σm − σ1 )(σm − σ2 )
m23 = m ≥ 0.
(σ3 − σ1 )(σ3 − σ2 )

Now considering σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 ,
2
τm + (σm − σ2 )(σm − σ3 ) ≥ 0
2
τm + (σm − σ3 )(σm − σ1 ) ≤ 0
2
τm + (σm − σ1 )(σm − σ2 ) ≥ 0

15
Consider the first inequality:
2
τm + (σm − σ2 )(σm − σ3 ) ≥ 0
2 2
⇒τm + σm − σm (σ2 + σ3 ) + σ2 σ3 ≥ 0
 2  2
2 2 σ2 + σ3 σ2 + σ3
⇒τm + σm − σm (σ2 + σ3 ) + − + σ2 σ3 ≥ 0
2 2
 2  2
2 σ2 + σ3 σ2 − σ3
⇒τm + σm − ≥
2 2
Similarly, from other two inequalities we get:
 2  2
2 σ1 + σ3 σ1 − σ3
τm + σm − ≤
2 2
 2  2
2 σ1 + σ2 σ1 − σ2
τm + σm − ≥
2 2

Figure 6: Mohr’s circle of 3D stress state.

Magnitude of maximum shear stress;

σ1 − σ3
τmax = .
2
Normal stress associated with the maximum shear;
σ1 + σ3
σ|τmax = .
2
16
11 Octahedral stresses
Consider a plane whose unit normal m̂ makes equal angles with each of the three principal
directions n̂i of the stress tensor. Such a plane is typically called an octahedral plane char-
√
acterized by the unit normal vector m̂ = mi n̂i , with components m1 = m2 = m3 = ±1/ 3.
There are eight such planes (see Fig. 7).

Figure 7: Octahedral planes and octahedral stresses.

Normal and shear stress on the octahedral planes:

σoct = σ1 m21 + σ2 m22 + σ3 m23

(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )
=
3
We know that
2
τoct = σ12 m21 + σ22 m22 + σ32 m23 − σoct
2

1
= (σ12 + σ22 + σ32 ) − ((σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )/3)2
3
1
= [3(σ12 + σ22 + σ32 ) − (σ12 + σ22 + σ32 + 2σ1 σ2 + 2σ2 σ3 + 2σ1 σ3 )]
9
1
= [(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ]
9
17
 Therefore,
1p
τoct = (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 .
3

Octahedral stresses in terms of stress components and principal stress invariants.

(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) I1 (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )

σoct = = =
3 3 3
1
q
τoct = 3(σ12 + σ22 + σ32 ) − (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )2
3
1p
= 3[(σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )2 − 2(σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ1 σ3 )] − (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )2
3q
1
= 2I 2 − 6I2
3q 1
1 2 2 2
= 2(σ11 + σ22 + σ33 )2 − 6(σ11 σ22 + σ22 σ33 + σ11 σ33 − σ12 − σ23 − σ13 )
3q
1 2 2 2
= 2(σ11 + σ22 + σ33 ) − 2(σ11 σ22 + σ22 σ33 + σ11 σ33 ) + 6(σ12 + σ23 + σ13 )
3q
1 2 2 2
= (σ11 − σ22 )2 + (σ22 − σ33 )2 + (σ33 − σ11 )2 + 6(σ12 + σ23 + σ13 )
3

12 Hydrostatic and deviatoric stress tensor

A stress tensor σij can be split into two component tensors, the hydrostatic stress tensor and
the deviatoric stress tensor.
Hydrostatic stress tensor:  
1 0 0
[σ M ] = σM 0 1 0
 

0 0 1
Or
σijM = σM δij
with,
σkk
σM = .
3
Deviatoric stress tensor:
[S] = [σ] − σM [I]
 
σ11 − σM σ12 σ13
=  σ21 σ22 − σM σ23
 

σ31 σ32 σ33 − σM

18
Or
σkk
Sij = σij − δij .
3
The principle stress invariants of the deviatoric stress tensor:
σkk
J1 = Sii = σij − δii = 0
3
1
J2 = Sij Sji
2
J3 = det(S)
The characteristic equation of Sij is:

s3 − J2 s − J3 = 0;
Roots of this polynomial will give the principal values of the deviatoric stress tensor.
Let us consider a principal direction of n̂ of [σ] such that we have,

([σ] − λ[I])n̂ = 0
Now,
[S] = [σ] − σM [I].
[σ] = [S] + σM [I].
Hence,
([S] − (λ − σM )[I])n̂ = 0,
which demonstrates that n̂ is also a principal direction of [S] and the principla values of [S]
are given in terms of the principal values of [σ] by

Sq = σq − σM , (q = 1, 2, 3).
Note: The deviatoric stress tensor is very important in describing the plastic behavior (J2
plasticity) of metals. It can be shown that

1
J2 = [(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ]
6
1
= (I12 − 3I2 )
3
1
= [(σ11 − σ22 )2 + (σ22 − σ33 )2 + (σ33 − σ11 )2 ] + (σ12
2 2
+ σ23 2
+ σ13 )
6
J2 I1 I13
J 3 = I3 − − .
3 9
19
13 Equation of equilibrium
The stress field in an elastic solid is continuously distributed within the body and uniquely
determined from the applied loadings. Because we are dealing primarily with bodies in
equilibrium, the applied loadings satisfy the equations of static equilibrium; that is, the
summation of forces and moments is zero. If the entire body is in equilibrium, then all
parts must also be in equilibrium. Thus, we can partition any solid into an appropriate
subdomain and apply the equilibrium principle to that region. Following this approach,
equilibrium equations can be developed that express the vanishing of the resultant force and
moment at a continuum point in the material. Consider a Infinitesimal parallelepiped (see
Fig. 8) representing a small element in the body subjected to a general system of stress
components together with the body forces.

