Decker 2014 - Live Long in The Land The Covenantal Langage of The OT Allusions in Message To Laodicea PDF

New Testament Society of Southern Africa
"Live Long in the Land": The Covenantal Character of the Old Testament Allusions in the
Message to Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-22)
Author(s): Timothy L. Decker
Source: Neotestamentica, Vol. 48, No. 2 (2014), pp. 417-446
Published by: New Testament Society of Southern Africa
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/43926998
Accessed: 23-01-2018 13:43 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
http://about.jstor.org/terms
New Testament Society of Southern Africa is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,

preserve and extend access to Neotestamentica
This content downloaded from 154.59.124.59 on Tue, 23 Jan 2018 13:43:46 UTC
All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms
"Live Long in the Land":
The Covenantal Character of the
Old Testament Allusions
in the Message to Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-22)
Timothy L. Decker
Academia Los Pinares , Tegucigalpa , Honduras
Abstract
Scholars both recently and in the past have sought to bring out the
theme of covenant or of a covenantal prophetic lawsuit in the book of
Revelation and the seven messages specifically. Many of these
studies rely on a comparison between common covenantal structures
of the ancient Near East and Revelation. What these investigations
overlook thus far is how the Old Testament allusions used in the
seven messages of Revelation contribute to the covenantal nature of

Revelation. Particularly, these allusions are thematically reminiscent
of covenantal stipulations, curses, and blessings, as found in places
such as the summary of Israel's covenant in Deuteronomy 27-30
(esp. 30:15-20). This article seeks to closely examine the Old
Testament allusions in the seventh message to Laodicea (Rev 3:14-
22) to demonstrate the covenantal thrust of these allusions and to
trace this allusory theme to its theological function and intratextual
fulfilment in Revelation 19-22.
Key Terms
Revelation; seven messages; Laodicea; use of the Old Testament;
covenant; promised land; exile
1 Introduction
Without question, symbolism appears throughout the sev

Revelation chapters 2 and 3.1 There are at least three sou
1 The term "message" will be use to designate the seven units

individual churches throughout Rev 2-3. Some have taken them to be "
Neotestamentica 48.2 (2014) 417-446

© New Testament Society of Southern Africa
418 T. L. Decker / Neotestamentica 48.2 (2014) 417-446
symbols: first, the inaugural vision from Rev 1 (Farrer 1964, 83-86; Beale
1999, 132-135); second, local references to the corresponding message
(Ramsay 1904; Wood 1962; Hemer 2001; Worth 1998, 1999; Scobie
1993); and third, OT allusions. The first is rather obvious to the astute
reader as John repeated many themes, especially the titles of Jesus, and
developed them later in chs. 2-3. The second is a very popular approach
and will have some relevance here, but it has not entirely gained
acceptance from some (Prigent 1977; 1981, 36-39; Thompson 1997, 202-
204). The latter is the purpose of this article, for as Joseph Mangina (2012,
90) pointed out, "The very language used in the letters is coded to Israel's
Scriptures." However, it is not my contention to pit these last two against
one another. In fact, they work very much in harmony with each other. As
Bauckham (1993) noted:
[I]f Revelation's meaning is intertextual (in relation to the Old

Testament) it is also contextual (in relation to its contemporary
world). ... On the one hand, justice cannot be done to the
Apocalypse by an interpretative approach which treats it as a self-
contained aesthetic object, for the understanding of which the world
in which John and his first readers lived is irrelevant. ... On the
other hand, Revelation should not be reduced, by simplistic

application of sociological theory, to a sociologically determined
function, (pp. xii-xiii)
Isolating one source of imagery to the exclusion of others can only lead to
under-developed interpretations.2
Research in the field of the OT in Revelation has become a sub-
discipline in its own right. From essays to articles, dissertations and
after the Graeco-Roman style (Ramsay 1904, 35-36; Osborne 2002, 104-107) or
consistent with Greek oratory (Kirby 1988, 200). Bandy was convinced that these are
more reminiscent of "prophetic oracles'- based on covenantal lawsuit patterns (2011).
Consistent with a feature of this essay, Campbell (2012, 280) argued that the genre of
each message was closer to a "covenant treaty." Aune's view (1990), however, has
garnered the most acceptance citing the seven as "imperial edicts."
2 For example, consider Wither ington 's short statement in regards to the spitting out of
lukewarm water in the message to Laodicea (2003, 107). He said, "The imagery seems
pointedly directed toward the audience's life situation." Witherington is probably not
incorrect in his assessment of the life situation of Laodicea (see below). But to stop there
or restrict the image of vomit as "pointedly directed" to the socio-historical setting of
Laodicea would be incomplete. I will argue later that there is also an OT allusion at
work which will factor into a fuller interpretation for the image of vomiting.
Old T estament Allusions in Revelation 3 : 1 4-22 419
monographs, many have said much about John's Apocalypse and his use
of Scripture and have pointed out literary parallels to ancient Near Eastern
covenants and suzerain treaties. Much of the research that seeks to identify
a covenantal backdrop in Revelation relies heavily on structural clues.3 To
be sure, these studies are valuable for identifying a covenantal nature
behind the seven messages of Revelation and might help to explain the
intentional structure of the messages. If one were able to detect a
covenantal thrust in the seven messages of Revelation pictured through OT
allusions in chs. 2-3, it would lend significant support for the covenantal
structure and theme of the seven messages. However, to treat the depth
that such a study requires, one can only address one or two messages in a
single essay. Thus I have decided to focus enquiry upon the final message
to Laodicea. In short, this article will argue that the presence and
significance of OT allusions in Rev 3:14-22 point to major features of the
covenant between God and Israel as the paraenetic force for the new
covenant community of Christianity in the seventh message to Laodicea.4
2 Overview of the Message to Laodicea
The rationale for treating the message to Laodicea is two-fold. First,

Laodicea has undergone quite a bit of archaeological and historical
scrutiny to determine its symbolic sources. There is no shortage of articles
or investigations on the historic, social, economic, political, and
3 There have been excellent examples of studies conducted to identify covenantal

structures in either Rev as a whole (Du Preez 1981; Strand 1983; Chilton 1987, 15-17;
Sutton 1987, 253; Campbell 2004) or the seven messages specifically (Shea 1983;
Chilton 1987, 76-77; Sutton 1987, 258; Campbell 2004, 79-80; Graves 2008).
4 As to methodology of identifying and classifying allusions in Rev, a brief note must
suffice. The pattern for identifying OT allusions in Rev will follow closely with the
research conducted by R. Bauckham (1993, xi, 298) and G. K. Beale. Much and more
could be discussed to shed light on the debate (for a summary, see Paulien 2001) that has
ensued over this issue among opposing views held by scholars such as Elisabeth
Schüssler Fiorenza (1998, 153) and Steve Moyise (see bibliography for the many works
and exchanges between Beale and Moyise). Categorising the probability of certainty of
allusions in Rev is also a tricky business. Again, Beale's presentation of clear allusions,
probable allusions, and possible allusions (1998, 62-63), which is an adaption of Fekkes
(1994, 280), will be the assumed method employed here. However, there are hesitations
noted by David Mathewson (2003) and Ian Paul (2000, 260) that much of the
categorising tends towards the interpreter's confidence of an allusion. Therefore, Beale's
method (who is himself a self-proclaimed "maximalist" when it comes to seeing OT
allusions; see Beale 2008, 24) is still open to critique.
geographical situation of late first-century Laodicea. Many of these

examinations were attempts to determine the references to hot, cold, and
lukewarmness. The discussion focuses on the water supply in Laodicea, or
lack thereof. The references of temperature, scholars argue and largely
agree, refer to the cities of the Lycus Valley and their unique water
supply - the heat as a reference to the healing properties of Hierapolis's
natural hot springs and the cool water as thirst-quenching waters from
Colossae. The vomiting in Laodicea, it is argued, was associated with the
mineral deposits found in the water piping entering the city since their own
water supply was limited and required aqueducts (Rudwick 1957;
Rudwick and Green 1958; Porter 1987; contra Koester 2003; Mathews
2012). Others have spent time referring to the banking and wealth of
Laodicea as well as their medical practices including the "eye-salve"
mentioned in Rev 3:18 (Berger 1985; Hemer 2001, 191-196). In short,
scholars point to Laodicea as the prime example of a message that leans
heavily upon local references to the socio-economic situation bearing upon
the church and the symbols within the message. As Koester (2003, 408)
said, "The message to Laodicea in 3.14-22 provides a valuable test for the
way Revelation communicates with its readers, since this message is
generally thought to exhibit the clearest local allusions."
Second, the structure and content of the message to Laodicea is
unique in comparison to the other six. Some have not failed to note the
pessimistic tones in both the messages to Sardis as well as to Laodicea
(deSilva 1992, 292; Duff 2001, 35; Koester 2001, 66). Yet others see it as
distinct from Sardis's message even in tone (Bauckham 1993, 109).
Lukewarm, vomitus, wretched, poor, blind, and naked - this church has
more than enough images to convey its irregularity from the true marks of
a church. The sheer number of multivalent symbols compared to the other
messages raises suspicions about this message and the condition of the
church in Laodicea. These descriptions liken the church to that which is in
essence not "church," at least not as one described in Revelation - a
clothed-bride prepared for the feast and reigning with the king.5 It has all
the trappings of a church (e.g., it matches the general structure of all seven
5 More will be said on this, but as initial point to bolster this theory, Osborne said of
Jesus' accusation of the Laodicean church being "pitiable" or "pitiful," "'E>££ivóç also
occurs in only one other place, 1 Cor. 15:19, where it describes how much 'to be pitied'
the person is who has no 'hope' of resurrection. The use here [in Rev. 3:17] is stronger."
(Osborne 2002, 208)
Old Testament Allusions in Revelation 3: 14-22 42 1
messages), but it lacks the one defining marker of a church - the Chr
new creation.
While it is certain that these seven messages are presented in a v

