LESSON 5&6 – VOLCANIC HAZARDS

A volcano is a mountain or hill, typically

conical, having a crater or vent through
which lava, rock fragments, hot vapor, and
gas are being or have been erupted from the
earth’s crust. It is a mountain that opens
downward to a pool of molten rock below
the surface of the earth. When pressure
builds up, eruptions occur. It is formed
when magma from within the Earth’s
upper mantle works its way to the surface. Figure 5.2 shows different volcanoes around the
At the surface, it erupts to form lava flows world
and ash deposits. Over time as the volcano
continues to erupt, it will get bigger and bigger.
The scientist has categorized volcanoes into three main categories: active, dormant,
and extinct.
1. An active volcano has recently erupted and there is a possibility that it may
erupt soon.

Examples

Mount Merapi in Indonesia Mayon Volcano in Albay Philippines

2. A dormant volcano has not erupted in a long time, but there is a possibility it
can erupt in the future.

Examples

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 Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania Mount Natib in Bataan Philippines
Africa

3. An extinct volcano has erupted thousands of years ago, and there’s no

possibility of an eruption.
Examples

Mount Slemish in Co. Antrim Mount Thielsen in Oregon in the US

Volcanic hazards are observable facts that are arising due to volcanic activity such
as eruption. These have potential threat, for seeable crisis that directly affect to
human beings, animals, properties, infrastructure, tourism, and even political
stability to mention some within a specific period of time.
Volcanic eruption is one of the dangerous event that may happen because it
results to different hazards such as: Pyroclastic flows, Lava flows, Lahar, Volcanic
gases, Tephra falls, Ballistic projectiles and even Tsunami.

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 Various Volcanic –Related Hazards (Types of Hazards)
A. Pyroclastic Flow is a high density mixture
of dry and hot fragments of rocks and hot
gases that move away from the volcano vent
and move in high speed. This pyroclastic
flow may result from a non-explosive
eruption of lava when thick lava flow
collapses down a slope. It has two parts; the
Figure 5.3 Photograph of pyroclastic flow at
basal flow of fragments that are moving Mount Merapi on 15 June 2006. Photo
along the ground and a turbulent ash cloud courtesy of Merapi Volcano Observatory,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
that rises above the volcano’s basal flow.
Types of Pyroclastic Flow

a. Merapi type is a dome of viscous magma

(dacite, rhyolite) grows in the crater.
Eventually, it gets so large; it collapses under
gravity, producing a pyroclastic flow.

b. Pelee type a dome of viscous magma

(rhyolite, dacite) is blocking the conduit.
Eventually, it explodes under pressure,
blasting pyroclastic material down one of
the flanks of the volcano (Mont Pelee, 1902).
If it is extremely violent, it could produce a
lateral blast.
c. Soufriere type generated by the fountain
collapse of an eruption column after a
volcanic eruption the eruption column can no
longer be sustained (due to loss of pressure),
so the column collapses forming pyroclastic
flows on the flanks of the volcano (St Vincent,
1902). They tend to be cooler than the others.

Negative effects: Pyroclastic flows can destroy anything on its path by direct
impact. It burns sites with hot rocks debris. It burns forests, farmlands, destroys
crops and buildings.

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B. Lava Flows are streams of molten rocks that
are poured or oozed from an erupting vent
(Quebral 2016).
Lava flows rarely threaten human life because it
moves slowly. It is mostly characterized as quite
an effusion of lava.
Figure 5.3 Example of Lava flow

Types of Lava Flow

Lava flows are probably the most easily identifiable volcanic deposits. Lava
flows come in many but it takes just a little effort to recognize these. The
information below discussed the types of lava flows.

Basaltic lava: Low in silica, more runny/fluid,

allows more bubbles to expand on their way up
to the surface so preventing sudden explosions.
Therefore low gas content and gentle volcanoes.
This is the hottest lava type (1000, 1200 degrees
C). Basaltic lava was formed by melting of
mantle minerals mostly from upper zone but
some from core/ mantle boundary.

Andesitic lava: Not as hot as Basaltic (800 to 1000

degrees C), intermediate silica (60%) is very
viscous (which means the flow is slow), often
solidifying before reaching the surface and
trapping gases (3/4% content), leading to a
violent eruption on the surface.

