Total Compressor Course PDF

MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE
COMPRESSORS
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-MN-SM120
Revision 0
Field Operations Training
Mechanical Maintenance
Compressors
MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE
COMPRESSORS
SUMMARY
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................4
2. COMPRESSED AIR ........................................................................................................5
2.1. GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING AIR.......................................................6
2.1.1. Pressure ............................................................................................................7
2.1.2. Temperature......................................................................................................8
2.1.3. Relative humidity ...............................................................................................9
2.2. THE BASIC LAWS OF COMPRESSED AIR...........................................................10
2.2.1. Fundamental law .............................................................................................10
2.2.2. Air flow-rate .....................................................................................................10
2.2.3. Pressure losses...............................................................................................11
2.3. PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR.................................................................12
2.3.1. What happens when air is compressed?.........................................................12
2.3.2. Compressors ...................................................................................................13
2.3.3. The reservoir ...................................................................................................15
2.3.4. Air driers ..........................................................................................................15
2.3.4.1. Adsorption driers ........................................................................................15
2.3.4.2. Refrigeration type drier...............................................................................18
2.3.5. Filters...............................................................................................................19
2.3.5.1. Filtration of solids .......................................................................................20
2.3.5.2. Filtration of oil (and water)..........................................................................21
2.3.6. Condensate bleed valves ................................................................................21
2.3.7. The separator ..................................................................................................22
2.4. CONTAMINANTS IN COMPRESSED AIR..............................................................23
2.5. LIMITATION OF CONDENSATES ..........................................................................24
2.5.1. Spiral compressor ...........................................................................................24
2.5.2. Oil-free screw-type compressor.......................................................................25
3. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS...............................................................................26
4. VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS ..................................................................................28
4.1. PISTON TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS.............................................28
4.1.1. Composition of a piston type compressor........................................................30
4.1.1.1. Piston / cylinder / valve system ..................................................................30
4.1.2. The basic single-stage compressor .................................................................36
4.1.2.1. The compression cycle ..............................................................................38
4.1.2.2. Compression ratio ......................................................................................39
4.1.2.3. Resulting flow-rate: ....................................................................................40
4.1.2.4. Volume efficiency: ......................................................................................40
4.1.2.5. Limits of the single-cylinder compressor ....................................................41
4.1.3. The multi-stage compressor ............................................................................43
4.1.3.1. Compression ratio ......................................................................................43
4.1.3.2. The flow-rate ..............................................................................................44
4.1.3.3. Production of heat ......................................................................................45
4.1.3.4. Production of metal particles ......................................................................45
Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR
Latest Revised: 17/04/2008 Page 2 / 103
Compressors
4.1.3.5. Production of oil .........................................................................................45

4.1.3.6. Production of water ....................................................................................45
4.1.3.7. Condensates ..............................................................................................46
4.1.4. The cooling function ........................................................................................46
4.1.4.1. Natural air cooling ......................................................................................48
4.1.4.2. Forced air cooling.......................................................................................48
4.1.4.3. "Water" cooling...........................................................................................49
4.2. DIAPHRAGM TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR.......................................50
4.3. HELICAL COMPRESSORS ....................................................................................51
4.3.1. The screw compressor ....................................................................................52
4.3.1.1. Construction of dual rotor compressors .....................................................54
4.3.2. Lobe Compressor ............................................................................................58
4.4. ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR............................................................................59
4.5. LIQUID RING COMPRESSOR................................................................................61
4.6. SPIRAL (OR SCROLL) COMPRESSOR.................................................................62
5. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS .........................................................................................64
5.1. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS..........................................................................66
5.1.1. Constitutive elements of a centrifugal compressor ..........................................67
5.1.1.1. The wheel...................................................................................................67
5.1.1.2. The guide vane assembly ..........................................................................69
5.1.1.3. The diffuser ................................................................................................69
5.1.1.4. The scroll....................................................................................................69
5.1.1.5. The divergent nozzle..................................................................................69
5.1.2. Operation of a centrifugal compressor.............................................................71
5.1.3. Multi-stage centrifugal compressor..................................................................74
5.1.4. Seal packings on dynamic compressors .........................................................77
5.1.4.1. Mechanical contact packings .....................................................................78
5.1.4.2. Dry packings (tandem type) .......................................................................78
5.1.5. Lubrication.......................................................................................................79
5.1.6. Barrel compressor ...........................................................................................81
5.1.7. SPLIT compressor...........................................................................................82
5.2. AXIAL COMPRESSORS.........................................................................................83
5.3. SURGING ...............................................................................................................86
5.3.1. Definition .........................................................................................................88
5.3.2. Consequences ................................................................................................88
5.3.3. Conditions that trigger surging.........................................................................89
5.3.4. Why is surging destructive?.............................................................................90
5.3.5. How can surging be avoided? .........................................................................91
6. TROUBLESHOOTING...................................................................................................92
6.1. CAUSES OF PROBLEMS ON CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS .........................92
6.2. CAUSES OF PROBLEMS ON RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS ....................95
7. CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................99
8. FIGURES.....................................................................................................................100
9. TABLES .......................................................................................................................103

Compressors
1. OBJECTIVES
An initial approach to the different types of air compressor is also provided in the operator
courses.
This course essentially concerns the maintenance and operation of air compressors, and
the course starts with a chapter on compressed air.

Compressors
2. COMPRESSED AIR
A mechanical compressor is a mechanical component designed to increase the pressure
of a fluid by means or a purely mechanical process.
When the fluid is a gas, the compressor is called a "compressor", but when it is a liquid,
the appropriate term is "pump".
Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a fluid and also enable it to be
conveyed through a pipe. As gases are compressible, compressors also reduce the
volume of the compressed gas and may be used purely for this purpose (filling of gas
cylinders, etc.).
At a microscopic level, a gas is described as a number of molecules with very weak

connections, and which are practically independent.
From a macroscopic point of view, matter in gaseous state is characterised by the

following criteria:
A gas does not have a shape of its

own.
A gas does not have a volume of its

own, it always occupies the entire
volume available.
Any pure matter can be in three different states

(or phases):
Solid
Liquid
Gaseous
Figure 1: An air compressor
The change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is called vaporisation. The vapour
matter is then given a qualification (e.g. water vapour).
The density of matter reaches its minimum value in gaseous state. It decreases under the
effect of a pressure decrease (Gay-Lussac's Law and Charles' Law) or of a temperature
increase (this is gas expansion).
The chaotic movements of the molecules that make up the matter mean that the matter
has no shape. They enable it to occupy the entire closed space in which the matter is
contained.

Compressors
Air is a mixture of gases that can be obtained free of charge. It is used in three main
services:
Service air: Operating pressure 7 to 10 bars, de-oiled and partially de-

humidified, it enables the operation of pneumatic tools, servomotors and
actuators for regulating valves.
Instrument air: supplies the control and regulation systems for small valves.
Process air: used in processes that involve high air flow-rates, such as the
stirring of liquids, pneumatic transport, separation of air, wind tunnels, etc.
Compressed gases are often

flammable (natural gas, mixture
of hydrocarbons, hydrogen) or
poisonous (H2S, CO). They are
to be handled with care, and the
safety and sealing aspects are
paramount.
Figure 2: Gas compressor
2.1. GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING AIR
Air is a mixture of gases. The main gases that make up air are:
Nitrogen > 78 %
Oxygen > 21 %
Inert gases (argon, neon, helium) and hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour > 1 %
The density of air is 1.293 kg/m3
Air is present in our environment in unlimited quantities.
Its quality is variable because air contains water, oil, dust, etc.
Compressed air is easy to convey through pipes.

Compressors
It is relatively insensitive to changes in temperature.
Air outlets and leaks generate very little pollution.
It is ideal for use in explosive environments.
Its compressibility property is close to that of perfect gases: P.v/t = constant
Air is characterised by three factors:
Pressure.
Temperature.
Humidity.
2.1.1. Pressure
Pressure is the ratio between a force and a defined surface.
The pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure used in the International System (SI), but the bar is
the unit that is most often used in industrial applications.
1 bar = 105 Pa
The normal atmospheric pressure of air is 1.013 bars at sea level (0 metres altitude).
This is used as the reference in the measurement of pressures, but it varies with altitude.
For tests and measurements, it is preferable to use bars absolute, which correspond to an
absolute pressure.
Pabs = Patm + Prel
Pabs: absolute pressure

Prel: relative pressure
Patm: atmospheric pressure

Compressors
Figure 3: Different pressures
2.1.2. Temperature
The unit used for temperature in the international system (SI) is the kelvin (K).
The following formula enables temperature values in kelvins to be obtained from

temperatures in degrees Celsius (°C), which are the most commonly used units:
T = t + 273.15
T: absolute temperature (K)

t: temperature (°C)
The Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale is also used to read temperatures in the
United States and in certain English-speaking countries.
Here are a few equivalent values provided as examples. Just take the
temperature in °F, subtract 32 and then divide the result by 9/5ths (1.8).
For example:
For 50 °F, the calculation is > 50 – 32 = 18, then 18 / 1.8 = 10, so 50 °F = 10 °C
0 °C = 32 °F 20 °C = 68 °F
5 °C = 41 °F 25 °C = 77 °F
10 °C = 50 °F 30 °C = 86 °F
In these units, water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F.

Compressors
The following is a small table showing the conversion formulae between the various
temperature units.
Conversion from To Formula
Fahrenheit Celsius °C = (°F − 32) / 1.8
Celsius Fahrenheit °F = °C × 1.8 + 32
Fahrenheit Kelvin K = (°F − 32) / 1.8 + 273.15
Kelvin Fahrenheit °F = (K − 273.15) × 1.8 + 32
Kelvin Celsius °C = (K - 273.15)
2.1.3. Relative humidity
The percentage of relative humidity is the ratio between:
The quantity of water vapour contained in a certain volume of air.
The quantity of water that corresponds to the saturation of that same volume of
air (saturation results in the condensation of the excess water vapour).
The maximum quantity of water that a certain volume of air can absorb increases with
temperature.
The presence of humidity in natural gas can cause freezing of the pipelines and
their valves. When humidity comes into contact with the impurities of natural gas, such as
H2S and CO2, it forms a corrosive mixture which reduces the service life of the equipment.
Particularly at the openings and bends of the pipeline, where pressure drops are likely to
occur, the expansion of the gas followed by a drop in temperature can result in the
formation of hydrates which restrict the flow-rate of the gas. Humidity also reduces the
energy content (BTU) of the gas, thus reducing its quality and its value.