uniform pattern, the stark differences between the first six and the
church convey a message far more desperate than the previous
"repent or else." In fact, it is this very phenomenon of a lack
consequence that raises the greatest amount of suspicion. The images
oddities of Laodicea point to a severe reality - the "church" is not a c
by normal standards. There is a cause for repentance but not a nee
warn them of a consequence. The reason is that this church has alr
had its lampstand removed as it were (cf. Rev 2:5).
Despite the homogenous structure of the seven messages, schola
still wrestle with the exact details of that structure. However, similarity
not hard to demonstrate. All seven introduce Jesus in symbolic ter
reaching back to the first chapter. All seven use the phrase xáôe A,éysi ("
thus"). Jesus knows (oi5a) the works/deeds or state of all seven chur
A promise of blessing to ô vikõv ("the one who conquers") is offered
seven. Jesus issued to all seven churches a call for "all who have ears to
hear." Other general structural elements involve giving commendation
when due and warning of judgment when necessary.
However, there are two anomalies in the final message that diverge
from the structure indicating the church's "outsidedness" (see Rev 22: 15). 6
In this message, there is no commendation for Laodicea. In fact, in this
instance John used "I know" (oi5a), which typically was used for
commendation in the other messages, for condemnation. The only other
church that did not receive an "I know" statement of approval was Sardis
(Cashmore 2004, 17). However, one could understand Rev 3:1 as a
statement partly veiling approval along with criticism, "I know your
works. You have the reputation of being alive, but you are dead." At the
very least, it is not quite as scathing since they do have a reputation of life.
6 What I mean by "outsidedness" is the focus of a later portion of this article. Suffice
it to say that the "outsidedness" indicates not participating in new creation but rather on
the outside with the dogs and other sinners (cf. Rev. 22:15). It is essentially exile.
Koester used similar language of the church of Laodicea from an alternate perspective
pointing out that in their case it was Jesus who is the "outsider" from the church and
knocking on the door (Koester 2001, 69). Mounce (1997, 113) similarly said, "In their
blind self-sufficiency they had, as it were, ex communicated [italics added] the risen Lord
from their congregation." Therefore, terminology such as the "outsidedness" is not
implausible for the Laodicean church.
The Laodicean indictment, however, is far more serious. According to

Blount (2009, 80), "Christ is as consistently negative toward the
Laodiceans as he was invariably positive toward the Philadelphians. He
cannot find even a tiny remnant within the community upon whom he
might render the slightest offering of praise."
To add further to the uniqueness, a church that had no
commendation from Jesus was neither explicitly warned of judgment by
Jesus as a result (Bauckham 1993, 108-109). Compare this to Ephesus's
warning in Rev 2:5, "[RJepent, and do the works you did at first. If not, I
will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place, unless you
repent." This has tremendous implications when read in light of Rev 1 :20
and identifying the lampstand as the churches listed as well as the theme of
exile. Similar is the warning to Pergamům in Rev 2:16, "Therefore repent.
If not, I will come to you soon and war against them with the sword of my
mouth." This type of "repent or else" scenario is strangely absent in the
Laodicean message.
Robert Muse (1986, 157) took note of this peculiarity saying that in
this "warning of judgment" there is "no specific articulation of the
announcement of punishment but rather an 'invitation' to salvation." If
there is a general pattern in all seven messages and five narrower "warning
of judgment" messages (according to Muse: Ephesus, Pergamům,
Thyatira, Sardis, and Laodicea), then it seems strange that the message to
Laodicea is the one unique "warning of judgment"' message lacking a
warning ! Perhaps one way to explain this omission is to understand the
church of Laodicea as already outside or exiled (a lampstand already
removed; Rev 2:5) but lovingly being called back by Jesus. The warning in
Rev 1:7 greatly intensifies the significance for the hearers of Laodicea' s
message. Jesus is coming in judgment. The churches need to be prepared
to rejoice at his coming rather than wail. As deSilva (2009) pointed out,
The greatest threat the hearers face is to be found unprepared to

encounter God or God's Christ at his coming, thus being exposed to
the threat of the "second death" (2:11) or being written out of the
"Book of Life" (3:5). This challenge puts all the others in
perspective, subordinates them to itself, and calls for a response to
the more proximate crises that will also - and primarily - serve to
position one well for encountering the returning Christ, (p. 110)
Old Testament Allusions in Revelation 3: 14-22 423
If Rev 1:7 has become a "crisis" of sorts, not just for the wicked but t
churches alike, then it is more than curious that Jesus omitted a warning t
the hearers of Laodicea should they not repent.
The seventh of seven messages, John presented Laodicea as th
most sinful of the lot, lacking any approbation. Therefore, the absenc
commendation to Laodicea (and in this case taking the commendat
formula and turning it on its head as an ironic accusation) as well as
absence of a direct warning of consequences if repentance does not occ
sets the final message apart from the seven churches as unique from all the
rest. Such distinctiveness demands special attention to determine
something more is happening "behind the scenes." It is the contention h
that John's use of the OT and covenantal features of the allusions -
particularly the concepts of suzerain/vassal relationship, entrance into the
promised land, access to the presence of God, and exile - fill these gaps.
3 Old Testament Allusions in the Message to Laodicea
The message to Laodicea exhibits striking OT allusions, albeit at times

more subtle than the other six messages. They are very much in line with a
covenantal backdrop, which would indicate a covenantal character to the
messages. Themes such as a king/suzerain granting to his vassals authority
to rule, the blessing of God's presence in the promised land, the curse of
removal from the land and presence of God, and family or marriage
symbols are all features prominent in ancient Near Eastern (ANE)
covenants and are the substance of the OT allusions in the message to
Laodicea. Instead of moving verse by verse, we will examine these
allusions based on their theme and OT context.
3. 1 Allusions to the ruling/reigning/conquering and new creation
It is obvious to even the casual reader that in the seven messages there is
an emphasis on victory, conquering, or overcoming ("to the one who
conquers"). Therefore, it should not be shocking that Jesus himself is the
model conqueror/ruler for the saints. An inclusio exists in the message of
Laodicea that highlights this theme more than any of the other messages.
The initial christological description of Jesus in 3:14 as ó à|if|V ó (iápxuç ó
7tt<xròç Kai áA,r|0tvóç ř) ápxn xfjç kxíoecoç toû 0soí ("the amen, the faithful
and true witness, the ruler of the creation of God") overtly pictures the rule
of Jesus in new creation, especially when the OT allusion is weighed along
with the idea of Jesus as the "ruler of [new] creation." This is a fitting
description in light of the concluding reference to Jesus as having already

conquered and seated with God on his throne in 3:21, a passage that is in
lockstep with the messianic Psalm 110. The covenantal features of these
OT allusions are best highlighted in these bookended references to the
suzerain Jesus reigning with his vassals over new creation.
3.1.1 Isaiah 43 and 65 in Revelation 3:14
Scholars have for a long time recognised the epithets of Jesus in Rev 3:14
as an allusion of some kind yet have experienced little agreement for the
source.7 Some have posed a possible allusion from the New Testament
considering the relatively close geographical proximity of Laodicea to
Colossae in the Lycus Valley and that John may have been familiar with
the Pauline styling of Jesus as fļ apxrļ (see Col 1:18 and 2:10) (Charles
1920, 94). Swete, though he considered Isa 65:16 as a possible source,
adduced that a simpler explanation was a repetition of the familiar
Johannine formula aļifļv aļifļv (Swete 191 1, 59; see also Gillet 1945).
Lou Silberman was the first to offer a more creative hypothesis
stemming from an observation gleaned from Bereshith Rabbah (Silberman
1963, 213).8 According to Trudinger (1972),
[T]he grammatically awkward, enigmatic ó aļifļv in Rev. iii 14

occurs as a mistransliteration of the Hebrew "pftN, a word used to
describe Wisdom in Pro v. viii 30, and applied to the Torah in the
midrash on Gen. il in the Bereshith Rabbah. (p. 277)
Burney (1926) had made similar connections with Prov 8 some decades
earlier, though he felt a correlation lay in tying Paul's christological title
àpxn with Rev 3:14 as well as Prov 8:22, to which Silberman agreed
(214). This has the beneficial theological result of connecting Jesus with
wisdom and his sovereignty as creator. However, Silberman' s purpose was
more to demonstrate that John relied on a Hebrew source for his OT
allusions rather than a theological point of Jesus, wisdom, and creation.
7 Beckwith is perhaps alone in his view that believed the significance of Jesus' titles
in Rev 3:14 was more in relation to its very immediate context "to guarantee the certain
truth of the revelation given him" (Beckwith 1919, 488).
8 Silberman, however, was not the first to suggest that the title of Jesus in Rev 3:14
came from Prov 8:22, 30. James Montgomery posed that theory earlier (1926, 73).
Silberman's contribution is unique in that he bases much of his view on a
mistransliteration of a midrash of Genesis which used Prov 8.
Old Testament Allusions in Revelation 3 : 14-22 425
The most recent argument posed for an OT source was by Greg