Figure 8: Infinitesimal parallelepiped representing a small element in the body under general
loading. In this case, the stresses acting on the opposite sides of the cube are slightly different.

Considering linear momentum balance in eˆ1 direction;

X
F1 = ma1

20
 ∂σ11 ∂σ21 ∂σ31
=⇒ (σ11 + − σ11 )dx2 dx3 + (σ21 + − σ21 )dx1 dx3 + (σ31 + − σ11 )dx1 dx2
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
+ f1 dx1 dx2 dx3 = (ρdx1 dx2 dx3 )a1
∂σ11 ∂σ21 ∂σ31
=⇒ + + + f1 = ρa1
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Here, ρ is the density and f1 is the body force per unit volume along eˆ1 direction.
Similarly, resolving forces in eˆ2 and eˆ3 directions, we get
∂σ12 ∂σ22 ∂σ32
+ + + f2 = ρa2
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
∂σ13 ∂σ23 ∂σ33
+ + + f3 = ρa3 .
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
In matrix form, we can write
∂σij
+ fi = ρai .
∂xj
In vector form, we write
∇ · σ + f = ρa.
In the special case of static equilibrium, a = 0. Hence, we obtain,
∂σij
+ fi = 0.
∂xj
Above equation is termed as the equilibrium equation.

14 Exercises
1. Consider the stress matrix in the form
 
5x2 x3 3x22 0
[σ] =  3x22 0 −x1  MPa.
 

0 −x1 0
√
and find the components of the traction vector t at the point with coordinate ( 12 , 2
3
, −1)
on the surface x21 + x22 + 2x1 x3 = 0.

2. At a certain point of a body the components of stress tensor are given by

 
2 5 3
[σ] = 5 1 4 MPa.
 

3 4 3

21
 (a) Find the components of the traction vector t at the point on the plane whose
normal has direction ratios 3 : 1 : −2.
(b) Find the normal and shear components of t on that plane.
 
−4 1 2
3. The matrix of a stress tensor σ ij is  1 σ22 1  (in KN/m2 ) with σ22 unspecified.
 

2 1 0
(a) Determine σ22 so that the traction vector (t) on some plane (n̂) at the point will
be zero.
(b) Find the unit normal (n̂) for this traction-free plane.

4. The stress matrix is given by

 
7 0 14
[σ] =  0 0  MPa.
8
 

14 0 −4

(a) Compute the principal stress components and the associated principal directions.
(b) Compute the maximum shear stress and the plane on which this maximum shear
stress acts.

5. (a) Find the values of σ22 and τn for the state of stress (plane stress) shown in Figure
9.
(b) At what value of θ the shear stress (τn ) on the plane will be zero?

τn σn =40+10 3 MPa

40 MPa θ=30
o

20 MPa
20 MPa
σ22

Figure 9: Stress state for the Mohr circle problem.

6. The non-zero scalar components, in the vector basis êi , of a stress tensor σ at any
point of a deformable body are given by σ11 = 10, σ12 = −10, σ22 = −10, and σ33 = 20
(all in MPa).

22
 Sketch the 3D Mohr’s circles for this state of stress. Determine the maximum normal
and shear stresses in the body and their associated planes.

7. The state of stress at a point in a continuum body is given by:

 
2 0 0
[σ] =  0 σ22 0  MPa.
 

0 0 6

Determine the value of σ22 (or it’s range) for which at certain plane (n̂) the following
normal (σn ) and shear stress (τn ) pair is possible:
Case (i) σn = 4 MPa and τn = 1 MPa, and
Case (ii) σn = 10 MPa and τn = 0.

8. Find the traction vector, the normal and shear components on the octahedral plane
for a certain point at which the principal stresses are σ1 = 2 kN/cm2 , σ2 = α, σ3 = 11
kN/cm2 , where α is a constant. Determine α so that τoct is the maximum shear stress.
 
5 1 0
9. Split the stress tensor σ ij =  1 6 −2  (in MPa) into its hydrostatic (σM ij ) and
 

0 −2 8
deviatoric (Sij ) part.
Find the three stress invariants (I1 , I2 , and I3 ) of the stress tensor (σ ij ) if the eigenval-
ues of σ ij are given as σ1 = 4 MPa, σ2 = 5.7 MPa, and σ3 = 9.3 MPa. Also compute
the three stress invariants (J1 , J2 , and J3 ) of the deviatoric stress tensor (Sij ).

10. Given the following state of stress (σij = σji ) in a kinematically infinitesimal deforma-
tion,

σ11 = −2x1 + x2 , σ12 = −7 + 4x1 x2 + x22 , σ13 = 1 + x1 − 3x2

σ22 = 3x21 − 2x22 + 5x3 , , σ23 = 0 , σ33 = −5 + x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 ,

determine the body force components for which the stress field describes a state of
equilibrium.

23