Que.1 Sectioning : Identification, Diagrams, Section, Comments.

Wheat
Scientific name : Triticum aestivum
Family : Poaceae
Parts used : Caryopsis (wheat grain)

MORPHOLOGY
● The plants are short 60-70 cm long, profuse tillering with stiff straw.
● The wheat straw is erect,nodes being solid and internodes are hollow.
● The wheat grain is a dry, one seeded, indehiscent fruit known as a caryopsis.
● The grain is white, amber, red or purple color depending upon the variety.
● The dorsal convex surface is smooth ,at the base is the position of the embryo.
● The ventral surface is flat and has a characteristic deep furrow or groove or Crease.
● The tip of the grain has a tuft of hairs known as brush.
ANATOMY OF WHEAT GRAIN—L.S OF GRAIN ,T.S OF GRAIN ,DETAILS OF WALL LAYERS
The following structures are visible in sections- the grain coats, the nucellar layer, the
endosperm and the embryo.
The pericarp consists of several layers-epidermis, hypodermis,the seed coat or testa, the
nucellar layer and the endosperm, limited by the Aleurone layer, Embryo at the base.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1. Wheat and wheat production contributes to the world’s food supply and constitutes an
important source of carbohydrates in the human diet.
2. Wheat is consumed all over the world in various forms like bread, roti, etc.
3. Cakes, biscuits, etc are also prepared from wheat.
4. Wheat starch is used in laundry industries.
5. Gluten obtained from wheat is used for production of monosodium glutamate.

Black pepper
Scientific name : Piper nigrum
Family : Piperaceae
Parts used : Peppercorn (fruit)

MORPHOLOGY
● The plant is a perennial vine, reaching a length of 9 m or more in the wild state but is
kept low, i.e., 4m under cultivation for easy harvest.
● This vine has dimorphic branching vegetative climbing shoots bearing numerous
adventitious roots, leaves and axillary buds at the swollen nodes.
● The leaves are ovate in shape with pointed ends arranged alternately.
● Flowers are minute,white borne on slender, pendulous, dense spikes, 10-12 cm.
● At maturity, the color of berries changes from dull green to bright red.
● Seed with a hollow center is present.
● The major portion of the seed consists of the perisperm.

PROCESSING IN BLACK PEPPER

● For Black pepper preparation-the inflorescence is harvested when fruits are still
unripe-green in color.
● The spikes are soaked in hot boiling water and then dried in the Sun or in smoke.
● Pericarp becomes tough, wrinkled and dark brown black in color.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
● Black Pepper is considered the 'king of spices’.
● An important spice, used widely as a condiment and flavoring material for all the
foodstuffs and dishes.
● Aroma is due to the presence of a volatile oil present in cells of pericarp while the
pungency is due to nonvolatile oleoresin fraction- Piperin.
● Pepper is used in preparation of sauces, soups, curry powder and pickles.
● It is used as a medicine, as an aromatic stimulant for enhancing salivary and gastric
secretions.
● It has a cooling effect, it is commonly employed as an ingredient of refreshing drinks in
India.
● Pepper oil is prepared by steam distillation of pepper.
Clove
Scientific name : Syzygium aromaticum
Family : Myrtaceae
Parts used : Flower bud

MORPHOLOGY
● Crimson red flowers are produced in clusters of three in the wild but under cultivation the
trees are not allowed to bloom.
● The flower buds have cylindrical bases. The shape of a bud is like a nail.
● Each flower bud consists of a stalk called hypanthium or receptacle, four crimson
unopened petals encircling numerous stamens and a central style.
● The bicarpellary inferior ovary is enclosed by a more or less fleshy receptacle.
● The hypanthium is flattened at the base and is well supplied with oil glands .
L.S OF CLOVE BUD
● Good cloves are bold, plump, rough, 16 to 20mm in length.
● Reddish brown in color.
● Lower stalk-like portion is called Hypanthium which is enlargement of the receptacle.
Hypanthium is sub cylindrical, slightly flattened and tapering below.
● Upper portion of hypanthium shows inferior bilocular ovary and oil glands.
● Crown consists of calyx, corolla, stamens and style.