Beale.9 He did not deny the midrashic roots or wisdom/creation theme
from Prov 8 and Gen 1 in Rev 3:14. He actually offered other, mor
convincing, Jewish sources that are similar in nature (1996, 134).
However, he concluded that such a background to Rev 3:14 is only
"supplemental to the Isaiah background" (151-152). He laid out
convincing case that all the elements of the phrase ó á^f|v ó (xápiuç
7UGTÒÇ Kai àÀ,r|0ivóç fļ ap%iļ Tfjç ktíoecdç xoO Geou can be accounted for
from Isa 65:16-18 primarily and 43:10-13 secondarily. Perhaps most
germane to his argument is his observation of Jesus' titles as an
"interpretive translation of ptf from Isa. 65.16" based on various Greek
versions of Isaiah (139). Beale argued that John conflated the variou
versions and Greek traditions into an "amplified" title for Jesus. This ha
credence since all lexical roots from the versions appear in Rev 3:1
except ó (aápxuç. For this, he linked back to both Rev 1:5 and Isa 43:10-
13, 18-19a (144-150). He concluded that the title "faithful and true" is a
"legitimate interpretive expansion" of Isaiah's "Amen," and since th
prophecy is about new creation, then the allusion puts Jesus as the
beginning or ruler of "[new] creation" (151).
Table 1: Versional Comparison of Isaiah 65:16's "the God of Amen"

MT LXX Aquila Symmachus Theodotion
VftKS TÒV 08ÒV SV TO) 0SCD £V TG) 0£(p £V TÖ) 08(0
TÒV (Xfoļ0lV0V 7ü£7llGTÜ)1léVÜ)q (XļilļV à'lì'V
In conclusion, this first allusion most likely from Isaiah has imported a
great many themes into the seventh message. Perhaps the most significant
is Jesus' status as "ruler" over "[new] creation." However, a neglected
theme in all of the possible OT allusions, whether from a Genesis midrash,
Prov 8, or Isa 43 and 65, is the theme of land or a place to dwell with God.
Bereshith Rabbah with Prov 8 reflects the creation of a land and perhaps a
version of the promised land as a place for God's people to dwell with him
in creation. Isaiah 65:16, the most probable source for the allusion,
mentions "land" twice in the corresponding "God of Amen" phrases.
Further, Isa 43 is notorious for its Exodus motif. Though "land" is absent
9 Beale 's position is not unique to him, but it certainly is the most thorough and
lengthy treatment. For example, see also Fekkes (1994, 137-138) whose interpretation is
similar but has not developed the argument as far as Beale.
in the passage, the opposite idea of "wilderness" implying exile is present.

And the entire Exodus (or New Exodus in this case) theme is centred upon
God redeeming his people and delivering them into the promised land, a
place for God to dwell with his people.
3.1.2 Psalm 1 10 in Revelation 3:21
Few have fleshed out an OT allusion behind the promised co-reign and
enthronement with Jesus in Rev 3:21. However, some have conceded the
possibility that the blessing is an echo of Ps 110 (Osborne 2002, 215;
Beale 2011, 286). Others are more confident that there is a direct allusion
to Ps 110 (Hort 1908, 37; Cashmore 2004, 18; deSilva 2008, 152). Aune
noted the theme of saints reigning with Messiah stemming from Dan 7:18,
27 particularly (Aune 1997, 261-262). But it will be argued here that the
language is much closer to Ps 110 than Dan 7. Consider Table 2 below
noting foremost the thematic similarities (though verbal parallels exist as
well).
Table 2: Verbal and Thematic Parallels between Revelation 3:21 and

Psalm 110:1-2
Revelation 3:21
The one who c

him to sit with
ó viKcov ô(Ògco
tćo Qpóvâ) ļiou
as I also conquered The LORD sends forth from Zion your

mighty scepter. Rule in the midst of
your enemies!
< hq Kàyò évkriaa paßöov ÔDvájasòç god sbarco gts^sï

KÚpioç £K Zicöv, Kai Kaxaio)pÍ8')E év
and sat down sit!
Kal SKáQiGa
with my
|X8ia toû
ampi)
The
One
the
Old Testament Allusions in Revelation 3:14-22 427
("I conquered") in 3:21. The command to sit parallels lexically t

statement of sitting as a reward for conquering, indicating that the enem
have become the footstool as mentioned in Ps 1 10:1. But perhaps the m
startling parallel is the location of the sitting. Verbally, there is lit
correspondence, but thematically it is a one-to-one equivalent. To sit at
right hand of God was to sit with God the Father on his throne (W
1999, 306). There would be no distinction. In fact, the right hand of
and his throne become synonymous later in Rev 5:7. In Rev 5:6, the L
(Jesus) is év 1J.ŚOO) of the throne, which many take to mean "on" or "in
middle."10
It is at this point that a distinction exists in the allusion. The first
phrase of Rev 3:21 referring to the conquering saints sitting with Jesus on
his throne is only a subtle allusion to Ps 110 built around the subsequent
context of 3:21. In this case, it is a universalization of this messianic Psalm
applied to the saints, something very similar to Rev 2:26-27 with Ps 2:8-9
and the theme of reigning.11 However, the latter portion of Rev 3:21
referring to Jesus' conquering and sitting on God's throne is a more
informal , direct prophetic fulfilment (cf. Beale 1998, 1 1 Iff.) of Ps 1 10 and
its messianic notions.
Revelation has much to say about conquering (vncdv). Not only are
all seven churches given a promise for those who conquer, but it also
appears in the context of conquering through being a faithful witness, even
if that witness results in death for the name of Jesus (cf. Rev 12:1 1). In the
case of the seventh church, they are promised a future reign with Jesus on
his kingly throne should they conquer. There is also much about saints
being made both kings and priests in Rev (1:6; 5:10; 7:3; 9:4; 14: Iff;
20:6; 22:4-5). These themes should not be seen as coincidental in regard
to Ps 1 10' s mention of Melchizedek, the ancient priest-king of Salem (Gen
14:18-20). Further, these king-priest saints will rule (ßaGiXsiioouaiv; Rev
5:10; 20:6; 22:5), each time within the context of the saints being part of a
priesthood. Ultimately, as will be discussed further, John will indicate that
this reign with Jesus consummates in new creation. Thus there is the tie
that thematically binds these two passages together in a very significant
10 Compare with BD AG (634-635) which said, "The distinction between 'middle' and
'among' for néooç is sometimes rather fluid, and some of the passages here cited may fit
equally well under [definitions] 1 or 2." In agreement with this view, see also Bauckham
(1999, 63); Knight (2001); László (2011, 164-169). Contra Beale who interprets this as
a synecdoche to the inner court area around the throne (1999, 350).
11 For this kind of use of the OT in Rev, see Vanhoye (1962); Beale (1998, lOOff.)
way. Rev 3:14 and 3:21 apply to both the themes of ruling in general and
reigning specifically in new creation. These themes apply to King Jesus as
well as universalised to his vice-regents.
There are also some similarities between the function of
Melchizedek and Ps 110 in Second-Temple literature. According