Compressors
2.2. THE BASIC LAWS OF COMPRESSED AIR
2.2.1. Fundamental law
Mariotte and Gay-Lussac's Law is the most significant in the field of industrial pneumatics:
P.V=a.T
P: absolute pressure (Pa)

V: volume (m3)
T: absolute temperature (K)
a: constant
This relationship is used by the compressor: a constant volume of air is drawn into the
compressor, of which the volume decreases. This reduction of volume causes an increase
in the pressure and temperature of the air drawn in.
Figure 4: Effect of volume on pressure and temperature
2.2.2. Air flow-rate
Air flow-rate is the quantity of compressed air that passes through a given cross-sectional
area per unit of time.
Q = A1 . V1 + A2 . V2
Q: flow-rate (m3/s)
A: cross-sectional area (m2)
V: velocity (m/s)
Figure 5: Air passing

Compressors
The SI units are cubic metres per second (m3/s), but l/s or m3/h are also used.
Flow-rate is a function of many factors, particularly air pressure, the material used, and the
length and inside diameter of the pipe through which the compressed air is conveyed.
2.2.3. Pressure losses
When a fluid flows through a straight pipe, the flow can be in either of two regimes, the
laminar regime or the turbulent regime, depending on the Reynolds number R.
Figure 6: Types of flow
The Reynolds number is the most important dimensionless quantity in fluid

dynamics. It was discovered in 1883 by Osborne Reynolds. It characterises a flow,
and particularly the nature of its regime (laminar, transient, turbulent, etc.).
Compressed air in pipework is subject to the turbulent regime.
This turbulence causes friction, which resists the circulation of the compressed air in the
tubes. Furthermore, the internal walls of the pipes are more or less rough.
These factors, associated with a high flow-rate, cause pressure losses. This is the
pressure loss caused by friction due the motion of a fluid in a tube.

Compressors
2.3. PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR
First of all, here is a typical representation of a compressed air installation.
Figure 7: Typical system
2.3.1. What happens when air is compressed?
Compressed air is clean, safe, simple and efficient.
When air is compressed, there is no risk of any dangerous gases of other noxious
products escaping.
It is an energy source that is not combustible and does not pollute.
Air has an atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. When it is mechanically compressed by a

compressor, its pressure is increased.
This transformation is determined by the laws of thermodynamics. These laws state that
an increase in pressure is equal to a rise in temperature, and that compressing air creates
an increase in heat, so when air is compressed this creates a proportional rise in heat.
Boyle's law explains that if a volume of gas (air) is reduced by half when it is compressed,
the pressure is consequently doubled.
Charles' law links the pressure and temperature of a gas contained in a constant volume.

Compressors
If any one of these values changes, the other two also change according to the following
equation:
(P1 V1) / T1 = (P2 V2) / T2
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature of the gas
1 = Initial state before the change
2 = Final state after the change
Figure 8: Compression of air
By applying this formula to a compressor, the volume of air (or the flow-rate) and the air
pressure can be controlled and raised to a level as required for the target application.
2.3.2. Compressors
Compressed air can be produced using two methods:
Dynamic compression (transformation of the velocity of the air into pressure):

centrifugal compressors and axial compressors.
Figure 9: Centrifugal compressor and axial compressor
Volumetric compression (reduction of volume using a compressing element):

reciprocating compressors (usually of the piston type) and rotary compressors
(screw compressors, vane compressors, gear compressors and liquid ring
compressors).

Compressors
Figure 10: Piston-type reciprocating compressors
Figure 11: Screw compressor, vane compressor and liquid ring compressor
There are obviously many types of compressor. Each family of compressors comprises a
number of variants. The following diagram shows the major families of compressors.
Figure 12: Different compressors

Compressors
2.3.3. The reservoir
Compressed air is stored in a reservoir.
This reservoir enables air to be momentarily supplied

at a flow-rate that is greater than that supplied by the
compressor, a practically constant air pressure to be
maintained in the system, the compressed air to be
cooled and the condensates to be recovered.
Figure 13: Air reservoir
Reservoirs can be vertical or horizontal.
2.3.4. Air driers
Compressed air contains water vapour. It therefore needs to

be dried. An air drier is used for this operation.
Its purpose is to reduce the water vapour content of the

compressed air. This water vapour can indeed be seriously
detrimental to the system and to the end equipment that uses
the compressed air.
To remove the water vapour contained in the compressed air,

the air driers used are generally of the refrigeration or
adsorption type.
Figure 14: Air drier
In cases where a dew point of +2 °C under pressure is satisfactory, the choice will
normally be a refrigeration type drier.
Conversely, when negative dew points are required, adsorption driers will normally be
used.
2.3.4.1. Adsorption driers
This type of drier uses the properties of certain desiccants (phenomenon in which the
water contained in certain products is lost) such as activated aluminium oxide, a molecular
filter or silicagel, which attract molecules of water and therefore dry the compressed air.

Compressors
Molecular filter type driers are those which provide the best results. They usually consist of
two columns.
The two columns are filled with a desiccant material and the compressed air is fed into
column B, where the water vapour is absorbed by the desiccant.
At the same time, the desiccant in column A is

regenerated by a back-flow of air that has already
been dehydrated, tapped from the output of
column B.
Before the desiccant in column B becomes

saturated with water, a system of valves controlled
by the control system reverses the air flow. It is
now column A that dries the air, whereas
column B switches to the regeneration phase. The
air bleed is interrupted to reduce the energy
consumption to a minimum. The cycle does not
reverse as long as the required dew point is
maintained at the output. The alternating drying
and regeneration cycles enable a continuous flow
of dehydrated air to be maintained.
Figure 15: Operation of the adsorption type drier
The dew point obtained (dew point is a meteorological

value calculated using humidity, pressure and temperature:
the dew point of air is the temperature at which the water
vapour in the air begins to condense) depends essentially
on the regeneration and on the contact time between the
compressed air and the adsorbent material. It is generally
between -20 °C and -70 °C.
Figure 16: Adsorption type drier
The regeneration of the desiccant can be carried out by

flushing with dry air or by applying heat to the "inactive"
column.
In the case where dry-air flushing is used, approximately 20 % of the nominal output flow
of the drier is used and therefore rejected to the atmosphere. In modern driers, the
addition of a hygrometer can enable the length of the cycles to be increased, and this
consumption is therefore reduced.

Compressors
Functional diagram of an adsorption type air drier:
Figure 17: Diagram of an adsorption type air drier
Single-column adsorption type driers also exist.
Figure 18: Single-column drier

Compressors
2.3.4.2. Refrigeration type drier
This type of drier cools the compressed air and thus causes condensation. The liquid
water formed in this way is recovered by a water separator, and the dried compressed air
is channelled to the system.
An air/air heat exchanger usually heats the air when it

leaves the drier, to prevent condensation on the
compressed air pipes.
The dew point at the pressure obtained is in the region of

+3 °C.
Figure 19: Refrigeration type air drier
Two separate systems need to be considered in this type

of drier:
The air system
The coolant system
Figure 20: Operation of a refrigeration type drier
Air system:
The incoming compressed air (A) is pre-cooled in an air/air heat exchanger (B). It
then passes through the air/coolant heat exchanger (C), where its temperature is
reduced to +3 °C.
The condensates are separated from the air and are automatically evacuated by the
water separator (D).

Compressors
Before leaving the drier (E), the cooled air passes through the air/air heat
exchanger a second time, where it is heated.
Coolant system:
From the compressor (F), the coolant gas is channelled to the condenser (G).
A high-capacity fan or a cooling-water system enables the gas to change to liquid

phase.
A relief valve (H) regulates the passage of the liquid phase fluid into the heat
exchanger (C), where it evaporates and absorbs the heat from the compressed air.
The compressor then raises the pressure again and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 21: Functional diagram of a refrigeration type drier
2.3.5. Filters
The quality of the compressed air is defined according to the application. Generally
speaking, it is essential to dehydrate the compressed air in order to protect the
installations from water condensation.
The filters limit the concentration of particles, oil and water which are entrained by the
compressed air into the system.
Additional treatment by de-oiling filters or particle filters will depend on the technology of
the equipment, but also on the profile of the compressed air production installation.
Compressors
Filters have different ways of intercepting particles to be retained.
Direct interception: The larger particles are retained because they are larger
than the distance between 2 fibres.
Inertial interception: Heavy particles to not manage to make their way through
the filtering medium. They strike the fibres and remain attached to them.
Diffusion: All the small particles are in permanent random motion. They
eventually become trapped by a fibre, to which they become attached.
Adsorption: Balls of active carbon have a large surface area and an affinity with
oil vapours. Molecules of oil are therefore easily absorbed. There are other
models that use active carbon. The filter medium is impregnated with active
carbon, which eliminates hydrocarbon vapours by adsorption.
Figure 22: Filtration methods
2.3.5.1. Filtration of solids
Solids are retained by mechanical barriers (porous filtering media). The fineness of the
filtration is chosen according to the size of the contaminants.
Figure 23: Different types of solid particle filter

Compressors
2.3.5.2. Filtration of oil (and water)
Fine oil mists are retained by coalescent filters (a process in which the liquid particles in
suspension group together to form larger particles).
The filter element is usually made of fibreglass.
Theoretical absolute de-oiling (0.003 ppm at 20 °C) is obtained by adsorption,

using active carbon.
Figure 24: Oil and water filter element
Representation of the operating principle of the filter:
Figure 25: Detailed view of the filter
2.3.6. Condensate bleed valves
Bleeds are used to evacuate the condensates (condensed water mixed with oil, etc.)
generated by the production of compressed air.
Figure 26: Float-type bleed valve with regulated level and time-delayed control

Compressors
The capture and the elimination of condensates are important factors in the quality of air
production.
An efficient system completely eliminates condensation in the air system and in pneumatic
installations.
2.3.7. The separator
The separator receives the condensates from the bleeds. Its function is to separate the oil
from the water, in order to prevent any risk of rejecting a pollutant into the environment.
1: Incoming condensates
2: Decompression element
3: Polypropylene retention cartridge
4: Active carbon cartridge
5: Polypropylene cartridge saturation indicator
6: test valve
7: Water discharge
Figure 27: Oil separator
A part of the oil contained in the condensates rises to the surface and, by overflowing, is
evacuated to the recovery tank by an overflow valve.
Figure 28: Another type of separator

Compressors
The pre-cleaned condensates are channelled to the adsorption filters, which absorb any
residual oil.
To obtain a constant filtration quality, it is necessary to replace the pre-filter and the
adsorption filter according to the information obtained from the turbidity test.
2.4. CONTAMINANTS IN COMPRESSED AIR
TYPE ORIGIN FORM MEASUREMENT
Liquid Micron
Hygrometry of the air drawn
Water Mist and
in by the compressor
Vapour ppm
Solid Mineral, vegetable, metallic Particles Micron
Liquid Micron
Oil Compression cycle and ambient air Mist and
Vapour ppm
Gas Ambient pollution
Hydrocarbons Chemical reaction in the Gas ppm
CO, CO2, etc. compression cycle
The following figure shows the locations of the various contaminants in compressed air
pipes.
Figure 29: Location of contaminants