T.S OF CLOVE BUD

● Epidermis with thick cuticles with stomata.
● Collenchymatous parenchyma containing numerous oil glands.
● Zone of slightly thick walled cells embedding a ring of about 15 bilateral vascular
bundles.
● Meristele enclosed by lignified pericycle fibers.
● Parenchyma containing air spaces or lacuna or aerenchyma.
● Central columella-thick walled parenchymatous cells containing 20-25 small vascular
bundles.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
● Cloves are used whole or in powdered state as a culinary spice.
● It is used for flavoring a number of vegetarian preparations.
● They are used extensively for flavoring pickles, curries, sauces and ketchups.
● In Java, tobacco leaves are mixed with cloves for smoking.
● The essential oil is used in perfumes, in scenting soaps and as an ingredient of mouth
washes.
● Clove oil is used in biology as a histological clearing agent.
● Medicinally, it is important for relieving toothache.
Que.2 Microchemical test : Identification, Description of the part used, Microchemical
tests
Wheat
Scientific name : Triticum aestivum
Family : Poaceae
Parts used : Caryopsis (wheat grain)

DESCRIPTION OF WHEAT GRAIN

● The wheat grain is a dry, one seeded, indehiscent fruit known as a caryopsis.
● The grain is white, amber, red or purple color depending upon the variety.
● The dorsal convex surface is smooth ,at the base is the position of the embryo.
● The ventral surface is flat and has a characteristic deep furrow or groove or Crease.
● The tip of the grain has a tuft of hairs known as brush.

Starch, sugar, proteins, fats

MICROCHEMICAL TEST USING PASTE
Soybean
Scientific name : Glycine max
Family : Fabaceae
Parts used : Seed

DESCRIPTION OF SOYBEAN SEED

● The seeds are small, globose with small hilum.
● Generally 2-3 seeds (some-times 1-5) develop in each pod.
● The color of the seeds varies from creamy white to yellow.
● The seed coat of a mature soy seed is extremely hard and water resistant so that germ
that is encased within the soy seed is protected.
● Soybean seeds are extremely high in protein content.

MICROCHEMICAL TESTS Starch, proteins, fats

Cotton
Scientific name : Gossypium sp.
Family : Malvaceae
Parts used : cotton boll/fruit/seed

DESCRIPTION OF COTTON BALL

● The cotton fruit (boll) is a spherical or oval leathery capsule consisting of three to five
locules or chambers which correspond to the carpel number.
● The content of each division is called a 'lock', within which six to nine seeds are present.
 ● The surface of each is covered with hairs; long hairs or lint, floss or staple and short
hairs or fuzz or linter.
● The capsule cracks at maturity along the sutures — the meeting place of carpels and the
contents expand considerably into a white fluffy mass which is pushed outside the carpel
wall.

Gram / Chickpea
Scientific name : Cicer arietinum
Family : Fabaceae
Parts used : Seed/Fruit

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS USED

● The flowers are varying in color from white to pink.
● The pods are small, inflated and contain one or more seeds which are angular with
prominent beak and a small hilum at the anterior end.
● The seed is rich in proteins, carbohydrates, and fiber.
● There are two main kinds of chickpeas commercially.
● Desi has small, darker seeds and a rough coat and is cultivated mostly in the Indian
subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico, and Iran.
● Kabuli has lighter colored, larger seeds and a smoother coat, and is mainly grown in
Southern Europe, Northern Africa, Afghanistan, and Chile, and also was introduced
during the eighteenth century to the Indian subcontinent.
Proteins, fats
Groundnut
Scientific name : Arachis hypogaea
Family : Fabaceae
Parts used : Seed