Davila, in 1 1Q13 (or 1 1Q Melchizedek), Melchizedek was associated w
the idea of new creation found in Isa 61:2, the "year of the LOR
favour" and Jubilee themes. There is also an association with Isa 52:7 and
the gospel proclamation of the reign of God (Davila 1998). 12 Both of these
themes resonate well with Rev 3:14, 21 in regard to the reign of Christ in
the Isaianic new creation.13 And so 3:14 interacts with 3:21 as a thematic
inclusio with OT imagery pointing to the victors' hope in a future reign
with Jesus and partaking in the Melchizedekian priesthood as both kings
and priests.
3.2 Allusions to the presence of God, promised land , and exile
The next set of allusions also has a similar binding theme. This time the
message links vomiting (3:16) and nakedness (3:17-18) with exile from
the land, and thus separated from the presence of God. In this case, it is the
immediate context of the OT allusions that provides the glue for these
themes to find cohesion. Little has been made of the spewing or vomiting
(éjiéGai) in 3:16 by way of OT allusions or echoes. Much of the discussion
has centred upon the geographical and historical setting of Laodicea to
explain the ideas of cold, hot, lukewarm, and what may cause vomiting.14
12 Gieschen noted other similarities between Rev 12:1-6 and Melchizedek from 2
Enoch (1997,371).
13 As a word of caution, one should bear in mind that in Second-Temple literature,
Melchizedek was often cast as an angelic being (Smith n.d.). Smith also helpfully
discussed the possibility of Melchizedek in Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice as well as
Josephus's understanding of the figure from Genesis. In addition, Bauckham (1999b, 31)
added, "The Messianic interpretation of the royal psalms in general would lead us to
expect that, when Jews in the Second Temple period did interpret Psalm 110, they would
apply it to the Messiah. But its absence from the literature shows that it had no
importance for them."
An alternative explanation was provided by Clare Rothschild (2012), who
understands the terms "cold" and "hot" as references to medical literature in which
vomiting was commonly used as a means of correction. She said, "Insofar as the
Laodicean church is neither 'cold' nor 'hot,' it lacks potency. Medical protocol for
correcting imbalances of the elements in the human body, after diet and exercise, is
In Lev 18 and 20 are three statements that influenced the imagery to

the seventh church.15 In every case, it is the image of the land vomiting ou
wicked Israelites who were unclean. The Greek versions do not agree i
translating the Hebrew words rrp or Kip for vomiting. The LXX
consistently used the word 7ipooox0iÇœ, though there is plenty of text
variance as to its spelling.16 However, in Lev 18:28, Aquila has ¿i^iļpaosv
Theodotion has arcsßatav, and Symmachus has e^iļļieoev which is simp
a compound verb with the sk pronoun also found in Rev 3:16 (èfxéaai e
The same wording also appears in Lev 20:22 for Theodotion an
Symmachus, a7ioß<xA,T1 and respectively. The volume of the verb
parallels is not deafening here, but there is enough correspondence that
is certainly plausible on the lexical level, especially considering the verb
and conceptual rarity.17
Both Lev 18 and 20 share the same theme - sexual sin. In
particular, the author of Leviticus repeatedly described the sin a

"uncovering the nakedness" of a close relative.18 After the general warni
not to uncover the nakedness of a close relative (Lev 18:6), nearly ever
familial relationship and incestuous scenario was outlined with t
repeated emphasis on "nakedness." Chapter 20 resumes this repetition
v. 10 and goes on to speak of more immoral relationships includin
purgation, x^tpóç ("lukewarm") represents the tepid water given to patients to indu
vomiting, a standard part of the procedure." (p. 261)
15 Lev 1 8:24-25, "Do not make yourselves unclean by any of these things, for by
these the nations I am driving out before you have become unclean, and the land becam
unclean, so that I punished its iniquity, and the land vomited out its inhabitan
[emphasis added]." Lev 18:28: "[L]est the land vomit you out when you make
unclean, as it vomited out the nation that was before you [emphasis added]." Lev 20:
"You shall therefore keep all my statutes and all my rules and do them, that the lan
where I am bringing you to live may not vomit you out [emphasis added]."
16 The LXX translation is the reason Rothschild rejected this as an allusion fro
Leviticus (2012, 280). She, however, did not take into account other old Greek
translations of Leviticus that may indicate a different verbal tradition.
17 Christopher Beetham made an astute point about rarity as an added determinin
criterion for verbal allusions (2008, 29). Earl Miner (1993, 39 col. 1) made a simi
point of rare concepts (perhaps vomiting in this case) saying, "The words of the alludin
passage may establish a conceptual rather than a verbal connection with the passag
alluded to."
18 The context begins in Lev 18:5-6, "You shall therefore keep my statutes and my
rules; if a person does them, he shall live by them: I am the LORD. None of you shall
approach any one of his close relatives to uncover nakedness. I am the LORD [emphasis
added]."
homosexuality and bestiality. Again, there is a repeated emphasis on

uncovering the nakedness. Each list ends with the idea of the land
vomiting them out. Interestingly enough, between chs. 18 and 20 there is a
curse against those who mistreat the poor and blind (Lev 19:14-15), both
of which are also descriptions of the true state of the church at Laodicea
along with nakedness.
Admittedly, an allusion here would equate Jesus with the promised
land. For some, this would make an "unusual link" and a stretch for an
allusion (Rothschild 2012, 280). However, the analogy of Jesus as the land
is not so awkward in light of the fact that Jesus was also envisioned as the
temple in new creation (21:22) as well as the lamp to light the world
(21:23), both within the same context of each other. The picture of Jesus as
the promised land is simply another way of referring to union with Jesus as
the true source of experiencing the presence of God.
However, this allusion is not fully formed until one considers
another allusion similarly related to nakedness and exile. Jesus levelled an
accusation against the church saying, "[N]ot realizing that you are
wretched, pitiable, poor, blind, and naked. I counsel you to buy from
me . . . white garments so that you may clothe yourself and the shame of
your nakedness may not be seen" (Rev 3:17-18). Some commentators take
this idea of nakedness back to other parts of the OT to illustrate the
common imagery of Israel's covenantal infidelity (Beale 1999, 305-306).
However, the verbal, thematic, and structural parallels between Rev 3:17-
18 and two popular accounts in Genesis (2-3 and 9) regarding nakedness
warrant consideration as well.
Table 3: Comparison between Revelation 3:17-18 with the Adam and

Eve, Noah and Ham Narratives19
Rev 3:17-18, "[Y]ou are naked . . . buy Gen 2:25, "And the man and his wife
from me . . . white garments so that you were both naked and were not
may clothe yourself and the shame of ashamed."
vour nakedness may not be seen:"
Gen 3:7, "Then

opened, and the
Ge
na
19 U
conc
Gen 3:21, "And the LORD God made

for Adam and for his wife garments of
Gen 9:2
and became drunk and became naked
in his tent. And Ham, the father of
Canaan, saw the nakedness of his
father and told his two brothers
outside. Then Shem and Japheth took
a garment, laid it on both their
shoulders, and walked backward and
covered the nakedness of their father.
Their faces were turned backward,
and thev did not see their father's
There
naked
witho
naked
result of these creation and re-creation accounts is the same as well. In
both occasions, the shamed endure removal from the land or presence of
God and curse (in Noah's case, it was Ham). Adam and Eve were sent out
(Gen 3:23; £Ça7técT£iA£v) and driven out (Gen 3:24; éÇépaXsv in the LXX,
similar to Theodotion's wording in Lev 18:28 and 20:22). This is a similar
example of what it means for the land to vomit out the unclean in Lev 18
and 20.
There is an additional element to the theme of removal from the
land found within all seven messages. Alan Bandy demonstrated there is a
prophetic lawsuit motif throughout Revelation and more specifically in
Rev 2-3 which John developed from the Deuteronomic covenant. Bandy
(2011) wrote,
The stipulations presented in the admonition strongly evoke a

covenantal tone for the seven letters conforming to a pattern of
blessing for obedience but curses for disobedience. The book of
Deuteronomy represents a covenant renewal with the generation
about to enter the Promised Land in which Moses repeatedly
proclaims blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience. The
covenant stipulations were legally binding on the people of God and
their future blessings depended on whether or not they chose to obey
(cf. Deut. 30:19). ... If the churches heeded the Lord's instruction,
then they will receive the blessing promised to the new covenant
communities rather than incurring the curses described in the book.

(p. 190)
In this case, that would be the figurai removal from the land that John has
been developing by means of these OT allusions.
What exists in the message to the Laodiceans is the stark reality that
they are not what they claimed to be: "I need nothing." They were naked
and in shame. Because of their shameful uncleanness and nakedness, Jesus
will vomit them from the land and drive them from the presence of God as
pictured in Lev 18 and 20. Cashmore (2004, 18) said of this, "Laodicea is
being told that they are no better than the idolatrous peoples whom the
people of God displaced [from the promised land], and that their fate will
be similar." In this case, John has already hinted at the similar fate in
previous warnings from the other six messages. Because there was no
"repent or else" warning for this church, it is possible that the church in
Laodicea was already considered exiled from the presence of God. Or
better, God removed his presence from them as in Ezek 10:18, which may
account for the image of Jesus on the outside knocking (Rev 3:20). Their
need was to buy white garments so as to clothe themselves and thus cover
their shameful nakedness in order to return to the land (or Jesus). They
required covenant renewal.
3.3 Allusions to familial/marital themes as a call to covenant renewal

and fidelity
The next set of allusions is less subtle; their presence has been noted by
many. Yet not much has been made of their shared themes and patterns.
The Laodicean claim, "I am rich, I have prospered, and I need nothing,"
finds its source in Hos 12:8, "Ephraim has said, 4 Ah, but I am rich; I have
found wealth for myself; in all my labors they cannot find in me iniquity
or sin.'"20 The wealth of Laodicea is also a frequent subject among
commentators. In addition, many note that after a volcanic eruption
destroyed much of the city in 17 C.E., the affluent were able to rebuild
without aid from Rome.21 However, their wealth may be more of a recent
phenomenon. Steven Friesen (2001, 36) noted that the "Asians requested
20 Charles (1912, xcvii) argued for an allusion to 1 Enoch 97:8-10 as well. See also
Mathews (2012, 333).
Tacitus, in his Annals (14:27), said, "One of the famous cities of Asia, Laodicea, was
that same year overthrown by an earthquake, and, without any relief from us, recovered
itself by its own resources.'*
permission to build a second provincial imperial temple, even thou