Compressors
2.5. LIMITATION OF CONDENSATES
Oil-free compression is the most efficient system for avoiding problems connected with
condensates, because it does not create any.
Several oil-free air compression techniques exist, using oil-free compressors.
2.5.1. Spiral compressor
Compression is obtained by the interaction

between a stationary spiral and a moving
spiral.
By moving orbitally around the stationary

spiral, the moving spiral progressively drives
out the air drawn in from around the
periphery, and eventually expels it from the
compression chamber through the central
orifice.
Figure 30: Spiral compressor
This is a continuous movement without pulsation.
Figure 31: Operation of the spiral compressor

Compressors
2.5.2. Oil-free screw-type compressor
Oil-free screw-type compressors are

used in applications that require zero
contamination of the gas to be
compressed.
Dedicated sealing systems isolate the

gas to be treated from the oil of the
compressor by means of various
combinations of seal packings.
Figure 32: Example of an installation

with a screw-type compressor
As there is no film of lubricant between the surfaces of the rotor, distribution mechanisms
(outside the main pressure casing) are set up in order to synchronise the rotors so that
they do not come into contact with each other.
These characteristics enable gas to be supplied without any traces of oil.
This type of compressor is widely used in

refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants,
offshore platforms, gas collection plants, etc.
Figure 33: Details of an oil-free screw-type

compressor
Most gases can be compressed with these types of compressor:
Acetylene, Ammonia, Blast furnace gas, Butadiene, Butane, Carbon dioxide, Carbon
monoxide, Chlorine, Coke oven gas, Cracking gas, Ethane, Ethylene, Torch gas,
Hydrogen, Lime furnace gas (soda gas), Sulphurous hydrocarbon products, Natural
gas, Nitrogen, Propylene, Propane, Styrene ventilation gas, Sulphur gases, Smoke,
Evacuation of gases from a viscosity reduction unit, Residue gas, Town gas, Vapour
recovery unit, Monomer vinyl chloride gas washing.

Compressors
3. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS
There are very many applications for compressors. The following list gives some
examples of use of these machines:
Manufacture of compressed air (instrument air, cleaning of parts, painting, etc.)
Compression and displacement of process gases
Conveyance of dusty materials ("pneumatic" conveyance of particles)
Creation of vacuums and negative pressures (distillation, vacuum crystallisation,

evaporation, etc.)
Sanitation of rooms and buildings (ventilation, air conditioning, etc.)
Stirring of fermentation baths
Choice criteria for a compressor:
Quality of the gas
Cleanness of the gas
Noxiousness of the gas
Flow-rate, pressure
Figure 34: Choice criteria

Compressors
Like pumps, compressors are classified in two categories depending on the mode in which
the energy is transferred to the gas:
Volumetric compressors
Dynamic compressors
Basics concerning physics:
The state of a gas is defined by its pressure, its volume and its temperature.
This state also defines whether it is in the gaseous or partially liquid phase. In all
cases, it will be defined by P, V, T.
An isothermal transformation is a transformation during which the temperature

remains unchanged (in the laboratory, with a very slow compression, rate).
An isobaric transformation is a transformation during which the pressure

remains unchanged.
An isochorus transformation is a transformation during which the volume

remains unchanged.
An adiabatic transformation is a theoretical transformation or one which is

carried out in a laboratory, and which is used for calculations (without any
exchange of heat with the outside environment).
A polytropic transformation is a real transformation involving exchange of

heat with the outside environment.

Compressors
4. VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS
A volumetric compressor is characterised by the encapsulation, or trapping, of the fluid
that that passing through it in a closed volume which is progressively reduced.
This fluid is prevented from returning in the direction of decreasing pressures by the
presence of one or several moving walls.
In this type of machine, unlike in turbines, the kinetic energy communicated to the fluid
generally plays no useful part.
By design, volumetric compressors are particularly suitable for relatively low fluid flow-
rates, in some cases highly variable, and with relatively high pressure ratios.
Their principle of operation is as follows:
A set mass of gas at the intake pressure is trapped in a chamber which has a
variable volume.
In order to increase the pressure, this volume is progressively reduced, in a

manner which differs depending on the technique used.
Generally speaking, the transformation complies with a law which is very similar to that of
a polytropic transformation.
4.1. PISTON TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
The piston type compressor is one of the very first types of compressor to be used, but it
continues to be the most versatile and is still extremely efficient.
Figure 35: Diagrams of single-effect compressors

Compressors
The piston type compressor pushes a piston in a cylinder, by means of a connecting rod
and a crankshaft.
If only one side of the piston is used for

compression, the compressor is said to be
a single-effect compressor.
If both sides of the piston (upper and

lower) are used, the compressor is said to
be a double-effect compressor.
Figure 36: Diagram of a double-effect

compressor
There is virtually no limit to the versatility of piston type compressors.
They can compress air or other gases, requiring only very slight alterations to suit the
application.
The piston type compressor is the only model that is capable of compressing air and gas
to high pressures, e.g. for breathable air applications.
The configuration of a piston compressor can be either single-cylinder for low pressures,
or multi-stage to compress a fluid to very high pressures.
In this type of compressor, the air is compressed in stages, with its pressure increasing
stage after stage until it reaches a very high value.
Typical applications for piston type compressors are:
Compression of gases (CNG, nitrogen, inert gas, underground gas, etc.)
High pressure (breathable air in cylinders, seismic surface gases, etc.)
Conditioning in cylinders
Engine starting
etc.

Compressors
4.1.1. Composition of a piston type compressor
Figure 37: Reciprocating volumetric compressor
4.1.1.1. Piston / cylinder / valve system
The basic element of the compressor is the

piston / cylinder / valve system.
Figure 38: Piston / cylinder / valve system
This system works in two phases: intake and

discharge. These respectively correspond to the
upward and downward movements of the piston.
During the intake phase (downward movement of the piston), the internal volume defined
by the piston / cylinder assembly increases, so the pressure in this volume tends to
decrease (Mariotte's law).
The atmospheric pressure therefore becomes higher than the pressure in the cylinder and
presses the inlet valve open, thus allowing air to enter the cylinder.

Compressors
Note the high similarity to the principle of internal combustion engines.
In fact, nearly all the techniques used are similar (bearing design, construction of pistons
and liners, piston rings).
The upward and downward movements of the

piston are controlled by a system known as
the "connecting rod and crankshaft" system.
It is used to transform the rotational movement

of the flywheel into an alternating linear
movement (translation).
Figure 39: Connecting rod / crankshaft system
As the flywheel rotates, the piston passes

through two extreme positions:
Top Dead Centre (TDC)
Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
Figure 40: Piston position
These two positions define two volumes (VmT and VmB) of the piston/cylinder system.
The ratio between these two volumes will define the maximum compression ratio
(Tc = Vmb/Vmt).

Compressors
Note that this "volumetric" compression ratio is not equal to the ratio between the intake
and discharge pressures, as the temperature increases during the compression process.
Furthermore, the compression is not obtained in a closed cylinder as it is in an engine, but

in a cylinder that communicates freely with the next stage via the discharge valve.
It is easy to demonstrate that it is best to reduce the VmT as mush as possible, because it
behaves as a detrimental dead volume which reduces efficiency.
As such, the true compression ratio of a stage is therefore defined by the ratio of flows
between the two stages and not by the compression ratio of the cylinder.
The link between the piston and the liner is a critical element of the compressor, which
must withstand conflicting stresses.
The slipping velocity of the piston in the liner is quite high, and the lateral forces on the
piston (due to the angle of the connecting rod) require this area to be very well lubricated.
It is necessary to leave a functional clearance between the piston and the liner, so a
sufficient clearance must be maintained once the machine has reached its operating
temperature.
As the piston does have any heat exchange surface with the cooling fluid, it heats up and
therefore expands more than the liner does.
For this reason, an expansion margin is added to the functional clearance.
Maintaining a clearance between the piston and liner is an operational prerequisite;

without a clearance, it is impossible to lubricate the slipping area and to guarantee a
reasonable contact pressure.
Figure 41: Taking up the clearance
Without a clearance and sufficient lubrication, the friction of the piston in the liner causes
considerable heating of the piston, and this increases its expansion.

Compressors
In turn, the expansion of the piston increases the contact pressure, increasing the friction
and producing heat, which contributes to expelling the film of lubricant.
This vicious circle continues until the piston jams in the liner: this is "seizure" of the
cylinder. Furthermore, the creation of an overheated point or area on the piston is likely to
cause the oil to decompose and release contaminants into the air produced (CO CO2 >
breathable air).
On the other hand, the joint between the piston and the liner must be as airtight as
possible.
If there is too much clearance, it will be impossible to obtain sealing.
This means that a compromise is necessary and that functional clearances of

approximately a tenth of a millimetre are necessary for a piston with a diameter of
100 mm.
The surface finish of the liner must not be too smooth, in order to ensure that the film of
lubricating oil adheres to it: roughening, leaving striations at 45° with respect to the axis of
the cylinder, is particularly recommended for this purpose.
A clearance such as this will not provide sufficient "natural" sealing between the piston and
the cylinder.
Sealing is obtained in the same way as in internal combustion engines, i.e. by using piston
rings.
Figure 42: Clearance between piston and liner

Compressors
The piston rings used are cast iron rings with a square cross-section, and they fit into
grooves machined in the piston.
They are springy and their diameter is slightly larger than that of the cylinder.
Their springiness enables them to take up the clearance between the piston and the
cylinder.
In order to remain springy, the rings are not completely closed, so that there is a gap
between their ends when they are installed. This gap must be sufficient to allow for the
expansion of the piston ring.
In order to improve sealing, several piston rings are installed one above the other.
3 or 4 piston rings are normally used in low-pressure stages, and up to 12 for high-
pressure stages.
The film of oil that adheres to the walls, and which is retained by the roughening of the
cylinder, adds to the sealing effect.
This film of oil produces a veritable mobile fluid seal with the piston. A special piston ring
(the scraper ring), located at the bottom of the piston, limits the thickness of the film of oil
on the cylinder wall.
The valves are extremely sensitive points. A valve opens and closes each time the
compressor revolves, in other words approximately 1500 times per minute, and this all
takes place in a corrosive and fouling environment (oil + high pressure + temperature).
Wear and fouling occur very quickly, particularly on the hottest valves (the discharge
valves) and those which are the closest to the casing.
Valves are the components that require the most frequent maintenance and repair, due to:
Erosion caused by the passage of the gases.
Fatigue caused by opening and closing impacts.
Deposits.
Corrosion.
Figure 43: A valve
An operational anomaly can be detected by:
Listening to the noise made by the valves.
Observing the temperature.
Observing the gas flow-rate.