DESCRIPTION OF SEED
● The fruit is an elongated oblong, indehiscent pod, containing one to three seeds,
constricted slightly between the seeds.
● The dry pericarp of the mature fruit is fairly fibrous, characterized by reticular markings.
● It constitutes about 20-30 per cent of the weight of the whole fruit.
● The mature seeds vary in size and shape, often ovoid or cylindrical.
● The seed coat is represented by a papery covering, the color ranging from white to pink,
purple, shades of brown or red.
Starch, proteins, fats
MICROCHEMICAL TESTS
Que.3 Set-up : Three questions
AGE

PRINCIPLE :- Agarose gel electrophoresis is a method of gel electrophoresis used in

biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population
of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix of agarose, one of the two main
components of agar. The proteins may be separated by charge and/or size, and the DNA and
RNA fragments by length.Biomolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the
charged molecules through an agarose matrix, and the biomolecules are separated by size in
the agarose gel matrix.

Agarose gel is easy to cast, has relatively fewer charged groups, and is particularly suitable for
separating DNA of the size range most often encountered in laboratories, which accounts for
the popularity of its use. The separated DNA may be viewed with stain, most commonly under
UV light, and the DNA fragments can be extracted from the gel with relative ease. Most agarose
gels used are between 0.7–2% dissolved in a suitable electrophoresis buffer.

APPLICATIONS OF AGAROSE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS :-

1. It helps identify unknown samples.
2. It is used to separate the molecules of DNA and is useful during the DNA manipulation
procedure.
3. It is used in studying people according to their distinct DNA sequences.
4. It is used for molecular cloning. Molecular cloning has various uses such as in the
pharmaceutical industry, e.g. production of insulin.
5. Agarose gel electrophoresis is also useful for genetic fingerprinting.

PAGE

PRINCIPLE :- Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), describes a technique widely used in

biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological
macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. A
very common method for separating proteins by electrophoresis uses a discontinuous
polyacrylamide gel as a support medium and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) to denature the
proteins. The method is called sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
(SDS-PAGE).
A solution of acrylamide and bisacrylamide is polymerized. Acrylamide alone forms linear
polymers. The bisacrylamide introduces crosslinks between polyacrylamide chains. The 'pore
size' is determined by the ratio of acrylamide to bisacrylamide, and by the concentration of
acrylamide. A high ratio of bisacrylamide to acrylamide and a high acrylamide concentration
cause low electrophoretic mobility.

APPLICATIONS OF POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS :-

1. It helps to determine the purity of samples.
2. It is also helpful in determining the molecular weight of protein.
3. It is useful to estimate the purity of the protein and nucleic acid.
4. PAGE is helpful to perform western blotting after electrophoresis.
4. It is useful in HIV tests to separate HIV protein.

Northern Blotting
(i)What does the set up demonstrate? (0.5Mark)
(i)Which biomolecule is associated with this technique? Briefly explain its principle?
(2 Marks)
(iii) Write two important applications of this technique? (0.5Mark)
PRINCIPLE :- The northern blotting is a technique used to study gene expression by detection
of RNA in a sample. Northern blotting involves the use of electrophoresis to separate RNA
samples by size and detection with a hybridization probe complementary to part of or the entire
target sequence. The term 'northern blot' refers specifically to the capillary transfer of RNA from
the electrophoresis gel to the blotting membrane.

APPLICATIONS :-
● Northern blotting allows one to observe a particular gene's expression pattern..
● The technique has been used to show overexpression of oncogenes and down
regulation of tumor-suppressor genes in cancerous cells.
● The expression patterns obtained under given conditions can provide insight into the
function of that gene.