province had more than one such temple at the time and several appe
have had none." Friesen (2001) went on to say,
A lengthy dispute had taken place in Asia about which city would
have the right to provide a site for the provincial cult. In 26 C.E., the
cities had to send representatives to Rome for the Senate to hear their
cases. Tiberius attended the hearing, which lasted several days.
Eleven cities competed for the privilege, and the record of this
argument supplements our understanding of the values inherent in
imperial cults. Four cities - Hypaipa, Tralleis, Laodikeia, and
Magnesia - were disqualified as having too little strength (parum
validi ), in part a reference to the amount of municipal wealth needed
to maintain a provincial cult. (p. 37)
This seems to indicate that Loadicea's wealth was either overblown,

that it later grew substantially from the time of its rebuilding in 1
and the later dispute mentioned above in 26 C.E. to John's pr
situation, likely towards the end of the reign of Domitian 95-96 C.E.23
When comparing Rev 3:17 with the LXX and Hebrew Bible
appears that the beginning of the verse is taking its cues directly
Hos 12:8. The latter half seems to be a periphrastic way of saying the
thing in order to draw a startling accusation. Laodicea is unaware of
pitiful condition as poor, blind, and naked.24 Hosea pictured Ephra
claiming no one else could find any faults or sin within them, although
was false. The true reality is that Ephraim was just as pitiable as Lao
The two were expressed from opposite perspectives in order to achiev
same outcome. The people of both Laodicea and Ephraim thou
themselves to be (and perhaps were) prosperous physically, but spir
they were both depraved and poor. Ephraim boasted that no one coul
22 After all, Jesus did accuse them of thinking themselves wealthier than they a
were in Rev 3:17.
23 For more on the wealth of Laodicea, also see Tarn and Griffith (1952, 113).
~ Contra John Pilch (1992, 130) who argued that this claim is a lie rather than a
statement made unaware. He reasoned this largely on the anthropological and
sociological concept that "[mediterranean people are accustomed to lying and deception
as key strategies for acquiring and preserving a group's honor." However, his point fits
well with the practical implications John was trying to draw out for this congregation:
"The deception here may result from lies told to the outside to avoid trouble from the
authorities, which allow the Laodiceans to enjoy economic prosperity by avoiding
hostility.'* (p. 133)
sin in her. Laodicea was similarly unaware (oúk oîôaç) of her own
sinfulness. One thought it had concealed its sin from the outside. The other
was completely oblivious to her own iniquitous state within.
David deSilva (2008, 150) noted, "The principal assertion is that
their own self-assessment of the happiness of their state ... is the result of
utter self-deception. There is no support offered for this claim, however,
beyond its presentation as an authoritative word from the Christ whose
knowledge surpasses our knowledge even of ourselves (Rev 2.23)." The
first part is certainly correct and well stated. However, the support that
deSilva thinks is lacking is exactly the function of the use of Hosea!
The local context around Hos 12:8 sheds further light on this
allusion. Hos 12:1 speaks directly to Ephraim' s sin and political stupidity.
Hos 12:9 states the result if there is no repentance: a return to the
wilderness and thus an implied exile. Even throughout Hosea, the prophet
launches a host of accusations against Ephraim.25 One may ask, "Why use
Hosea?" It could possibly be the similar issues of idolatry, eating meat
offered to idols, playing the whore, and even being stripped naked (cf.
Hos 2:3). However, Hosea the prophet was an illustrative figure by
marrying Gomer the prostitute. This fits well with the evil women in
Revelation who are symbolic of the empire and the cult related to it
(Jezebel and the whore of Babylon). The marital illustration speaks
volumes in light of other related allusions in this passage.
Scholars have thoroughly scrutinised the reference to Jesus standing
at the door and knocking, likely due to its evangelistic abuses. Many are
quick to note the allusion to Song of Songs 5:2 (Swete 1911, 63; Charles
1920, 101; Beale 1999, 308; Osborne 2002, 212), though there are
certainly competing views.26 In addition, it was not uncommon for one to
25 These consist of idolatry (4:17; 8:11; 13:1; 14:8), eating meat sacrificed to idols
(8:13), playing the whore (5:3; 6:10; 8:9), judgment (5:9 - 14; 9:11, 16; 10:6), other sins
like intermarrying with other nations (7:8), trusting other nations for deliverance rather
than God (8:9), and general accusations of sin and displeasure (ch. 11; 13:12).
26 Not all scholars are in favour of taking this as an allusion to the OT. Richard
Bauckham (1993, 106-109) used this as an example of "deparabolization" that happens
frequently and refers it back to the parable of the "Watching Servants" from Matt 24.
Robert Thomas (1996, 158) deftly blended Bauckham's eschatological view of the
parousia with an allusion to Song 5:2. Aune (1997, 260) took this to be an "epiphany
motif in which both the door and the knocking are metaphorical." Trafton (2005, 52)
saw it as a social custom of the day and said, "The offer reflects first-century hospitality
practices: when a visitor knocks on the door of your house, you invite him in and share
meal fellowship with him. By their lukewarmnesś and arrogance, the Laodicean
find the Song of Songs allegorised in Jewish apocalyptic literature

(Charles 1920, 101; Beale 1999, 308). However, it is the context
with the theme of marriage in Song 5:2 that is so compelling here. There
a putting off of garments and an implied nakedness in Song 5:3, th
not one of shame. Once the door was opened (5:6), the bridegroom
nowhere to be seen. Desperation ensues, "I opened to my beloved, bu
beloved had turned and gone. My soul failed me when he spoke. I s
him, but found him not ; I called him , but he gave no answer [emp
added]." One can only recall the imagery of exile from the land an
presence of God from the previous allusions of vomiting and nake
Here in Rev 3:20 the same theme is again present except under the g
of entering a marriage covenant.
Scholars also commonly note the last allusion. Rev 3:19a, "Tho
whom I love, I reprove and discipline," finds as its source Prov
"[F]or the LORD reproves him whom he loves, as a father the s
whom he delights." This is a pivotal passage for the Laodiceans
indicates the rhetorical function of the OT imagery. It serves in the
of the "if. . . then" warnings found in the other messages. Aune (1
260) called this theme in Proverbs and wisdom literature "educ
discipline." It also shares the familial theme noted above with the ma
imagery of Hosea and the Song of Songs. If Laodicea was already ex
and perhaps in some way removed from the land (vomited and naked
no one at the door to greet them), then it might be most prudent t
them back with the motivation of love (Bauckham 1993, 109).
What all three of these allusions have in common is that they s
as a proverbial warning to return to God. It is their familial/marital nat
that draws them together and paints a familiar picture of the churc
rhetorical function of these allusions serves, then, as a plea for repen
and a warning to indicate what happens to those who are outside o
land (or in this case, left Christ outside waiting and knocking).
3.4 Conclusion of Old Testament allusions in the seventh messa

Laodicea
One final note is in order concerning all seven allusions, since the author
presented them in a uniform, almost chiastic pattern, as demonstrated in
this manner:
Christians have, in a sense, pushed Jesus outside." The appeal to Trafton's view is that it
is almost an exile in reverse. See also Wiarda (1995, 205).
A 3:14; Jesus as ruler of new creation

B 3:15-16; Removal from the land (vomit)
C 3: 17a; Hosea as warning and more removal
B' 3: 17b- 18; Removal from the land (nakedness)
C' 3:19-20; Familial warnings (the father reproves his son
and the groom knocking on the door)
A' 3:21; Jesus and saints as reigning in new creation
The theme of ruling or reigning in new creation serves as a thematic

inclusio. It is the motivation that should cause the Laodiceans to repent.
John gave them a taste of who Jesus is, their exiled condition, and what
they could be if they answered his call to repent. He twice pictured the
state of the church as outside of the land by way of vomiting and the
shame of nakedness, the land being Jesus and new creation in this case.
Both times a subsequent warning follows through a picture of Hosea and
Gomer (idolatrous and unfaithful Ephraim) or the "instructive education"
from the wisdom literature of Prov 3:12 and Song 5:2. The first removal is
a warning for covenant fidelity and sexual purity from Lev 18-20. The
corresponding warning was all about Israel's infidelity and impurity from
Hosea. The second removal represented the shame of nakedness through a
husband and wife in Adam and Eve and father and son in Noah and Ham.
Thus there is a proverbial warning of loving discipline from a father to a
son from Prov 3 and a portrayal of a bride too slow to answer her groom
knocking at the door from Song 5. John interconnected each allusion as
one great thematic unit.
The results of these OT allusions point to one common feature -
covenant. Bound up in every single OT allusion in the message to
Laodicea is the idea that Jesus is the king currently reigning on his
Father's throne and Lord over the promised land of new creation. Jesus
invited the saints to take part in this reign as his vassals, pending their
faithful obedience to the stipulations of the covenant. However, Laodicea
is in clear violation of that pact and is depicted as a removed lampstand or
exiled from the land and God's presence (Blount 2009, 80). There is a
definite separation between the church and Jesus (Rev 3:20). The call to
repent, then, is a call to return to Jesus in keeping with the new covenant
Old Testament Allusions in Revelation 3 : 14-22 437
relationship of Jesus and his church.27 Should they comply, they w