Compressors
Figure 44: Exploded view of the valves
No maintenance or repair operations can be carried out on the valve other than cleaning it,
if necessary (excess oil causes deposits, which reduce the service life of valves). In case
of doubt, the valve must be replaced.

Compressors
4.1.2. The basic single-stage compressor
The single-stage compressor consists of:
A cylinder
A piston
An intake valve
A discharge valve
A connecting rod
A flywheel
The valve clapper and its seat constitute a valve assembly. The valve clapper is the
moving part and the seat is the fixed part. The word "valve" is commonly used to refer to
the valve clapper.
The valves are contained in the cylinder head, which is also known as the valve box.
Figure 45: Operation of a basic compressor – intake phase

Compressors
Figure 46: Operation of a basic compressor – discharge phase
As the flywheel rotates, driven by an electric motor or by an internal combustion engine,

the piston is given a sinusoidal alternating movement.
As the piston moves downwards, the pressure in the cylinder decreases. As soon as it is
less than the pressure upstream of the intake valve, the latter opens and allows air to enter
the cylinder (intake).
As it moves back upwards, the pressure in the cylinder increases. As soon as it exceeds
the pressure behind the discharge valve, the latter opens and allows the air to escape to
the outlet (discharge).
In this case, the valves are operated by pressure differential and not by a camshaft, as in
automobile engines. The presence of springs, even with low force values, reduces
efficiency because they increase the pressure differential required to open the valves.

Compressors
4.1.2.1. The compression cycle
The compression cycles represented in the figure show the change in pressure as a
function of the piston movements.
Figure 47: Compression cycles
The ideal cycle:
Compression: the piston begins its movement towards the valves. The air
contained in the cylinder is compressed and its pressure and temperature increase.
This phase corresponds to the arc of curve AB.
Discharge: as soon as the pressure in the cylinder reaches pressure P2, the
discharge valve opens and the air is evacuated to the user application at
pressure P2, until the piston reaches the end of its stroke. This phase is represented
by the straight line BC. We assume that, at the end of its travel, the piston reaches
a point where it just touches the base of the cylinder head, so that there is no longer
any air in the cylinder.
Intake: The piston begins its return, moving away from the valves. As, in theory,
there is no residual air in the cylinder, the following occur simultaneously and
instantly: the discharge valve closes, the pressure drops from P2 to P1, and the
intake valve opens.
This phase is represented by the straight line CD. During this phase, from D to A,
i.e. throughout the entire piston stroke, air enters the cylinder.

Compressors
As soon as the piston arrives at A, it begins its upward movement again. The intake
valve closes and a new cycle begins.
Theoretical cycle:
In reality, the valves offer some resistance to opening, due to the effect of the return
springs they comprise.
They therefore only open when the downstream pressure is slightly lower than the
upstream pressure.
For the same reason, they close slightly in advance.

This means that the intake phase "DA" occurs for a pressure in the cylinder that is
slightly lower than the atmospheric pressure P1, and that the discharge phase BC
occurs for a pressure in the cylinder that is slightly higher than P2.
Furthermore, the air passing through the valves results in a slight loss of pressure,
the effect of which is added to the preceding effect.
Furthermore, contrary to the above hypothesis, there is always a residual volume,

known as the "dead space", between the piston and the cylinder head (the distance
is between 0.5 and 1 mm).
For the intake valve to open, the piston must move down a sufficient distance to
allow the pressure inside the cylinder to fall below the upstream pressure.
The real cycle:
Finally, the inertia of the valves and the inertia of the moving gases produce complex
phenomena which cause sharp pressure variations, and sometimes generate oscillations
before stabilisation.
This results in a distortion of the curve representing the theoretical cycle.
4.1.2.2. Compression ratio
The maximum pressure that can be supplied by a compressor is equal to the air drawn in
multiplied by the compression ratio, which is represented by the letter " t ", or more
precisely by the Greek letter: τ.
The compression ratio is, in theory, the ratio between the maximum volume and the
minimum volume above the piston at either end of its alternating stroke.
When air is compressed, it heats up and therefore expands, which results in an additional
pressure increase.
Compressors
This pressure increase is not usable, because the air eventually drops back to the ambient
temperature.
The compression ratio that can be obtained with a single stage is less than 10.
This is because, for mechanical reasons, it is limited by the minimum volume of the dead
space that can be obtained, by leakage around the pistons and through the valves, and by
the increase in temperature that the materials withstand.
Furthermore, a compression stage is not often used at the maximum pressure it can
supply. It is for this reason that it is not possible, using a single stage, to obtain the high
pressures of 200 to 300 bars that are needed.
Figure 48: Compression ratio
volume max imum

Compressio n ratio τ =
volume min imum
Discharge pressure of stage "n": Psn = Intake pressure x τn
4.1.2.3. Resulting flow-rate:
This is the cubic capacity of the first stage of the compressor multiplied by the rotation
speed.
4.1.2.4. Volume efficiency:
This is the ratio > volume drawn in / volume produced.
This efficiency varies with the pressure that exists downstream of the stage and in the
dead space, when the piston is at top dead centre.
Compressors
This pressure prevents the intake valve from opening immediately, i.e. as soon as the
piston starts to move downwards again.
For example, the following designations are used:
g: volume efficiency, in % (g is pronounced gamma, the Greek letter)

Pus: upstream pressure, in bars
Pds: downstream pressure, in bars
Vs: volume s in, in litres per revolution
Vp: volume produced, in litres per revolution
Vd: dead space volume, in litres
Before being able to draw in a new volume of air, the piston needs to move down to the
extent that the volume above the piston becomes: Vd x Pds / Pus. The total volume is
Vp + Vd, and the volume drawn in will therefore be:
Vs = (Vp + Vds) – (Vds x Pds / Pus)
We can therefore deduce the volume efficiency: g = Vs / Vp
Vd ⎛ Pds ⎞
γ =1− ⎜ − 1⎟
Vp ⎝ Pus ⎠
For Vp = 100 cm3; Vd = 5 cm3; Pds = 8 bars; Pus = 1: the efficiency is 65 %.
For Vp = 100 cm3; Vd = 10 cm3; Pds = 11 bars; Pus = 1: the efficiency drops to zero.
Eleven bars is therefore the maximum pressure that such a stage can deliver.
It can also be seen that, when the discharge pressure of the stage increases, its volume
efficiency decreases.
4.1.2.5. Limits of the single-cylinder compressor
Many compressors are built on this principle (single cylinder). But in order to obtain high
pressure air (or gas), this system is insufficient.
Anyone who has handled a bicycle pump will have noticed that the pump warms up when
you compress air.
Exactly the same thing happens in the cylinder of a compressor.
This temperature increase gets higher as the compression ratio increases.

Compressors
If we assume that the gas in a cylinder does not exchange any heat at all with the outside
(in other words it is practically not cooled at all by its contact with the walls of the cylinder),
this is known as "adiabatic" compression.
In this case the calculations are fairly simple and we find that a compression ratio of 4 is
sufficient to raise the temperature from 20 °C to 237 °C. This result is theoretical, because
the air does, of course, cool in contact with the walls of the cylinder, and its temperature
would, in reality, be lower.
The smaller the cubic capacity, the better the natural cooling (higher surface to volume
ratio).
In practice, it is difficult to obtain a volumetric compression ratio higher than 4 or 5.
Note that, as the temperature increases, a volumetric compression ratio of 4 produces a

pressure ratio in the region of 7.
So a single-cylinder compressor which draws in air at atmospheric pressure cannot

produce more than 5 to 7 bars of discharge pressure.
To make up for this difficulty, it is necessary to compress the air in several phases:
1. Compress the air a first time to a pressure P1 such that the rise in temperature
remains acceptable.
2. Cool this compressed air.
3. Take this air at pressure P1 and recompress it to a pressure P2, again limiting the
compression so that the temperature rise remains acceptable.
4. Cool the air again and repeat the process until the required discharge pressure is
obtained.

Compressors
4.1.3. The multi-stage compressor
Figure 49: Multi-stage compressor
Note that the stroke of the different pistons is the same.
In order to balance the stresses on the motor, the crank pins are offset by 30 to 90°.
One could consider offsetting the cylinders themselves, and attempting to place them in
the same plane.
This results in V, W or star configuration compressors, which are more compact and easy
to ventilate.
Using multi-stage compressors has several advantages:
The volumetric efficiency is higher.
The absorbed power is lower.
The discharge temperatures of each stage are lower.
However, there are rarely more than 5 stages because the mechanical complexity is far
greater and the efficiency is reduced due to the pressure losses which are inevitable in the
various parts of the compressor.
4.1.3.1. Compression ratio
Due to the low compression ratio that can be obtained with a single-stage compressor,
compressors with several stages in series are available.

Compressors
If we call the respective ratios of each cylinder τ1, τ2, τ3 ..., the resulting ratio will be:
τ = τ1 x τ2 x τ3
And the maximum discharge pressure will be: Pdischarge = Pintake x τ
So 3 or 4-stage compressors are manufactured routinely, using compression ratios of 4 to

6 per stage.
Intake pressure at sea level = 1 bar Intake pressure at an altitude of 3000 m = 0.7 bars
st st
Discharge pressure of 1 stage: 1 bar x 6 = 6 bars Discharge pressure of 1 stage: 0.7 bars x 6 = 4.2 bars
Discharge pressure of 2nd stage: 6 bars x 6 = 36 bars nd

Discharge pressure of 2 stage: 4.2 bars x 6 = 25.2 bars
rd rd
Discharge pressure of 3 stage: 36 bars x 6 = 216 bars Discharge pressure of 3 stage: 25.2 bars x 6 = 151.2 bars
Table 1: Example of a 3-stage compressor with τ = 6
We can also see why it is so important not to have a clogged intake filter.
This reduces the pressure at the compressor intake, which proportionally reduces the
discharge pressure.
The same applies at an altitude, where the atmospheric pressure is lower. It is then
necessary to have a sufficiently large pressure reserve to reach the required pressure.
4.1.3.2. The flow-rate
Flow-rate produced: The same applies as in the case of a single-stage compressor.

However, as we will see, it is necessary in some cases to consider the presence of
2 pistons for a single stage.
Filling flow-rate: This is the flow-rate calculated according to the time taken to fill a
reservoir with a known volume, at a defined pressure. The difference with respect to the
flow-rate produced is essentially due to losses from the leaks, which are inevitable
between the piston and the cylinder and the bleeds, which are essential as we will
discover later.
The result must be rigorously adjusted by means of corrections as a function of

temperature and pressure.
A compressor which absorbs 45 m3 of air, for example, may only be capable of outputting
30.