Rhyolitic lava: The coolest of all lava types (650-800 degrees C) Very high in
silica (70%) extremely viscous (N.B high viscosity traps gases- gas content is
higher 4-6%). Rhyolitic lava was formed from melting lithospheric mantle and
slabs of the previously subducted plate.

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 Negative effects: It may instigate other types of
hazards such as pyroclastic flow. It damages
the properties, agricultural lands, and even
human lives by burying, burning everything in
their path.

C. Lahar is an Indonesian term that describes

a hot or cold mixture of water and rock
fragments flowing down the slopes of a
volcano and river valleys.

Figure 5.4 Typhoon Ulysses trigger lahar flows

which affected the properties of the Taal
How are lahars generated? residencies.
Many lahars are formed by intense rainfall
during an eruption. Rainwater can easily erode loose volcanic material
deposited on the volcano's upper slopes or
along the path of a river on its way down the
slopes. Lahars can occur not only during
eruptions. Lahars can occur right after or even
long after an eruption, especially if there is
heavy rainfall.

Negative effects: Large lahars can crush,

abrade, bury, or carry away almost anything in
their paths. Buildings and valuable land may be
partially or completely buried. By destroying
Figure 5.5 In August 1991, 2 months after
bridges and roads, lahars can also trap people
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, exploded in a in areas vulnerable to other hazardous volcanic
cataclysmic volcanic eruption, this house (see
roof) along the Sacobia-Bamban River 15 activity, especially if the lahars leave fresh
miles from the volcano was buried by a fast-
moving mudflow of volcanic ash and debris
deposits that are too deep, too soft, or too hot to
(lahar) caused by heavy rains. Inset photo
shows the house before it was buried.

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cross.

D. Volcanic Gases Magma contains dissolved

gases that provide the driving force that causes
most volcanic eruptions. As magma rises
towards the surface and pressure decreases,
gases are released from the liquid portion of the Figure 5.6 Volcanic Gases
magma (melt) and continue to travel upward
and are eventually released into the atmosphere (Quebral 2016).
Negative effects: These gases are potentially hazardous to all living things,
agriculture, and property.
The Carbon dioxide that is held in low-lying areas can be detrimental to humans
and animals. Sulfur dioxide is also lethal to human beings; it irritates the eyes
and skin and can cause respiratory tract infections. In addition to this, Sulfur
oxide, when reacted with water in the atmosphere, its product would be acid
rain; the Hydrogen sulfide in a high concentration would be toxic too.
E. Tephra Falls - Tephra (Greek, for ash) is a generic term for any airborne
pyroclastic accumulation that refers to volcanic
rock and lava materials ejected into the air by
explosions or carried upward by the eruption
column’s hot gases or lava fountains.

Negative effects: Endanger life and property;

kills organisms both on land and in water; causes Figure 5.7 Example of Lava flow
respiratory tract problem to human beings; ruins machines in the industries and
aircraft; can also damage roofing at home, in addition to it break power and
communication lines, ash, and very hot gases. They flow very fast down in
volcanic slopes.
F. Ballistic projectile are rock fragments that are
ejected from the volcano’s mouth that are comparable
to cannonballs. These reach its projectile up to 5
kilometers or 3 miles.

Figure 5.8 Example of Ballistic

projectile

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 Ballistic projectiles are ejected from the volcanic vent
at an angle. The wind direction influences the
distribution of tephra falling out of the eruption
cloud.

Negative effects: Endanger life and property

What are some benefits of volcanic eruptions?

Over geologic time, volcanic eruptions and related processes have directly and
indirectly benefited mankind:

Volcanic materials ultimately break down and weather to form some of the most
fertile soils on Earth, cultivation of which has produced abundant food and
fostered civilizations.

The internal heat associated with young volcanic systems has been harnessed to
produce geothermal energy.

Most of the metallic minerals mined in the world--such as copper, gold, silver,
lead, and zinc--are associated with magmas found deep within the roots of extinct
volcanoes.

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING VOLCANIC ERUPTION

Volcanic eruption is one of the most dangerous natural events because of the
different hazards that it may bring as discussed above. While volcanoes may give
off several warning signs they are about to blow, some are taken more seriously
by volcanologists who alert and advise government officials regarding when
evacuations need to take place. These early warning signs make it easier for people
to prepare and prevent damages to properties and loss of lives.

Here are the 10 Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption:

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1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with
rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors.