experience full and complete covenantal blessings as predic
intratextually toward the end of Revelation. They will take part of
marriage and thus the wedding feast from which they were pictur
missing (Rev 3:20 with Song 5:2 in Rev 19:7-9). Jesus will not v
them out of the land (Rev 3:16 with Lev 18 and 20) because they
remove their shame and clothe their nakedness with white robes (R
3:17-18 with Gen 3 and 9 in Rev 19:8; 22:14). Therefore, they will r
with the king in the paradise-new-creation-land that he has promised the
(Rev 3:14 and 21 with Isa 65:16-18 in Rev 20:4-6; 22:5).
4 Intratextual Fulfilment of the Old Testament Allusions
The study thus far has attempted to show the extensive use of OT allusion
and their covenantal character in the seventh message of Revelation. Yet
there must be a comparison of the results against the remainder of John'
Apocalypse for added confirmation. Many scholars affirm that Revelation
is a tightly woven literary masterpiece that bears the marks o
intratextuality.28 As such, one would expect John to develop the themes
expressed so early in the latter stages of the book. These "intratextual
fulfilments" confirm the assertion of the covenantal backdrop of the OT
allusions.
7 Campbell (2004, 75) said of the theme of repentance in the seven messages,
"Repentance is the mechanism which insures the reciprocal obedience and faithfulness
of the weaker, wayward covenant partner; repentance allows the Lord, the covenant
superior, to show steadfast grace to his sinful people. Indeed, conditional repentance is
the hinge upon which Revelation's whole plot turns, for the suspense centers on whether
what is promised to the seven assemblies in the inaugural septet will be granted in the
closing visions, allowing the covenant God to keep his promises."
28 For example Alan Bandy (2007, 161) wrote, "John has also imbedded recurring
words, phrases, and themes into his Apocalypse binding his vision into a literary unity.
These repetitions provide structural clues for interpretation [emphasis added]."
Similarly Bauckham (1993, 22) noted, "A remarkable feature of the composition of
Revelation is the way in which very many phrases occur two or three times in the book,
often in widely separated passages, and usually in slightly varying form. These
repetitions create a complex network of textual cross-reference, which helps to create
and expand the meaning of any one passage by giving it specific relationships to many
other passages. We are dealing here not with the writing habit of an author who saved
effort by using phrases more than once, but with a skilfully deployed compositional
device." See also Schüssler Fiorenza (1977, 358-366) and Strand (1978, 404^408) as
well as Giblin (1998); Korner (2000); and Hall (2002) For those who have put
intratextuality to practice in Rev.
438 T. L. Decker / Neotestamentica 48.2 (2014) 417-^46
However, according to Hemer (2001), finding intratextual links with

the message to Laodicea and other portions of Revelation is a fruitless
endeavour. He claimed,
[T]his letter [to Laodicea] stands comparatively apart from other

parts of the Revelation itself. It is unique in that the introductory
words of Christ are not drawn from the Patmos vision of Rev. l:13ff.
Nor are there the usual obvious parallels with the final vision of the
heavenly Jerusalem. And even the imagery here is largely distinct
from that which finds recurring echoes elsewhere in the book. There
are several points of contact with the other letters, but the underlying
thought and background are subtly different or sharply contrasting.
And whereas the other six letters fall by subject and character into
three convenient pairs, this has no clear affinity among them. (p. 85)
In part, I agree with him concerning the final letter's unique character.
However, if by "background" he is including the OT motifs, they are
hardly different or contrasting but quite in line with the rest of Revelation.
And while the initial picture of Jesus may not trace its roots to Rev 1:13-
20, it does have verbal affinity with Rev 1:5. This resemblance is only the
first step in seeing Laodicea' s message not as "largely distinct" from the
rest of Revelation but rather very much in line with the conclusion of the
Apocalypse.
The primary function of intratextuality in the message to Laodicea
with latter portions of Revelation is to indicate the fulfilment of promises
and punishments by envisioning their consummated forms in new creation.
Therefore, the first and most obvious connection is the theme of Jesus and
new creation. John, in Rev 3:14, labelled Jesus as ó Ajaiļv ("the amen")
and ó (iápiDç ó 7ciaxòç Kai á>o10ivóç ("the faithful and true witness"),
language hearkening back to Isaianic prophecies. Notice that the one
coming on a white horse whose name was 7tiotòç Kai àXr|0ivóç ("faithful
and true") in Rev 19:1 1 is the same one who will usher in the new age - a
new heaven and a new earth (Rev 21:1). Christ the Lamb will reign with
God on his throne (22:1, 3) as the Lion who has conquered by means of
the sacrificial Lamb (5:5). Jesus' coming will initiate the reign of the saints
to rule over the nations in this new creation (20:4; 21:7, 21-24; 22:4-5).
Specifically, in Rev 21:7 the link is made between 3:14 and 3:21 as
fulfilled in new creation, "The one who conquers [ó vikõv; just as in the
conclusion to all the seven messages and especially 3:21] will have this
heritage, and I will be his God and he will be my son." Thus, the
Melchizedekian priestly rule that was mediated in the Garden of Ed

echoed in Rev 3:21 via its allusion to Ps 110 finds its completion in
5: "They will see his face, and his name will be on their foreheads
priests]. And night will be no more. They will need no light of lam
sun, for the Lord God will be their light, and they will reign foreve
ever [as kings]."
The allusion of the land vomiting people for sexual sin a
nakedness takes an interesting twist in the seventh message as
pictured Jesus as the land or place where God's presence dwells, and
the one retching people into exile. This also takes place in a br
context that restricts outsiders from participating in new creation
least four occasions (21:8, 27; 22:11a, 15). In essence, Jesus has vom
and exiled them from himself and so the land, some for their
immorality as found in Lev 1 8 and 20. The language is similar to th
imagery of Rev 3:15-16, 17b- 1 8 where there are those who are "ou
(ëÇco as in 22:15) and even more negatively "nothing unclean will e
enter [New Jerusalem], nor anyone who does what is detestable" (o
8ÍoéX,0T1 się ať)Tf)v nãv Koivòv Kai ó 710UDV ß5eXi)y1ia; 21:27). Th
between the theme of vomiting and nakedness in Rev 3:15-17 (as w
its allusion to exile in Lev 18-20) with Rev 21-22 is bolstered
considering that the same word in 21:27, ßöeJiuyixa
("detestable/abomination") is also found five times in Lev 18 and 20 to
describe the sexual sins (18:22, 26, 27, 29; 20:13). And in between
Lev 18:27 and 29 is verse 28, ". . . lest the land vomit you out when yo
make it unclean, as it vomited out the nation that was before you."
To carry over the image of clothing nakedness in the Laodicean
message, the message to Sardis had already referenced the OT allusion t
being clothed (in Rev 3:4-5). John also mentioned the white robes on th
twenty-four elders (Rev 4:4). Each of the martyred saints "were given
white robe" as well (Rev 6:11). The picture develops further with t
innumerable multitude (Rev 7:9-17) that was clothed in white robes (7:
13, 14) and pictured in new creation acting as priests who "serve
[taxxpsúooixjiv] . . . day and night in his temple" (Rev 7:15) in th
presence of God "who sits on the throne, and to the Lamb" (7:9, 15
Later, the holy army coming with the rider on the white horse appeared in
white garments, although they themselves do not engage in warfa
(19:14).
Then there is the bride who "has made herself ready; it was granted
her to clothe herself with fine linen, bright and pure - for the fine linen is
the righteous deeds of the saints" (19:7-8). This is where the allusive
imagery in the church of Laodicea combines images in the fulfilment of
new creation. Here there is the image of clothing nakedness (3:18)
interwoven with the portrait of the marriage festival (3:20). Jesus was
knocking on the door to the church as a groom knocking on the bridal
chamber as in Song 5:2. In the case of the great song, the bride waited too
long and the groom had left. In Rev 19, the bride had made herself ready
for the marriage. Not only has she been clothed "with fine linen, bright and
pure" (ßÜGGivov >-a|i7tpòv KaGapóv) related to the Laodicean' s "white
garments" to cover the shame of her nakedness, but this time she will
answer the knocking door, greet her lover, and the banquet will ensue.
There is also the promise that Jesus will enter through the door and dine at
the banquet, finding its later fulfilment in the marriage supper of the Lamb
(19:9) (Barr 2011, 60). These links all work together in order to connect
the themes of clothing nakedness, a knocking door, a marriage, and a
marriage supper together.
The fresco painted by John's use of OT allusions and internal
linking conveys a message of doom yet hope. John gives the readers at
Laodicea an image of their deplorable status outside of the land of new
creation. Yet, because of God's loving reproof, they are also given a
picture of their possible future reality should they repent of their sin and
renew their covenantal status. In their case, the sin is probably one of
economic success by means of participation in the imperial cult and trade
guilds thus foregoing strict monotheistic adherence to God and covenant
fidelity to Jesus (Friesen 2005, 367, 373; Cukrowski 2003, 56; Mathews
2013, 144-166).
5 Conclusion
Through the medium of OT allusions, John pictur