Compressors
At atmospheric pressure and at 20 °C, the filling flow-rate is expressed in m3/hour or in

litres per minute.
This is one of the main characteristics of a compressor.
At atmospheric pressure and at 0 °C, the quantity of air discharged is expressed in

Normal m3.
In this case, m3 must be preceded by the letter N (Nm3).
4.1.3.3. Production of heat
Compression of air will always result in a considerable increase in temperature.
3-stage compressors have higher compression ratios than those with 4 stages.
For this reason, each stage heats up more. As the compressor is a mechanical machine,
the friction of the different parts also generates heat.
4.1.3.4. Production of metal particles
Friction of metal against metal releases metal particles.
4.1.3.5. Production of oil
The use of a lubricant enables friction to be reduced, and thus reduces the production of
metal particles and also helps to cool the various parts.
But the added oil in the air system of the compressor will also be present at the discharge
end, in different forms: vapour, aerosol or liquid. But oil in any form is poisonous
(Breathing air). Furthermore, some of the oil burns to form coke deposits on the valves and
the hottest parts of the valve boxes. Oil is therefore the main contaminant in a compressor.
4.1.3.6. Production of water
Compression of air, particularly when followed by cooling, causes the condensation of the
water vapour it contains.
The disadvantages of water in compressed air are:
As the water produced is not compressible, there is a risk of causing mechanical

damage in the compressor (it is not a hydraulic pump).

Compressors
Deterioration due to corrosion of pipes and storage reservoirs.
Deterioration of storage cylinders due to oxidation. Through catalysis, water

increases the oxidation of steel by changing the electrochemical surface rules. It
is also acid, even though it has been distilled; it contains impurities (SO2, NO2,
CO2) which have the effect of acidifying the water by creating the corresponding
acids (H2SO4, H2NO3 etc.) It therefore has a detrimental oxidising effect if it gets
into air cylinders used in diving apparatus.
Additional pressure losses.
Risk of freezing and obstruction of the pipes, under cold weather conditions.
Freezing due to a combination of cold temperatures and the effect of expansion.
The quantity of water that is eliminated by condensation depends on the relative humidity
of the air drawn into the compressor.
It can be anything from 40 to 100 %.
It also depends on the compression ratio and the cooling.
The quantity of water produced is inversely proportional to the temperature in Kelvins.
4.1.3.7. Condensates
Water, oil and dust form a milky-coloured emulsion known as condensates.
These can be found after the different stages and they need to be eliminated.
4.1.4. The cooling function
The method used to cool a fluid is always more or less the same: the fluid to be cooled is
passed through a system of pipes (radiator) which is immersed in a cool medium.
This medium can be air or water.
The natural exchange of heat is usually not sufficient to obtain the required cooling
performance, so all kinds of clever techniques are used to increase the exchange.

Compressors
Figure 50: Principle of an air cooler
In the case of air cooling, the tubes of the radiator have fins which increase the exchange
surface, and the radiator itself is placed in the blast of a fan.
Figure 51: Example of temperature and pressure variation
The metal fin, which is a good heat conductor, is spirally wound around the pressure
resistant tube. Any fouling of the fins reduces the exchange of heat between the fin and
the surrounding air.

Compressors
The fin is brazed onto the tube in order to ensure a good heat transfer. If this brazed joint
breaks as the radiator ages, the cooling capability is reduced.
Any reduction in the flow of cool ambient air (fouled intake grids, fins, obstacle, loose fan
belt, etc.) will reduce the effectiveness of the cooling.
Gas compression creates heat.
The hot compressed gases can cause the compressor to overheat.
Overheating can be detrimental to a compressor. It is therefore necessary to cool the

compressor while it operates.
4.1.4.1. Natural air cooling
With natural air cooling, air

circulates freely around the outside
of the cylinders, by passing through
cooling fins.
The air therefore draws out the

calories produced by the
compression process.
Figure 52: Natural air cooling
4.1.4.2. Forced air cooling
In forced air cooling, a fan creates a

flow of air under and around the
surface of the compressor.
In many cases, the blades of the fan

are directly mounted on the drive
wheel of the compressor.
Figure 53: Example of a compressor

with forced air cooling
In a forced air cooling system, an integrated fan forces a flow of air through the
compressor.

Compressors
Figure 54: Air-cooled piston compressors
4.1.4.3. "Water" cooling
"Water" cooling is often used on large compression systems.
The water flows through special cavities inside the

compressor.
The cooling water evacuates calories from the

compressor as it flows through the cavities.
The cooling liquid in a compressor is similar to that

used in internal combustion engines. The circulation
of the liquid is forced by a pump, and this favours the
dispersion of calories all along the route it follows.
Figure 55: "Water" cooling

Compressors
4.2. DIAPHRAGM TYPE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
It is the elastic distortion of a diaphragm that draws in and compresses the gas.
A hydraulic system is used to bend the diaphragm.
A piston moves up and down in the cylinder and acts on the hydraulic fluid, which
transmits its oscillations to the diaphragm.
The role of the drilled plate is to ensure that the fluid is evenly distributed under the
diaphragm.
The diaphragm itself consists of three metal disks.
This system has the advantage of enabling any breakage of the diaphragm to be detected
by a pressure measurement.
The diaphragm provides static sealing on the gas side of the process.
It is for this reason that diaphragm compressors are used for dangerous, poisonous and
corrosive gases.
The also provides sealing with respect to the mechanical part.
Figure 56: Operation of a diaphragm type compressor

Compressors
4.3. HELICAL COMPRESSORS
In helical compressors, compression is obtained by varying the volume between two

appropriately shaped rotors, which are enclosed in a specific type of cylinder.
The two rotors have combined profiles, one forming lobes (male rotor) and the other
forming alveoli (female rotor). These profiles are developed along the shaft to obtain a
constant pitch helix.
The cylinder has a cross-section that

consists of two intersecting circles. It
surrounds the rotors with a very
small clearance, in order to keep
leakage to a minimum. Intake and
discharge apertures are provided at
the ends, in order to allow the fluid
to flow through. There are no valves
in this type of compressor.
Figure 57: Helical compressor
As the numbers of lobes and alveoli are not the same, the two screws rotate at different
speeds, and this has the effect of moving their line of contact in the axial direction, carrying
the enclosed fluid along the length of the rotors.
After intake, the volume of the cell of trapped gas is progressively reduced until the
rotation of the rotors uncovers the discharge orifice. Discharge then continues until all the
gas has been evacuated.
In this type of compressor, the rotors are synchronised either by gears or by the fact that
one is driven by the other. In the latter case, it is essential to carefully lubricate the line of
contact between the male and female lobes, and this is achieved by injecting a liquid,
which may be oil or water, or even liquid phase coolant in the case of refrigeration
applications.
This injection, which is carried out in relatively large quantities (approximately ten litres of
oil per cubic metre of gas drawn in), is also used for sealing purposes and to cool the
compressor and thus come close to isothermal operation, which is a better in terms of
energy consumption. It is nevertheless necessary to separate the liquid from the
compressed gas, which requires special equipment and induces additional losses.
In helical compressors, as in vane or lobe type compressors, the compression ratio is

determined by the ratio between the internal volumes Vi = V1/V2c, which as a
volumetric ratio determined by construction and can only be changed by modifying the
shape of the discharge orifice (the "c" index refers to the manufacturer's specifications).

Compressors
This means that the compression ratio is set and that the machine does not adapt itself
automatically to different compression ratios, as piston-type compressors with valves do.
Conversely, the absence of valves is an advantage in terms of maintenance, because

when valves are present in a compressor they are the parts which are subjected to the
highest mechanical stresses.
4.3.1. The screw compressor
Figure 58: Cutaway and internal view of a lubricated screw compressor
The screw compressor is a volumetric compressor whose pistons consist of screws.
The main parts of the compression component comprise a male rotor and a female rotor,
which rotate towards each other while the volume between them and the compressor
casing decreases.
The pressure ratio of a screw compressor depends both on the length of the screw profile
and on the shape of the discharge orifice.

Compressors
The screw compression

component does not have any
valves and there is no
mechanical force liable to create
any imbalance.
The compressor can therefore

operate at a high shaft rotation
speed, and combine a high flow-
rate with small external
dimensions.
The idea of compressing a gas

using a screw compressor is over
a century old, since the first
machine was built by its inventor,
GRIGAR, an engineer who filed
the patent in 1878. The first
machines built were called helical
compressors.
Screw compressors belong to the

family of rotary volumetric
machines.
They reduce the volume by

means of a rotary motion.
Figure 59: The two types of

screw compressor
Screw compressors are divided into two sub-groups:
Dual rotor compressors
Single rotor compressors
For these two sub-groups, although the compression principle is the same, the
technologies involved are very different.
Dual rotor compressors are the most common.

Compressors
4.3.1.1. Construction of dual rotor compressors
The first generation of screw compressors comprised rotors with symmetrical profiles.
From a mechanical point of view, they produced good results but there was a large
clearance between the rotors and the casing, which resulted in a leakage flow from the
discharge end to the intake end, which obviously meant that the volumetric efficiency was
poor.
Progress made with machine-tools enabled profiles to be designed such that the leakage
space between the casing and the rotors was greatly reduced, with the following
advantages:
Improved volumetric efficiency
Larger volume available on the intake end
Reduced contact surface between the rotors
Figure 60: Symmetrical and asymmetrical profiles
The diameters of the male and female rotors of the same compressor can be identical or
different.
The length of the rotors is variable, and depends on the make and model of the
compressor (the length is usually twice the diameter).
The drive from the motor is usually applied to the male rotor, which in turn drives the
female rotor, but the opposite configuration also exists.
The peripheral speed of the rotors must be between 20 and 50 m/s, otherwise the system
will not operate correctly. This implies a minimum rotation speed and a maximum rotation
speed. Small diameter rotors are driven by a step-up gearbox.
The direction of rotation of these compressors is imposed by the way the rotors are
configured.

Compressors
Figure 61: Dual rotor compressor
Principle of operation:
Dual rotor screw compressors are volumetric machines, which means that compression is
obtained by reducing the volume.
They are of the rotary piston type. This "piston" effect is due to the meshing of two rotors
inside a casing. The helical shape of these compressors explains why they are called
screw compressors.
Figure 62: Screw compressor
The primary (or male) rotor generally comprises four lobes. The secondary (or female)
rotor usually comprises six lobes (or splines).
The lobes of the male rotor fit into the splines of the female rotor, which means that the
two rotors turn in opposite directions.

