NAME 

           : Bamey Ganado

SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
 Introduction to Pharmacology: Understanding the Basics of Drug Action

I. Definition of Pharmacology

The study of medications and their effects on living beings is known as pharmacology. It is a
subfield of biomedical science concerned with the discovery, development, and use of
pharmaceuticals for disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Pharmacology is an
interdisciplinary science that incorporates components of chemistry, biology, physiology, and
pathology to better understand drug-body interactions. The purpose of pharmacology is to
provide safe and effective pharmaceuticals that can enhance people's health and quality of life.
Depending on the kind and severity of the illness, treatment options may include medication,
hormone replacement therapy, or surgery.

II. Drug Sources

A. Natural sources of drugs: Natural sources of drugs include plants, animals, and
microorganisms. Many of the drugs used today were originally derived from natural sources,
such as aspirin from willow bark, penicillin from mold, and morphine from opium poppies.

B. Synthetic sources of drugs: Synthetic sources of drugs refer to drugs that are chemically
synthesized in a laboratory. These drugs are created by altering the chemical structure of
naturally occurring compounds or by designing entirely new compounds. Examples of synthetic
drugs include most antibiotics, statins, and antipsychotics.

C. Semi-synthetic sources of drugs: Semi-synthetic sources of drugs refer to drugs that are
derived from natural sources but are chemically modified to improve their effectiveness,
stability, or other properties. Examples of semi-synthetic drugs include amoxicillin, oxycodone,
and methadone.

III. Drug Administration

Drug administration refers to the process of delivering a drug into the body. There are various
routes of drug administration, and the choice of route depends on the drug, the patient's
condition, and the desired therapeutic effect.

A. Routes of drug administration:

1. Oral route: This is the most common route of drug administration and involves
swallowing a drug in tablet, capsule, or liquid form.
2. Parenteral route: This refers to any route of administration that bypasses the digestive
system, such as injection, intravenous infusion, or inhalation.
3. Topical route: This involves applying a drug directly to the skin or mucous membrane,
such as a cream, ointment, or patch.
4. Transdermal route: This refers to the application of a drug through a patch that delivers
the drug across the skin and into the bloodstream.
NAME            : Bamey Ganado
SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
5. Rectal route: This involves inserting a drug into the rectum, either as a suppository or
enema.

B. Factors affecting drug absorption:

1. Drug solubility and stability

2. Dosage form
3. Blood flow to the site of administration
4. Presence of food or other drugs in the digestive system

C. Factors affecting drug distribution:

1. Blood flow to the tissues

2. Drug solubility
3. Protein binding
4. Blood-brain barrier and placental barrier.

IV. Pharmacokinetics

The study of how medications are absorbed, transported, metabolized, and eliminated by the
body is known as pharmacokinetics. Understanding pharmacokinetics is crucial because it aids in
the prediction of pharmacological effects, the optimization of dosage regimens, and the
avoidance of drug toxicity.

A. Definition of pharmacokinetics: Pharmacokinetics refers to the time course and extent of drug
exposure in the body, and the factors that influence this exposure.

B. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME):

1. Absorption: This refers to the process by which a drug enters the bloodstream from its
site of administration.
2. Distribution: This refers to the movement of a drug from the bloodstream into the tissues
and organs of the body.
3. Metabolism: This refers to the process by which a drug is broken down and transformed
into metabolites by enzymes in the liver and other organs.
4. Excretion: This refers to the elimination of a drug and its metabolites from the body
through the kidneys, liver, lungs, or other routes.

C. Factors affecting pharmacokinetics:

1. Age, sex, and body weight

2. Genetics
3. Liver and kidney function
4. Presence of other drugs or substances in the body.
NAME            : Bamey Ganado
SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
V. Pharmacodynamics

Pharmacodynamics is is the study of pharmacological action mechanisms and the link between
drug concentration and bodily effect. Understanding pharmacodynamics is crucial since it helps
in determining the best dosage, duration, and mode of administration for a medicine.

A. The study of how medications interact with the body at the molecular, cellular, and
organismal levels to create their effects is known as pharmacodynamics.

B. Drug receptors and mechanism of action:

1. Receptors: These are proteins or other molecules in the body that bind to drugs and
initiate a response.
2. Mechanism of action: This refers to the specific biochemical and physiological processes
by which a drug produces its effects.

C. Agonists and antagonists:

1. Agonists: These are drugs that activate or enhance the activity of a receptor, leading to a
physiological response.
2. Antagonists: These are drugs that block or inhibit the activity of a receptor, preventing or
reducing the physiological response.

D. Therapeutic index: The therapeutic index is a measure of the safety and effectiveness of a
drug, calculated as the ratio of the dose that produces a therapeutic effect to the dose that
produces toxicity. Drugs with a high therapeutic index are considered safer than drugs with a low
therapeutic index.

VI. Drug Development and Approval

Drug development and approval is a complex process that involves several stages, including
preclinical research, clinical trials, and regulatory review. The goal of drug development and
approval is to ensure that drugs are safe, effective, and of high quality before they are made
available to patients.