community in Laodicea as a covenant community much
as Israel was - but a new covenant community (Bandy
envisioned them as the people of God amid their strugg
around them. Consistent with ANE covenants, the chur
themselves in relation to their new king or as the peop
lays the foundation for an implicit call and warning to the
will also be the eternal charge into new creation. Wha
Gen 1-2 will finally reach its culmination in new crea
that story emerges now in the church as picture
particularly to the final message to Laodicea. As Wrigh
"[T]he Creator God wants humans to run his world, to make the
wilderness flourish and to build wise and healthy cities and run them
humanely."29
These covenantal allusions expose a great deal within the fina
message. Most notably, John pictures Jesus in quite a few differen
scenarios related to the major emphases of ANE covenants. Foremost is
his regal position as King of kings. John does not only cast this kingsh
over the nations per se but also in relationship with the church to which he
is talking. Jesus is the ideal suzerain in covenant relationship with his
vassals. Further, these OT concepts used to convey such a suzerain-vass
rulership is later fulfilled at the conclusion of Revelation. While the church
is said to reign with Jesus (Rev 3:21; 20:4, 6) and carry out their own ru
(Rev 22:5), Jesus is the primary figure judging and acting as the high-ki
on the throne (Rev 19:1 1, 15-16; 22:1-3).
The picture of the promised land took an interesting turn in the
message to Laodicea where Jesus analogously becomes the promised lan
vomiting covenant violators into exile. This imagery brings into focus th
the purpose behind the promised land-paradise theme in the OT was a
place specifically designed for God to dwell with his people. The church
guaranteed Jesus and thus new creation should they remain faithfu
Therefore, in order for one to enter this sacred space and presence of G
("New Jerusalem"), one must be united and faithful to Jesus, even to th
point of death. However, the threat of exile menacingly looms in the
background by way of OT imagery. For those who do not conquer, in
keeping with the covenantal stipulations revealed in the OT (primarily
Leviticus and Deuteronomy), judgment will result in exile from the plac
and presence of God. Another depiction of covenantal curse by remova
from the land in Laodicea's message was the urging to cover the shame
nakedness, citing the Adam and Eve/creation narrative and the Noah an
Ham/re-creation narrative. Afterwards, there followed two more allusio
in that message, both from the wisdom literature: one a proverbial warning
from a father to a son (similar to Noah and Ham) known as "instructiv
education" and the other a bride too slow to answer her groom knockin
on the door (similar to Adam and Eve).
By way of allusion to OT covenant themes, John cast the church's
identity as communal rather than individual. Its relationship to Jesus is one
29 Likewise Emerson (2013, 162) who said, "Thus the themes of the new creation, t
dwelling place of God, and the fulfillment of the Adamie Commission and Abraham
Covenant find their conclusion in Revelation 21 and 22."
of an overlord mediating rule to his viceroy churches (suzerain-vassals).

Such a relationship requires extreme fidelity from the new covenant
community. The stipulations of the covenant are quite simple - extreme
and total obedience to Jesus to the exclusion of any action deemed as
syncretising with the pagan, Roman imperial cult. The blessing for such
loyalty would be in line with the biblical narrative begun in Gen 1 and 2 -
prosperity in the paradisal promised land of the New Jerusalem (new
creation) as well as complete access and total fellowship with the King
(temple). Similarly, the curse for breaking the covenant resulted in exile
into the arid wilderness, and the inability to gain access to the presence of
God. The former leads to shalom , the latter to exilic uncertainty. Such is
the implicit choice for the church at Laodicea. They could continue in their
covenant violation. Or they could remain faithful to Jesus and "live long in
the land" (cf. Deut 30:18).
Bibliography
Aune, David E. 1990. The Form and Function of the Proclamations to the Seven
Churches (Revelation 2-3). NTS 36(2): 1 82-204.
Bandy, Alan S. 2007. The Prophetic Lawsuit in

Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, W
Macrostructure. JSNT 3 1 (4):469-499.
Neot 45(2): 178-205.

Barr, David L. 2011. Tales of the End: A Narrati
Revelation. 2d ed. Santa Rosa, Calif.: Polebridge
Bauckham, Richard. 1 993. The Climax of Prophecy :
Edinburgh: T&T Clark.
Jewish Roots of Christological Monotheism

James R. Davila, and Gladys S. Lewis. Leiden:
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Beale, G. K. 1996. The Old Testament Background o
Academic [JSNTSup 166].
Downers Grove: IVP Academic.
Testament in the New. Grand Rapids: Baker
Old T estament Allusions in Revelation 3 : 1 4-22 443
Beck with, Isbon T. 1919. The Apocalypse of John: Studies in Introduction with a
Critical and Exegetical Commentary. New York: Macmillan.
Beetham, Christopher A. 2008. Echoes of Scripture in the Letter of Paul to the
Colossians . Leiden: Brill.
Berger, P. R. 1985. Kollyrium fur die blinden Augen, Apk 3:18. NovT 27(2): 174-1 95.
Blount, Brian K. 2009. Revelation: A Commentary . Louisville: Westminster John Knox
[NTLl.
Burney, C. F. 1926. Christ as the APXH of Creation. JTS 27(1 06): 160-1 77.
Campbell, Gordon. 2004. Findings, Seals, Trumpets, and Bowls: Variations upon the
Theme of Covenant Rupture and Restoration in the Book of Revelation.
Jf7y66(l):71-96.
James Clarke & Co.
Cashmore, David. 2004. Laodicea and the Seven Churches. Stimulus 12(2): 16-20.
Charles, R. H. 1912. The Book of Enoch or 1 Enoch. Oxford: Clarendon.
vols. Edinburgh: T&T Clark [ICC].

Chilton, David. 1987. The Days of Vengeance: An Expositi
Fort Worth: Dominion Press.
Cukrowski, K. 2003. The Influence of the Emperor Cult on the Book of Revelation.
Restoration Quarterly 45(1 ):5 1-64.
Davila, J. 1998. Melchizedek as a Divine Mediator. School of Divinity, St Mary's
College, University of St Andrews, Scotland's First University. Cited 10
February 20 1 4. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/divinity/rt/otp/dmf/melchizedek/.
deSilva, David A. 1992. The Social Setting of the Revelation to John: Conflicts Within,
Fears Without. řf7754(2):273-302.
Revelation 2-3. ./SAT 3 1(2): 123-1 55.
Louisville: Westminster John Knox.

Duff, Paul B. 2001. Who Rides the Beast? Prophetic Rivalry and the Rhetoric of Crisis
in the Churches of the Apocalypse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Du Preez, James. 1981. Ancient Near Eastern Vassal Treaties and the Book of
Revelation: Possible Links. Religion in Southern Africa 2(2):33-43.
Emerson, Matthew Y. 2013. Christ and the New Creation : A Canonical Approach to the
Theology of the New Testament. Eugene: Wipf & Stock.
Farrer, Austin. 1964. The Revelation of St. John the Divine. Oxford: Clarendon.
Fekkes, Jan. 1994. Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary
Antecedents and Their Development. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic [JSNTSup
93].
Friesen, Steven J. 2001. Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation
in the Ruins. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
JSNT21(3):35 1-373.
Giblin, Charles H. 1998. From and Before the Throne: R
Imagery of Revelation 4-16. CBQ 60(3):500-513.
Gieschen, Charles A. 1997. The Different Functions of a Similar Melchizedek Tradition

in 2 Enoch and the Epistle to the Hebrews. Pages 364-379 in Early Christian
Interpretation of the Scriptures of Israel. Edited by Evans A. Craig and James
A. Sanders. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic [JSNTSup 148].
Gillet, Lev. 1945. "Amen." ExpTim 56(5): 134-1 36.
Graves, David E. 2008. The Influence of Ancient Near Eastern Vassal Treaties on the
Seven Prophetic Messages in Revelation with Special Reference to the Message
to Smyrna. Ph.D. diss., University of Aberdeen.
Hall, Mark Seaborn. 2002. The Hook Interlocking Structure of Revelation: The Most
Important Verses in the Book and How They May Unify Its Structure. NovT
44(3):278-296.
Hemer, Colin J. 2001. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting.
Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Hort, F. J. A. 1908. The Apocalypse of St. John I- III: The Greek Text with Introduction,
Commentary, and Additional Notes. New York: MacMillan.
Kirby, John T. 1988. The Rhetorical Situations of Revelation 1-3. NTS 34(2): 197-207.
doi: 1 0. 1 0 1 7/S00286885000 1 9998.
Knight, Jonathan. 2001. The Enthroned Christ of Revelation 5:6 and the Development
of Christian Theology. Pages 43-50 in Moyise, ed. 2001.
Koester, Craig R. 2001. Revelation and the End of All Things. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Study of the Imagery in Rev 3. 14-22. NTS 49(3