Compressors
The rotation of these two rotors traps a volume of gas

inside the casing, and this gas is conveyed from one
end of the screws to the other. For this reason, the
intake orifice is on one end of the rotors and the
discharge orifice is on the other end.
This gas, which is conveyed continuously, is

subjected to a decreasing volume and therefore an
increasing pressure.
Figure 63: Opposite directions of rotation
The male rotor has four lobes and the female rotor has six.
The operating cycles are as follows:
Intake
Compression
Discharge
Figure 64: Principe of

compression
Intake:
Due to the rotation of the rotors, the gas is drawn in through the intake orifice and
fills the inter-lobe spaces.
These spaces open up as the rotors rotate, until they are fully developed.
When the filling of the inter-lobe spaces is complete, the intake is closed with a
quantity of gas enclosed inside the compressor.
Compression:
The rotation continues, the space between the lobes decreases and the volume of
the enclosed gas is reduced, which therefore results in a pressure increase.

Compressors
Discharge:
When the rotors are in a certain position, the compressed gas reaches the
discharge orifice and the discharge phase begins.
It continues until all the gas has been evacuated.
The operating cycle shows an advantage of the screw compressor over the piston-type
compressor: there is no detrimental space, and there is therefore no expansion stroke.
The volumetric efficiency of screw

compressors is therefore higher than
that of piston-type compressors.
Figure 65: No detrimental space
The cooling systems used in screw compressors are relatively similar to those of piston
type compressors.
Figure 66: Screw compressor sizing

Compressors
4.3.2. Lobe Compressor
The rotor consists of two lobes (shaped like a

figure-of-eight) which fit into each other.
The rotary movement of the rotors is

synchronised by external gears. There is no
contact between the rotors, and there is no
contact between each rotor and the casing.
Figure 67: Lobes
The gas to be conveyed arrives through the intake pipe and is forced through to the
discharge side.
As the rotation of the rotors does not

involve any contact, it is not
necessary to lubricate them and the
compression is therefore free from
impurities.
Figure 68: Operation of a lobe

compressor

Compressors
4.4. ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR
This consists of a cylindrical stator inside which an eccentric rotor turns. The latter has
radial grooves in which vanes slide and are permanently pressed against the wall of the
stator by centrifugal force.
The volume between two vanes is variable. In front of the intake pipe, the volume
increases, and gas is therefore drawn in. This gas is then trapped between two vanes and
is conveyed towards the discharge pipe.
In this area, the volume decreases and the compressed gas escapes into the discharge
pipe.
Figure 69: Details of a vane compressor
There are two different designs for these compressors:
Operation with lubrication: the vanes are usually made of steel, and the oil not
only improves the friction between the vanes and the stator, but also evacuates
calories and improves the sealing between the vanes and the stator.
In this configuration, the compressed gas is contaminated by oil.
Dry operation with vanes made of a composite material containing graphite: no

contamination of the gas.
Designed on the basis of a proven technology, the direct drive vane compressor operates
at a very low speed and offers incomparable reliability.
The rotor, which is the only permanently moving part, comprises a certain number of slots
over its entire length, in which sliding vanes are housed and slip on a film of oil.

Compressors
The rotor rotates in a cylindrical stator. During rotation, centrifugal force pulls the vanes out
of their recesses. They therefore form individual compression cells. The rotation reduces
the volume of the cell and therefore increases the air pressure.
The high pressure air exits through a discharge orifice, and the remaining traces of oil are
removed by the final oil separator.
Figure 70: Operation of a vane compressor
A. Air enters through the intake valve.
B. The air at atmospheric pressure is trapped between the rotor and the wall of the stator.
C. The volume of air, reduced by the vanes, returns into the slots by the wall of the stator. The reduction of
the volume of the air increases the pressure. Oil is continuously injected to provide cooling, lubrication
and sealing.
D. The high pressure compressed air passes through the primary oil separator, which removes 99 % of the
oil it contains.
E. The residual oil is eliminated in the final separation element, which means the air supplied is of a very
high quality.
F. The air from the system flows through the intermediate cooler, which reduces its temperature to less
than 10 °C above the ambient air temperature, thus eliminating condensation.
G. The oil, separated from the air, is retained in the compression chamber and evacuated by the internal air
pressure. It is blown through an oil cooler by air, and through a filter, before returning to the stator.
H. The air system is regulated by a servovalve which controls the intake valve. If the compressor is at full
load, the intake valve will be completely open. The higher the increase in the internal pressure, the more
the intake valve is modulated by the servovalve.

Compressors
4.5. LIQUID RING COMPRESSOR
These compressors use an auxiliary liquid to provide sealing between the rotor and the
stator. This liquid is pressed against the periphery of the stator by the centrifugal force
received from the vane wheel.
A compression stage is made up of the following four elements:
a wheel with stationary vanes (2), mounted on the compressor shaft.
A cylindrical body (stator) (3) with a centre-line that is eccentric with respect to
rotation axis.
Two disks (flanges (1) and (4)) located on either end of the stator, each with an
opening (aperture) enabling gas to enter (intake aperture) and to exit (discharge
aperture).
Figure 71: Constitution of a liquid ring compressor
The auxiliary liquid forms a ring which is concentric with respect to the body.
As the wheel is eccentric,

capacities with variable
volumes are created between
pairs of vanes and the liquid
ring.
Depending on the direction of

rotation of the wheel, the intake
aperture is placed in front of
capacities with increasing
volumes.
Figure 72: Operation of a liquid

ring compressor

Compressors
A vacuum is created and gas is therefore drawn in; this gas is then conveyed (because it
is trapped between two vanes and the liquid) towards the discharge aperture, which is
located opposite capacities with decreasing volumes.
This therefore creates a compression, and the discharge of compressed gas is possible.
As far as the supply of liquid for the ring is concerned, three configurations are possible:
Lost liquid operation: the discharged liquid is not re-used;
Partially-recycled operation: the liquid is separated from the gas in a separation

chamber; a part of this liquid is recycled and a certain quantity of fresh liquid is
added;
Totally recycled operation: after separation (separation chamber), all of the liquid
is recycled after first being cooled in a heat exchanger.
Figure 73: Different configurations for a liquid ring compressor
4.6. SPIRAL (OR SCROLL) COMPRESSOR
Spiral (or scroll) compressors have operating characteristics that

are close to those of screw compressors (losses due to over-
compression or under-compression if the true compression ratio
is different from the construction value).
In this type of compressor, two cylindrical spirals, one stationary

and the other moving and with identical shapes, run one over the
other without slipping, and enclose pockets of gas with variable
volumes, and this produces the compression. The gas is drawn in
on the circumference and discharged in the centre.
Figure 74: Cylindrical spirals
The advantages of this system are that there are no valves, and the mechanism is simple
and inexpensive, all of which make for quiet operation, low mechanical losses, the
possibility of operating at high speeds, absence of vibrations, lightness, reliability and a
low resistive torque.
Compressors
The technological problems essentially concern the

machining of the spirals and the sealing between
each spiral and the base of its counterpart. These
compressors can operate without oil.
Figure 75: Scroll Compressor
But the essential advantage is compliance.
Compliance can be explained as the ability of the two

scrolls to separate from each other if there is any
liquid in the compression chamber.
Unlike pistons this type of compressor tolerates the

presence of liquid between the spirals, without any
major risk of fatal destruction for the mechanical
parts.
Moreover, Scroll compressors have a unique advantage: they are happy with half the
starting voltage required for a piston type compressor, and for an equal starting voltage
they start up a quarter of the time it takes for a piston type compressor to start.

Compressors
5. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
These are machines in which the exchange of energy takes place between a rotor
equipped with vanes that rotate about a centre-line, and a permanently flowing fluid.
These machines are classified in two categories, based on the geometrical shape of the
wheels:
Centrifugal compressors, in which the fluid enters the wheel axially and is then
distributed all around the centre-line in a perpendicular direction. The fluid exits
the periphery of the wheel and is collected by a scroll.
Figure 76: Centrifugal compressor wheel
Axial compressors, in which the fluid retains an axial flow as it passes through
the rotating wheel.
Figure 77: Axial compressor wheel

Compressors
For axial compressors, the air has a helical motion, in other words the distance between
the fluid path and the centre-line of the wheel remains constant. Conversely, in a
centrifugal compressor, the air moves further and further away from the centre-line as it
passes through the fan.
Figure 78: Difference between an axial compressor and an centrifugal compressor

Compressors
5.1. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Figure 79: Centrifugal compressor
The centrifugal compressor is a rotating machine in

which the wheel (impeller) progressively accelerates
the gas.
This velocity is transformed into pressure energy by

the diffuser, which is a stationary part, before being
discharged.
The acceleration of the gas can be due to the action

of one or several impellers.
Figure 80: Centrifugal compressor
Centrifugal compressors are capable of supplying

900 to 35,000 Nm³/h. They are used wherever the
required capacity exceeds 7,000 Nm³/h. Above

Compressors
35,000 Nm³/h, axial flow compressors take over.
They are particularly adapted and energy-efficient when the demand is high and relatively
constant.
They are usually cooled by water, and consist of 2, 3 or 4 compression stages.
External conditions, such as ambient temperature, have a significant effect on the energy
efficiency and on the control range of this type of compressor.
When noise is a choice criterion, these machines are well adapted.
Considering that centrifugal compressors are intrinsically free of oil, the air discharged is of
a high quality and there is no pulsation in the discharge.
For a carefully designed and well operated machine, maintenance costs are relatively low.
5.1.1. Constitutive elements of a centrifugal compressor
Figure 81: Diagram of a single-stage centrifugal compressor
5.1.1.1. The wheel
It comprises ducts formed by the disk, the covering flanges and the vanes.
The open wheel is used in cases where a high pressure is required. It can manage small
and large flows, but is only used in single-stage compressors.
Compressors
Figure 82: Impeller
The semi-closed wheel is used for large flows. This type of wheel is usually installed in
single-stage machines, although it can also be used as a first stage in a multi-stage
compressor.
Figure 83: Different wheels
The closed wheel is mainly used in multi-stage

compressors, but it can also be used in single-stage
compressors.
The wheel is usually connected to the shaft by a

shaft key. The wheel must furthermore be perfectly
balanced in order to avoid unbalancing the shaft,
which would cause detrimental vibrations and would
therefore upset the correct operation of the
compressor.
Figure 84: Wheel and shaft key

Compressors
5.1.1.2. The guide vane assembly
The role of the guide vane assembly, which is located upstream of the wheel, is to
correctly orient the threads of fluid as they enter the wheel.
It is only used in compressors with several compression stages.
It provides a connection between the upstream stage (at the scroll) and the downstream
stage (at the inlet apertures).
5.1.1.3. The diffuser
With or without vanes, this component partly transforms the kinetic energy (dynamic
pressure) into potential energy (static pressure), and correctly orients the fluid at the outlet
of the wheel so that it enters the scroll or the guide vane of the next stage.
Figure 85: A diffuser
5.1.1.4. The scroll
Its role essentially consists in transforming the rotary motion of the fluid into a translation
movement.
5.1.1.5. The divergent nozzle
Like the diffuser, this is used to transform a fraction of the kinetic energy of the fluid into
potential energy, in order to limit the pressure losses in the fluid transport ducts.
The main component of a centrifugal compressor is called the wheel.