A. Preclinical research:

1. Drug discovery: This involves identifying potential drug candidates through various
methods, such as screening natural or synthetic compounds for their biological activity.
2. Preclinical testing: This involves testing the safety and efficacy of the drug in laboratory
animals before it is tested in humans.

B. Clinical trials:
NAME            : Bamey Ganado
SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
1. Phase I: This involves testing the drug in a small group of healthy volunteers to evaluate
its safety and pharmacokinetics.
2. Phase II: This involves testing the drug in a larger group of patients with the target
disease to evaluate its efficacy and optimal dose.
3. Phase III: This involves testing the drug in an even larger group of patients to confirm its
efficacy and safety compared to standard treatments or placebo.
4. Phase IV: This involves post-marketing surveillance of the drug's safety and effectiveness
in a large patient population.

C. Regulatory review:

1. Investigational New Drug (IND) application: This is submitted to the regulatory agency,
such as the FDA, to request permission to begin clinical trials.
2. New Drug Application (NDA): This is submitted to the regulatory agency to request
approval to market the drug based on the results of the clinical trials.
3. Post-marketing surveillance: This involves monitoring the safety and effectiveness of the
drug after it has been approved and marketed.

D. Drug pricing and reimbursement:

1. Drug pricing: This refers to the price set by the drug manufacturer for the drug.
2. Reimbursement: This refers to the amount paid for the drug by insurance companies or
government programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid.

VII. Adverse Drug Reactions

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are unwanted or harmful effects that occur after a person takes a
drug. ADRs can range from mild to severe, and can occur with any drug. Understanding ADRs is
important because they can affect the safety and effectiveness of drug therapy.

A. Types of ADRs:

1. Type A: These are predictable, dose-dependent ADRs that are related to the
pharmacological actions of the drug.
2. Type B: These are unpredictable, idiosyncratic ADRs that are not related to the
pharmacological actions of the drug.
3. Type C: These are chronic ADRs that occur after prolonged drug therapy.
4. Type D: These are ADRs related to drug interactions or drug toxicity.
5. Type E: These are ADRs related to drug withdrawal or rebound effects.

B. Factors influencing ADRs:

1. Patient factors: Age, sex, genetics, underlying medical conditions, and concomitant drug
therapy.
NAME            : Bamey Ganado
SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
2. Drug factors: Dose, route of administration, frequency of administration, and duration of
therapy.
3. Environmental factors: Exposure to toxins or other environmental factors that can interact
with the drug.

C. Reporting and management of ADRs:

1. Reporting: Healthcare professionals and patients are encouraged to report suspected

ADRs to regulatory agencies to improve drug safety.
2. Management: ADRs may be managed by reducing the dose or frequency of the drug,
discontinuing the drug, or switching to a different drug. In severe cases, medical
intervention may be necessary.

VIII. Pharmacovigilance

Pharmacovigilance is the science and practice of detecting, assessing, comprehending, and

preventing adverse effects or other drug-related concerns. It is vital for guaranteeing the safety
and efficacy of pharmaceuticals, as well as for preserving public health.

A. Goals of pharmacovigilance:

1. Detection of new and known ADRs

2. Assessment of the severity, frequency, and risk factors of ADRs
3. Understanding of the mechanisms of ADRs
4. Prevention and reduction of ADRs
5. Promotion of the safe and rational use of drugs

B. Pharmacovigilance activities:

1. Spontaneous reporting: Healthcare professionals and patients are encouraged to report

suspected ADRs to regulatory agencies, such as the FDA or EMA.
2. Active surveillance: This involves the systematic collection of data on drug use and
ADRs through electronic health records, patient registries, or other data sources.
3. Post-marketing studies: These studies are conducted after a drug has been approved and
marketed to evaluate its safety and effectiveness in a larger patient population.
4. Risk management: This involves the development and implementation of strategies to
minimize the risks associated with a drug, such as risk evaluation and mitigation
strategies (REMS).
5. Signal detection: This involves the identification of potential safety concerns or new
ADRs through data mining or other statistical methods.

C. Importance of pharmacovigilance:

1. Protects public health by ensuring the safety and effectiveness of drugs

2. Facilitates early detection and prevention of ADRs
NAME            : Bamey Ganado
SEMESTER   : 2nd SEMESTER,2023
COURSE        : HUMAN BIOLOGY BL133
3. Promotes rational and safe use of drugs
4. Provides valuable information for regulatory decision-making and drug development
5. Enhances public confidence in the healthcare system and the pharmaceutical industry.

IX. Conclusion

Finally, pharmacology is the study of medications and their effects on the human body. It covers
a broad variety of issues, including medication development and approval, adverse drug
reactions, and pharmacovigilance. Understanding these subjects is critical for healthcare
practitioners to guarantee safe and effective medication usage, as well as for patients to make
educated healthcare choices. As new medications are produced and released into the market,
continual research and pharmacovigilance operations are required to assure their safety and
efficacy. Working collaboratively, healthcare professionals, regulatory authorities, and patients
may enhance medication safety and sensible usage, therefore improving public health..