Korner, Ralph J. 2000. "And I Saw ..." An Apoc
Structural Identification in the Apocalypse. NovT
László, Gallusz. 2011. The Throne Motif in the Bo
University of the Reformed Church in Hungary,
Mangina, Joseph L. 2012. God, Israel, and Ecclesia
Revelation and the Politics of Apocalyptic Inter
Hays and Stefan Alkier. Waco: Baylor Universit
Mathews, Mark D. 2012. The Function of Imputed
CBQ 74(2):3 19-338.
Temple Period and the Apocalypse of John. Camb

Press [SNTSMS 154].
Mathewson, David. 2003. Assessing Old Testament Allusions in the Book of
Revelation. EvQ 75(4):31 1-325.
Miner, Earl. 1 993. Allusion. In The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics.
Edited by Alex Preminger and T. V. F. Brogan. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Montgomery, James A. 1926. The Education of the Seer of the Apocalypse. JBL 45
(l/2):70-80.
Mounce, Robert H. 1997. The Book of Revelation. Rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
[NICNT].
Moyise, Steve, ed. 2000. The Old Testament in the New Testament. Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic [JSNTSup 115].
Muse, Robert L. 1986. Revelation 2-3: A Critical Analysis of Seven Prophe

Messages. JETS 29(2): 147-1 61.
Osborne, Grant R. 2002. Revelation. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic [BECNT].
Paul, Ian. 2000. The Use of the Old Testament in Revelation 12. Pages 256-
Moyise, ed. 2000.
Paulien, Jon. 2001. Dreading the Whirlwind: Intertextuality and the Use of t
Testament in Revelation. Andrews University Seminary Studies 39(1 ):5 - 22.
Pilch, John J. 1992. Lying and Deceit in the Letters to the Seven Churches: Perspe
from Cultural Anthropology. BTB 22(3): 126-1 35.
Porter, Stanley E. 1987. Why the Laodiceans Received Lukewarm Water (Rev
3:15-18). TynBul 38:143-149.
Prigent, Pierre. 1977. Hérésie Asiate et L'église Confessante de L'Apocalypse À I
VC 3 1(1): 1-22.
Lausanne: Delachaux et Niestle.
Ramsay, William Mitchell. 1904. The Letters of the Seven Churches of Asia and Their
Place in the Plan of the Apocalypse. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Rothschild, Clare K. 2012. Principle, Power, and Purgation in the Letter to the Church
in Laodicea (Rev 3:14-22). Pages 259-291 in Die Johannesapokalypse:
Kontext-Konzepte-Rezeption. Edited by Jörg Frey, James A. Kelhoffer, and
Franz Tóth. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck [WUNT 287].
Rudwick, M. J. S. 1957. The Lukewarmness of Laodicea (Rev. iii. 16). TynBul 3 (June):
. 2-3.
Rudwick, M. J. S., and E. M. B. Green. 1958. The Laodicean Lukewarmness. ExpTim

69(6): 176-1 78.
Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. 1977. Composition and Structure of the Book of
Revelation. CBQ 39(3):344-366.
Augsburg Fortress.
Scobie, Charles H. H. 1993. Local References in the Le
39(4):606-624.
Shea, William H. 1983. The Covenantal Form of the
Andrews University Seminary Studies 21(1):71 - 84.
Silberman, Lou H. 1963. Farewell to O AMHN: A N
215.
Smith, Barry D. n.d. Letter to the Hebrews, M

Interpretation. Cited 17 June 2014. Online: h
courses/newt estament/hebrews/Melch.htm#M22.
Strand, Kenneth A. 1978. Chiastic Structure and Some Motifs in the Book of
Revelation. Andrews University Seminary Studies 16(2):40 1-408.
Andrews University Seminary Studies 21(3):25 1-

Sutton, Ray R. 1987. That You May Prosper : Dom
Institute for Christian Economics.
Swete, Henry Barclay. 191 1. The Apocalypse of St. John. London: MacMillan.
Tarn, William Woodthorpe, and G. T. Griffith. 1952. Hellenistic Civilisation. 3d ed.

London: Arnold.
Thomas, Robert L. 1996. The "Comings'* of Christ in Revelation 2-3. Master's

Seminary Journal 7(2): 1 53-1 8 1 .
Thompson, Leonard L. 1997. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Trafton, Joseph L. 2005. Reading Revelation: A Literary and Theological Commentary.
Macon: Smyth & Helwys
Trudinger, L. Paul. 1972. O AMHN (Rev. Iii: 14), and the Case for a Semitic Original of
the Apocalypse. NovT 14(4):277-279.
Wiarda, Tim. 1995. Revelation 3:20: Imagery and Literary Context. JETS 38(2):203-
212.
Witherington III, Ben. 2003. Revelation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

[NCBC].
Wong, Daniel K. K. 1999. The Pillar and the Throne in Revelation 3:12, 21. BSac 156
(623):297-307.
Wood, Peter. 1962. Local Knowledge in the Letters of the Apocalypse. ExpTim
73(9):63-64.
Worth, Roland H. 1998. The Seven Cities of the Apocalypse and Roman Culture. New
York: Paulist Press.
York: Paulist Press.
Wright, N. T. 2012. Revelation and Christian Hope: Political Implications of the

Revelation to John. Pages 105-124 in Revelation and the Politics of Apocalyptic
Interpretation. Edited by Richard B. Hays and Stefan Alkier. Waco: Baylor
University Press.
timldecker@gmail.com
443 Buffalo Ridge Rd., Amherst, VA 24521, USA

Decker 2014 - Live Long in The Land The Covenantal Langage of The OT Allusions in Message To Laodicea PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Decker 2014 - Live Long in The Land The Covenantal Langage of The OT Allusions in Message To Laodicea PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

New Testament Society of Southern Africa

New Testament Society of Southern Africa is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,

in the Message to Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-22)

seven messages of Revelation contribute to the covenantal nature of

Without question, symbolism appears throughout the sev

1 The term "message" will be use to designate the seven units

Neotestamentica 48.2 (2014) 417-446

[I]f Revelation's meaning is intertextual (in relation to the Old

other hand, Revelation should not be reduced, by simplistic

discipline in its own right. From essays to articles, dissertations and

2 Overview of the Message to Laodicea

The rationale for treating the message to Laodicea is two-fold. First,

3 There have been excellent examples of studies conducted to identify covenantal

geographical situation of late first-century Laodicea. Many of these

While it is certain that these seven messages are presented in a v

The Laodicean indictment, however, is far more serious. According to

The greatest threat the hearers face is to be found unprepared to

3 Old Testament Allusions in the Message to Laodicea

The message to Laodicea exhibits striking OT allusions, albeit at times

3. 1 Allusions to the ruling/reigning/conquering and new creation

description in light of the concluding reference to Jesus as having already

3.1.1 Isaiah 43 and 65 in Revelation 3:14

[T]he grammatically awkward, enigmatic ó aļifļv in Rev. iii 14

allusions rather than a theological point of Jesus, wisdom, and creation.

The most recent argument posed for an OT source was by Greg

Table 1: Versional Comparison of Isaiah 65:16's "the God of Amen"

in the passage, the opposite idea of "wilderness" implying exile is present.

Table 2: Verbal and Thematic Parallels between Revelation 3:21 and

The one who c

as I also conquered The LORD sends forth from Zion your

< hq Kàyò évkriaa paßöov ÔDvájasòç god sbarco gts^sï

and sat down sit!

("I conquered") in 3:21. The command to sit parallels lexically t

Melchizedek and Ps 110 in Second-Temple literature. According

3.2 Allusions to the presence of God, promised land , and exile

In Lev 18 and 20 are three statements that influenced the imagery to

particular, the author of Leviticus repeatedly described the sin a

homosexuality and bestiality. Again, there is a repeated emphasis on

Table 3: Comparison between Revelation 3:17-18 with the Adam and

Gen 3:7, "Then

Gen 3:21, "And the LORD God made

The stipulations presented in the admonition strongly evoke a

communities rather than incurring the curses described in the book.

3.3 Allusions to familial/marital themes as a call to covenant renewal

permission to build a second provincial imperial temple, even thou

This seems to indicate that Loadicea's wealth was either overblown,

find the Song of Songs allegorised in Jewish apocalyptic literature

3.4 Conclusion of Old Testament allusions in the seventh messa

A 3:14; Jesus as ruler of new creation

The theme of ruling or reigning in new creation serves as a thematic

relationship of Jesus and his church.27 Should they comply, they w

4 Intratextual Fulfilment of the Old Testament Allusions

However, according to Hemer (2001), finding intratextual links with

[T]his letter [to Laodicea] stands comparatively apart from other

Melchizedekian priestly rule that was mediated in the Garden of Ed

Through the medium of OT allusions, John pictur

of an overlord mediating rule to his viceroy churches (suzerain-vassals).

Bandy, Alan S. 2007. The Prophetic Lawsuit in

Macrostructure. JSNT 3 1 (4):469-499.

Neot 45(2): 178-205.

Jewish Roots of Christological Monotheism

Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Academic [JSNTSup 166].