Compressors
If there is only one wheel in the compressor, the latter is classified as a single-stage
compressor. If there is more than one wheel in the compressor, the latter is classified as a
multi-stage compressor.
In a multi-stage compressor, each of the wheels adds to the pressure of the gas. A multi-
stage compressor can be considered as several compressors combined together in the
same envelope.
The body of the compressor is important because it must have the shape of a volute. A
volute is like a part of a spiral. Its diameter and therefore its volume increases in the
direction of the flow.
Figure 86: Centrifugal compressor with vertical mating face (Barrel)

Compressors
Figure 87: Two-stage centrifugal compressor with horizontal mating face
5.1.2. Operation of a centrifugal compressor
To understand how a centrifugal compressor works, it is

first of all necessary to understand what centrifugal force
is.
Let us assume that a ball is tied to the end of a piece of

string, and that the string is tied to a fixed point.
Figure 88: Demonstration of centrifugal force
If the ball is given a velocity, the string will become taut. Due to this tension, the ball will
move in a perfect circle thanks to its velocity.
If there is enough energy, the ball continues to go around in a series of circles. At each
instant of its travel, the physical tendency of the ball is to try to move in a straight line.
But the ball continues to form a circle because it is held by the string.
If the spring breaks, the ball will immediately move in a straight line.

Compressors
When an object can rotate around a central

point, a force pushes it outwards from that
central point. The object rotates very quickly
thanks to the force. This force is called
centrifugal force.
The string provides the centripetal force, i.e.

the force that pulls the ball towards the fixed
point, creating the route followed by the ball
without any deviation.
Figure 89: Centrifugal force
Conversely, the centripetal force ("which

tends to move towards the centre", in Latin)
designates a force that enables an object to
be held in an elliptical trajectory.
The centripetal force is exerted by the string

on the ball to keep it rotating on the specified
trajectory. It is this force that keeps the string
taut.
Figure 90: Centripetal force
In a centrifugal compressor, the wheel

(impellers in the case of a multi-stage
compressor) is the object that rotates.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it

can be transformed from one form to
another.
The gas enters the casing of a centrifugal compressor through the intake orifice. On the
inside of the envelope, the gas passes into the turbine. The entry point is known as the
eye of the wheel.
The wheel rotates very quickly. The gas is forced towards the outside of the rim of the
wheel by centrifugal force. As the gas moves towards the outer edge of the wheel, its
velocity increases.
When it is necessary to vary the load of the compressor, variable intake vanes are placed
on the air intake, and these change the relative intake velocity of the air entering the
compressor, and consequently the flow inside the compressor.

Compressors
Figure 91: Example of variable intake vanes
One of the fundamental laws of nature is that energy

cannot be destroyed, but it can transform from one form
to another.
For example, a ball is projected against a wall at a very

high velocity: When it touches the wall, its velocity is
practically null but the pressure is maximum.
The relative discharge velocity W,

combines with rotation speed U to
produce the absolute velocity V, which
corresponds to the kinetic energy that
must be transformed into pressure:
This is the role of the diffuser.
Figure 92: Rotating vanes
The pressure increase is proportional to

the decrease in velocity.
Figure 93: Transformation of energy

Compressors
Figure 94: Examples of single-stage centrifugal compressors
5.1.3. Multi-stage centrifugal compressor
The body of the compressor is either cast (cast iron,

moulded steel) or machined.
There are two different designs for centrifugal

compressors:
Horizontal envelope.
Vertical envelope.
The horizontal compressor is in two halves, which are

bolted together to form a single sealed block.
Figure 95: Horizontal envelope
Concerning compressors with a vertical

envelope, some have only one side that
can open. This removable panel is bolted
onto the rest of the body.
To be able to reach all of the components

in this case, it is necessary to remove the
shaft from the envelope.
Figure 96: Vertical envelope

Compressors
Figure 97: Sealing of envelopes
When the compressor is operating, the pressure

inside the envelopes is higher than the outside
pressure.
At the parting lines of the envelopes, sealing must

be perfect to prevent the compressed gases from
escaping to the outside. It is for this reason that a
seal is placed between the two faces in contact.
Sealing can also be obtained without a seal, in

other words metal-on-metal, and in this case the
mating surfaces must be perfectly parallel and free
from all defects.
A multi-stage centrifugal compressor contains

diaphragms. These are diaphragms that are
located between the rotors.
The diaphragms form a passage known as a

diffuser. After passing through the diffuser, the gas
enters the return passage that channels it to the
next wheel.
Figure 98: Location of diaphragms
The diaphragms are usually made of cast iron or

other hard metals, and they do not rotate with the
shaft.
Some diaphragms are liquid cooled. The inside of

these diaphragms is a passage through which
water circulates. If the temperature of the water
flowing through the diaphragm is sufficiently low,
the temperature of the diaphragm can be reduced.

Compressors
When the gas leaves the wheel and flows through the diffuser
and into the return passage, it is in contact with the outside of
the walls of the diaphragm.
The diaphragms use the cooling system to cool the gas in the
compressor.
By comparing the pressure on each side of the rotor, it can be

seen that the pressure on the intake side is higher than the
pressure on the discharge side.
Figure 99: Cooling of diaphragms
This imbalance creates an axial force or thrust, which presses

the rotor from the intake end towards the discharge end.
In small or low pressure installations, axial movement (thrust) of

the rotor shaft can be prevented by installing a thrust bearing.
But when the axial thrust is too high, which is the case of multi-
stage compressors, a balancing drum is installed to balance the
forces.
Figure 100: Balancing drum

Compressors
5.1.4. Seal packings on dynamic compressors
The sealing of the gases around the shafts is obtained by means of:
Specific mechanical packings (gas, liquid, dry, etc.)
Pressure loss labyrinth
Figure 101: Details of labyrinths

Compressors
5.1.4.1. Mechanical contact packings
The surface is flat and perpendicular to the rotation axis of the rotor. Sealing is provided by
contact with a stationary ring pressed against a rotating ring installed on the shaft.
The pressurised oil is supplied by a sealing-oil pumping unit. These oil pumping units
require a lot of maintenance and are one of the main causes of shut-down observed on
centrifugal compressor units. The use of dry seals avoids the need for these oil pumping
units, and improves the reliability of centrifugal compressors.
5.1.4.2. Dry packings (tandem type)
These are now the most widely used packings.
Figure 102: Tandem dry packing

Compressors
The simple packing consists of:
A stationary bush, centred and guided by one or several O-rings and pressed
against the rotating ring by springs.
A rotating ring with spiral grooves enabling the stationary bush to be lifted.
The rotation effect and the viscosity forces enable a clearance to be established between
the rotating ring and the stationary bush. As this clearance is small, the leakage flows are
low and are ejected to the atmosphere by means of a torch.
This packing is called "tandem" because it consists of simple packings, each capable of
sealing the gas pressure; the second packing backs up the first.
The double packing consists of two single packings mounted face to face. Inert gas is
injected between these two packings. This injection can contaminate the process gas, but
prevents this gas from being rejected to the atmosphere. The reliability of this packing is
totally dependent on this injection of inert gas.
Also refer to the course on mechanical packings, SM090.
5.1.5. Lubrication
Concerning the lubrication of the bearings, this usually consists of lubrication under
pressure: the oil arrives under pressure thanks to a pump, and is channelled to the
bearings.
In order to preserve correct oil viscosity, coolant units are placed on the lubrication system.
Before passing through the coolant unit, the oil passes through a filter in order to eliminate
any impurities it may contain.
If the oil flow-rate is to low (level, viscosity, etc.), the bearings may suffer damage due to
insufficient lubrication. A regular flow-rate must be maintained when the compressor is
operating.
A safety system will stop the installation if a lubrication anomaly occurs. It is for this reason
that an auxiliary pump is installed in parallel in the system. The main pump can be either
directly driven by the compressor shaft, or driven by its own electric motor. This pump
usually operates while the installation is rotating.
The auxiliary pump is only used in case of emergency (lubrication anomaly).
The auxiliary pump operates until the compressor reaches its normal rotation speed, after
which the main lubrication pump takes over from the auxiliary pump and the latter stops.

Compressors
Figure 103: Compressor

lubrication
As soon as the compressor

slows down abnormally, the
auxiliary pump starts running
again.
Some processes require more

than one compressor to
maintain the pressure that is
necessary for the correct
operation of the system.
In a serial configuration, the discharge from the first compressor provides the intake air for
the second one. In this way, the gas that enters the second compressor is at a higher
pressure than the intake pressure of the first compressor. In this configuration, the
pressure is regular.
Compressors can also be connected together in parallel. In this configuration, the gas
flow-rate is regular.
Figure 104: Possible configurations
In a parallel configuration, if the discharge pressure of one compressor drops below the
discharge pressure of the other, the compressor with the lowest pressure will be driven by
the other one.
The discharge pressures of both compressors must be the same.
All compressors installed in parallel are protected against pressure back-flow by a non-
return valve installed on the discharge of each compressor.

Compressors
5.1.6. Barrel compressor
These compressors are suitable for:
Medium and high pressures.
Gases with a low molar mass.
Figure 105: BARREL compressor
These compressors have an envelope with a vertical sealing face. The sealing between
the envelope and the cover is provided by an O-ring type seal. These envelopes are
generally forged.
Assembly and disassembly of the compressor are carried out from the opposite end to the
drive.
The rotor is placed inside the aerodynamic cartridge, which is made up of the assembly
consisting of the diaphragms and the wall of the air intake. This aerodynamic cartridge,
which has a parting line to enable the rotor to be installed, is inserted into and removed
from the compressor envelope by means of a system of rollers. All these compressor
assembly and disassembly operations can be carried out without disconnecting the
process pipes.

Compressors
5.1.7. SPLIT compressor
These compressors are suitable for low pressures and high flow-rates. They have an
envelope in two parts, which are bolted together at the horizontal parting line. The sealing
of the parting line is of the metal-on-metal type. These envelopes are often cast.
The diaphragms, the walls of the air intake

and the discharge volute are installed in
half-sections, directly in each half-envelope.
This type of assembly enables easy

maintenance by direct access to the internal
components of the compressor.
Figure 106: SPLIT compressor
The above compressor consists of two

sections with symmetrical geometry, joined
together back to back, which enables the
flow-rate of the compressor to be doubled
and the axial thrusts to be balanced. The
discharge scroll and the final diffuser are
common to both sections. The discharge
scroll is moulded into the envelope.