Volcanic earthquakes serve as an early warning sign

for an impending eruption, as well as well as a
marker for the location of a moving magma and
sudden rise of gases. Earthquakes are caused by the
magma breaking through rocks or by moving
through rock cracks.

2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam

emission from white to gray due to entrained ash.
Steam occurs mostly on active volcanoes. Presence of
steam signals that magma is lying relatively close to
the surface of the volcano. Steam is produced when
groundwater and magma or any ignited fragment of
rock interacts. Meanwhile, ash is one of the fragments
of magma produced when magma is ejected with great
force. Presence of ashes signals that the magma is
being ejected violently.

3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the

crater.Crater glow can be observed when the magma
finally reaches the surface, and thus referred as lava.

4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground

fissuring due to magma intrusion.
Moving magma, gases, and other volcanic fluids
tend to cause the surface of the Earth to bulge
upward (inflate) or spread apart which can
eventually lead to ground fissuring or cracking.

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5. Localized landslides, rock falls and
landslides from the summit area which not
attributable to heavy rains.
Landslide is the movement of rocks and soil
influenced by the force of gravity, strength of
the material, and steepness of a volcano. As
magma rises together with volcanic gases,
rocks are altered and weakened.

6. Noticeable increase in the

extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano’s
upper slopes.
As the magma rises, the temperature of the volcano
also increases. The heat brought by the rising magma
if high enough, can dry up the vegetation.

7. Increase in the
temperature of hot springs, wells crater lake near the
volcano. (Ijen Volcano)
Again, as the magma rises, the temperature of the
volcano also increases. The heat brought by the rising
magma influences and causes the temperature of
the springs, wells, or lake to increase.
8. Noticeable variation in
the chemical content of
springs, crater lakes within the vicinity of the volcano.
Groundwater deep within the surface of the
volcano interacts with magma, volcanic gases, host
rocks, and even with other water coming from
springs, lakes, wells. Presence of certain
compounds signals the presence of magma such as
magmatic carbon dioxide, or high helium isotopes.

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9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano.
As mentioned, rising magma generates quakes
and tremors which may cause ground
deformation (cracks or fissures) on the surface.
This may cause the water from springs or well to
recede and seep through these cracks. Also, as
the magma rise, the temperature of the surface of
the volcano also increases and if high enough,
may cause the drying up of the springs and wells.

10. Development of new thermal areas and/or

reactivation of old ones; appearance of solfataras.
Development of new thermal areas and/or
reactivation of old ones signals the active
movement of magma within the volcano as it
interacts with groundwater or rocks.

Therefore, it is important to be able to observe

warning signs of volcanic unrest so that people can evacuate in time, and minimize
injuries and casualties. It is important to be able to monitor a volcano’s activity,
and this is normally done with the aid of different tools or instruments to monitor
the different parameters.

What to Do When There is a Volcanic Eruption?

BEFORE VOLCANIC ERUPTION

• Stay alert and stay tuned-in to the radio and

television for hazard updates.
• Close all the doors and windows. This will prevent or
reduce ashes from getting inside your house when
there is an unexpected ash fall.

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• Bring your animals into closed areas/ shelters.
• Know the evacuation plan of your local community
and listen to the authorities for instructions.
• Keep your survival kit with you or within your
reach.
• Avoid staying at low areas that are prone to rock
falls and lava falls.
• Prepare for possible evacuation.
• Know the areas that are at risk from volcano
hazards.
• Know your local community emergency early
warnings signals.
• Make and keep a list of emergency hotlines like those of the Philippine Red
Cross and the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council.
• If you are in a high-risk area, do a pre-emptive evacuation.

DURING VOLCANIC ERUPTION

• Stay awake and alert.

• Listen to and follow the instructions given by the
authorities in your area.
• If caught by rock fall, protect your head and get away
from the affected areas as soon as possible.
• Cover your nose with a wet cloth to protect it from
ashes falling on the area.
• Wear long-sleeved shirts and pants.
• Wear goggles and eyeglasses to protect your eyes from
the ashes.
• Never attempt to run a vehicle because this can stir-up
volcanic ashes.
• If trapped, call for rescue immediately.

AFTER ERUPTION

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• Clear the pathways and canals from ashes debris.
• Stay tuned-in to news update.
• Stay away from damaged power lines.
• Check for injured and trapped persons without
entering directly into the damaged area. Call for
rescue if there are trapped persons.

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