Southern Blotting
Q 1. What does the set up demonstrate? (0.5 mark)
Q2. Write the importance of this technique. (0.5 mark)
Q 3. Discuss the underlying principle involved. (1 mark)
Q4. Mention a few applications of this technique. (1 mark)

PRINCIPLE:- A Southern blot is a method used in molecular biology for detection of a specific
DNA sequence in DNA samples.
The target DNA is broken into small fragments using restriction endonucleases and is separated
by electrophoresis. Following separation, the double-stranded pieces of DNA are denatured into
single strands within the gel and transferred from the gel onto a blotting membrane. The
membrane is then treated with a small piece of DNA or RNA called a probe, which has a
complementary sequence to the target DNA.
The probe also has a radioactive atom or a fluorescent dye label, that following hybridization,
permits the DNA fragment of interest to be detected from different DNA fragments present on
the membrane.

APPLICATIONS :-
● To study mutation and gene rearrangement, this property is used to diagnose neonatal
disease and genetic disease.
● In phylogenetic studies, recombinant DNA technology, paternity & maternity analysis,
forensic studies, and personal identification.
● To demonstrate the presence or absence of a specific target sequence in DNA.
● To determine whether chromosomal integration has occurred.
● To determine the copy number of transgenes etc..

Western Blotting
PRINCIPLE :- The western blot ( protein immunoblot) is a molecular biology discipline to detect
specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract. Western blotting uses specific
antibodies to identify proteins that have been separated based on size by gel electrophoresis.
The immunoassay uses a membrane made of nitrocellulose or PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride).
The gel is placed next to the membrane and application of an electrical current induces the
proteins to migrate from the gel to the membrane.
The membrane can then be further processed with antibodies specific for the target of interest,
and visualized using secondary antibodies and detection reagents.

APPLICATIONS :-
● The confirmatory HIV test employs a western blot to detect anti-HIV antibodies in a
human serum sample.
● A western blot is also used as the definitive test for Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(BSE, commonly referred to as 'mad cow disease').
Some forms of Lyme disease testing employ western blotting.
● Western blot can also be used as a confirmatory test for Hepatitis B infection.
Que.4 Spotting : Identification, Diagram, Comments
PCR

● Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a widely used technique for copying DNA.
● Starting with only a small sample of DNA, PCR can generate many copies of a specific
DNA segment to be used for further analysis. This process is also called DNA
amplification.
● PCR utilizes template DNA, two Primers, thermostable DNA Polymerase, dNTPs,
Cationic Magnesium, and an appropriately Buffered Solution.
 ● Once these components are combined they go through a series of temperature changes
(cycles), repeatedly, in a machine called a thermocycler.
● Each cycle consists of three parts: (1) Denaturation separates the double-strands of the
DNA molecule at a relatively high temperature of 90-96°C, (2) annealing allows the
primer sequences to match and bind to the flanking regions of the target area at a
moderate temperature between 40-70°C, and (3) elongation or extension occurs as the
polymerase adds nucleotides to the growing strand at 68-72°C.
● PCR amplification can be used to determine the physical location of genes in
chromosomes. It is also used to determine the sex of embryos.

Autoclave
 ● Autoclave is an equipment used to remove microorganisms and spores using high
pressure, high temperature and steam sterilization.
● The main components of autoclave are heating elements, temperature controller,
pressure sensor, chamber, door gasket, solenoid valve, water level sensor.
● In an autoclave, the moist heat destroys microorganisms by the irreversible denaturation
of enzymes and structural proteins.
● Sterilization in saturated steam thus requires precise control of time, temperature and
pressure.
● Autoclave is used to decontaminate specific biological waste and sterilize media and
instruments.
● Regulated medical waste that might contain bacteria, viruses and other biological
material are recommended to be inactivated by autoclaving before disposal.

Laminar Air Flow

● A laminar flow cabinet or laminar air flow closet is a carefully enclosed bench or
workstation.
● It is designed to prevent contamination of semiconductors, water, biological samples or
any particle sensitive materials.
● Air is passed through HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filter which removes all air
borne-contamination to maintain sterile conditions.
● A laminar flow hood consists of a filter pad, a fan and a HEPA.
● It is used in the lab for contamination sensitive processes like plant tissue culture.
● In the pharmaceutical industries, drug preparation techniques are also performed inside
the cabinet to ensure a particulate free environment during operations.
Anther culture

● It is an artificial technique by which the developing anthers at a precise and critical stage
are excised aseptically from unopened flower bud and are cultured on a nutrient medium
where the microspores within the cultured anther develop into callus tissue or embryoids
that give rise to haploid plantlets either through organogenesis or embryogenesis.
● The first report of haploid tissue from anther culture was in pollen grains of Datura by
Maheshwari and Guha.
● Anther/pollen culture is referred to as ANDROGENESIS (the male gametophyte -
microspore or immature pollen) produces haploid plants.
 ● Anther culture is used to study mutation.
● The haploids produced in anther culture are used for cryogenic study.
● This technique is also used for plant breeding and crop improvement.

Embryo culture
● Embryo culture is the sterile isolation and growth of an immature or mature embryo in
vitro with the goal of obtaining a viable plant.
● Conventionally, the term embryo culture refers to the sexually produced zygotic embryo
culture.
● There are two types of embryo culture: 1. mature embryo culture and 2. immature
embryo culture (embryo rescue).
● Mature embryos are isolated from ripe seeds and cultured in vitro.
● Embryo rescue involves the culture of immature embryos to rescue them from unripe or
hybrid seeds which fail to germinate.
● Embryo culture helps in the prevention of embryo abortion, overcoming seed dormancy
and seed fertility.
Endosperm culture
 ● Endosperm culture is in vitro development of isolated mature or immature endosperm
from seed at proper stage on a suitable culture medium to obtain diploid plantlet.
● Endosperm is a unique tissue, firstly in its function of supplying nutrition to developing
embryos and secondary in being triploid.
● There are two types of endosperm culture: 1. mature endosperm culture and 2.
Immature endosperm culture.
● Mature endosperm culture is the in vitro development of isolated mature endosperm
from ripen endospermic seed on suitable culture medium to obtain triploid plantlet.
● Immature endosperm culture is the in vitro development of isolated immature endosperm
excised suited at precise stage from immature seed cultured on suitable medium to obtain
triploid plantlet.
● By the means of endosperm culture, there is no problem of seed sterility as they can be
multiplied by vegetative means.

Micropropagation
 ● Micropropagation is rapid clonal in vitro propagation of plants from cells, tissues or organ
cultured aseptically on defined media contained in culture vessels maintained under
controlled conditions of light and temperature.
● Micropropagation is used to multiply noble plants such as those that have been
genetically modified or breed through conventional plant breeding methods.
● It is also used to provide a sufficient number of plantlets for planting from a stock plant
which does not produce seeds or does not respond well to vegetative reproduction.
● Micropropagation facilitates the growth, storage, and maintenance of a large number of
plants in small spaces which makes it a cost-effective process.
● Micropropagation is used for germplasm storage and the protection of endangered
species.

Somatic embryogenesis
● Somatic embryogenesis is an artificial process in which a plant or embryo is derived from
a single somatic cell.
● Somatic embryos are formed from plant cells that are not normally involved in the
development of embryos, i.e. ordinary plant tissue.
● There are two somatic embryogenesis pathways in plants: direct and indirect
embryogenesis.
● Direct somatic embryogenesis consists of the formation of embryos directly from isolated
cells, without the formation of “callus” tissue.
● Indirect somatic embryogenesis is characterized by the formation of a callus as a stage
that precedes the formation of somatic embryos.
● Applications of this process include; clonal propagation of genetically uniform plant
material; elimination of viruses; and development of synthetic seed technology.
Gram

Cotton
Tea
Camellia sinensis
Theaceae
● It is the most common non-alcoholic beverage used by more than one-half of the world's
population.
● Obtained from dried leaves of tea plants, native to China and Assam, India.
● A volatile oil, tannin and an alkaloid theine are present in tea.
● The aroma and flavor of tea is due to the presence of oil, theol which contains several
compounds.
● The bitterness and astringency of the leaves are due to the tannins.
● It relieves body fatigue.

Soybean
Groundnut