Compressors
5.2. AXIAL COMPRESSORS
An axial compressor is a compressor whose flow follows the line of the rotating shaft,
unlike a centrifugal compressor. The axial compressor generates a continuous flow of
compressed air, and provides high efficiency for a given density and a given compressor
cross-section.
It is necessary to have several stages of blades to obtain high pressures, in order to have
compression ratios that are equivalent to those of a centrifugal compressor.
An axial compressor has two sets of blades, the rotor and the stator.
An axial compressor comprises rotary parts and static parts. The central shaft, which is
guided by bearings, consists of rings which are themselves made up of rotating blades and
static vanes.
Figure 107: Compressor stage
The assembly is an alternating stack of rotors and stators. A stage is a rotor disk followed
by a stator disk.
The rotating stage accelerates the flow of flu id thanks to the energy induced by the
transmission shaft.
The static stage transforms the kinetic energy into pressure via an expansion process due
to the shape of the stator.
The cross-section between the rotor and the compressor casing decreases to maintain a
flow in the axial direction of the machine.
Compressors
Figure 108: Axial compressor
The blades of the rotor act in the same way as the blades of a fan.
They cause the gas to move vigorously when they rotate.
They give the gas both speed and pressure.
When the gas exits the blades of the rotor, it is sent through the vanes of the stator. The
gaps between the vanes of the stator act as diffusers and reduce the velocity of the gas.
Figure 109: Flow of air
As the speed decreases, the pressure increases. Each set of rotor and stator blades
increases the gas pressure.

Compressors
The blades of an axial compressor are smaller towards the discharge end of the
compressor. As the gas flows from the intake to the discharge, the gas takes up less
space and this causes the pressure to increase.
Figure 110: Details of blades and volume
The increase in the compression ratio for a single stage is limited by the relative velocity
between the rotor and the fluid, and by the geometry of the vanes.
The compression ratio in the final stages is obtained if the relative velocity between the
fluid and the rotors is supersonic, but this is obtained to the detriment of efficiency and
utilisation.
Such compressors, with pressure ratios of 2 per stage, can

only be obtained by reducing the size or weight of the
compressor to a minimum, or by increasing its complexity.
The airfoil of the blades and vanes is optimised to comply

with the operating range of the compressor stage.
Although compressors can operate at different flow ratings

(rotation speed, compression ratio, etc.), this is detrimental
to their efficiency and can even cause them to stop
operating.
Figure 111: Attachment of the blade onto the compressor

shaft
Operational stoppage is caused by aerodynamic stalling of the fluid on the rotor, and this
results in an aerodynamic obstruction, known as surging. Surging is a dangerous
phenomenon for the compressor, as it can cause the vanes and/or blades to rupture.

Compressors
5.3. SURGING
Until a few years ago, oil-well gases were evacuated to torches, due to the fact that the
recovery structure for these gases was not economically viable.
The installation of re-injection stations, thanks to the development of machines capable of

processing enormous quantities of gas, not only enables these gases to be recovered but
also increases the production of crude oil.
This high pressure gas re-injection technique enables gases to be re-injected into the wells
or strata, and produces a high-pressure gas/crude mixture which increases the operating
coefficients of the strata.
The most suitable machines for this application were compressors. However, these
machines are subject to a considerable drawback, which is the surging phenomenon, an
unstable operating state that results in pulsations that can be dangerous in that they
jeopardise the mechanical strength of the machine and can reverse the axial thrust on the
rotor, cause vibrations in the compressor and result in rupture of the blades due to the
inversion of the gas flow. It is therefore essential to keep the compressor operating outside
the instability zone.
This phenomenon occurs in operating ranges that correspond to low flow-rates at the
intake, and can generally occur whenever "Compression ratio – Flow-rate" characteristic
curve reaches its maximum.
Surging is a condition that only occurs in centrifugal and axial compressors. For each gas
velocity in a compressor, there is a certain capacity below which the operation of the
compressor becomes unstable.
The stability of an operating point is ensured by associating the characteristic of the

compressor with that of the intake and discharge systems at the same time. A decrease in
the intake flow-rate causes the characteristic of the system to slide across to an instability
area. An increase in the discharge volume can result in a recirculation of the gas in the
reverse flow direction, which can cause vibrations inside the compressor.
To prevent this phenomenon, compressors are fitted with anti-surge systems to regulate
the intake flow-rate and maintain the compressor within a stable operating range by
ensuring, whatever the compression ratio, an intake flow-rate that is higher than the flow-
rate which corresponds to a surge phenomenon, by sending gas back to the intake via a
relief valve controlled by a flow regulator rate, after tapping that gas from the discharge
end; this causes a major decrease in production due to the permanent opening of the
recirculation valves.

Compressors
Figure 112: Anti-surge system
The solutions proposed until now, to prevent this phenomenon, have not provided
encouraging results. This is because these systems always have a risk of moving into a
surge phase. This is due to the fact that current anti-surge regulation systems have
several disadvantages, which are:
Gas wastage due to the permanent opening of the recirculation valves.
A fairly long response time of the anti-surge regulators.
Creation of radial vibrations of the rotor, which can result in rupture of the thrust
bearing and of the blades.
In certain cases, operation of the compressor in the surge area even if the
recirculation valves are completely open.
On the other hand, the molar mass of the gas varies frequently, and this causes the
pressure to vary with time.
All this requires specific anti-surge protection facilities that are capable of adapting to any
change in the characteristics of the system.

Compressors
5.3.1. Definition
Due to its principle, the compressor is connected to two systems at different pressures: the
intake system (low pressure) and the discharge system (high pressure).
Surging occurs in a compressor when the high pressure discharge system empties into the
low pressure intake system, due to a back-flow of gas in the compressor.
This phenomenon, which can have several causes, results in a momentary instability of
the air system (in the case where the gas is air).
When the discharge system has back-flowed sufficiently into the intake system, the
compressor returns to its operating conditions, which enable it to restore the flow in the
correct direction until a new instability cycle starts.
These large fluctuations in flow-rate are known as surging, due to the successive back-
and-forth oscillations of the gas flow.
5.3.2. Consequences
Each reversal of the air flow therefore represents a violent shock for the kinetics of the
compressor, and also for the electrical power supply of the main drive motor.
For this reason, the manufacturers establish safety coefficients and install surge detectors,
but the effects of surging are vary destructive, either immediately, or progressively due to
fatigue of the components that are subjected to the repeated shocks.
Rupture of blades on the compressors
Strong radial vibrations and destruction of the bearings
Premature wear of the electric motors
Burst pipes in the air system.
To prevent destruction, manufacturers install surge detectors or back-flow sensors, which

cut off the general power supply to the main drive motor. This reduces the length of the
surge and the mechanical parts are subjected to less stress. But these sensors cannot
anticipate the problem, because they are triggered by it.
The other protection sensors (temperature, differential pressure, etc.) theoretically enable
this phenomenon to be anticipated, but surging occurs by definition when the compressor
is operated under conditions which exceed its performance limits.

Compressors
5.3.3. Conditions that trigger surging
In practice, operating conditions that exceed the performance limits of compressors occur
relatively often:
The most typical case is an excessively fast closing pitch of the regulating valve,
which generates an overpressure wave in the discharge that will be detected by
the surge detector and will cause a power cut-off: "light" surging then occurs. As
the power of the drive motor is off, damage to the compressor is rare.
Just as typical is the total or excessively fast closure of the regulating valve (cell
undergoing washing, loss of the system by the valve plc, etc.), which results in
an overpressure which exceeds the maximum differential of the compressor: in
this case, surging is inevitable and is caused by exceeding the maximum design
power of the compressor.
Another typical case is operation under very hot conditions, with air
temperatures in excess of the maximum design temperature of the compressor.
The operation of the compressor can no longer be guaranteed, whatever its
flow-rate.
The final typical case is operation with increasing pressure losses as years go
by, due to progressive clogging of the air intake filters. There comes a time
when the compressor is operated with a back-pressure greater than its
maximum differential pressure. In this case, surging can occur an any moment,
depending on the required flow-rate and air intake temperature. The risk in
operation is that the operator may get used to this offset operation during the
cooler months or the year, because as soon as the first high temperatures
occur, surging will be inevitable and will happen time and time again for as long
as the air intake has not been unfolded.
Each of these conditions can, on its own, trigger surging, but under operating conditions,
problems often add together, therefore increasing the risk of triggering this phenomenon.
In practice, in cases where the maximum temperature of the air drawn in and the nominal
pressure differentials are complied with, 99 % of all cases of surging are due to valve
regulation or to communication problems between plcs.

Compressors
5.3.4. Why is surging destructive?
To properly understand the origin of the destruction of parts during surging, it is necessary
to bear in mind that the power of the motor is adjusted to ensure operation at the
maximum operating point of the compressor, which is the point that combines the four
following parameters:
Maximum intake temperature
Maximum hygrometry
Maximum differential pressure
Maximum air flow-rate
The power of the drive motor will be calculated to comply with this extreme operating point
plus a slight inbuilt safety margin, to avoid unnecessary and costly over-consumption of
energy.
If the operating point imposed on the compressor is greater than its calculated maximum
point (safety margin included), the power of the air that is "over-compressed" by rapid
closure of the valve then becomes greater than the power of the compressor. The
expansion of the air back to the intake system is then inevitable.
In the worst case, if the sealing of the compression chamber is extremely efficient, which is
generally the case to obtain high compression efficiency, the expansion can briefly lock the
wheel and the high speed shaft of the compressor (rotor). When this happens, the teeth of
the step-up gear between the input shaft and the high speed shaft absorb all of the
maximum torque of the drive motor, because the rotation speed is zero.
The motor is subjected to a violent current drain, identical to that of a start-up, until its
maximum power is exceeded.
In this case, all the energy is often released by the breakage of the teeth of the gear.
In the meantime, considering the rotation speed of the wheel (15,000 to 20,000 rpm) and
the duration of the surge (at least 1/10th of a second), the rotor will have completed at least
25 to 30 revolutions under mechanical shock conditions. The result will be breakage of the
bearings and shocks between the impeller and the casing. The compressor is therefore
destroyed.
If the surging phenomenon lasts for several seconds and the step-up does not fail, then
the electric motor can suffer flashover due to the electrical stresses imposed on the
winding by the successive stoppages.

Compressors
5.3.5. How can surging be avoided?
It is vitally important that compressors not be subjected to operating conditions in excess

of their maximum design point, because breakage would be inevitable and would have
considerable financial consequences.
A few recommendations:
The slowest possible regulation, according to the process, in order to avoid jolts.
Rigorous maintenance of sites and machines in order to guarantee nominal

operation.

Compressors
6. TROUBLESHOOTING
Increase leakage due to:
destruction of the inter-stage labyrinths,
fouling of the ducts and wheels of a centrifugal compressor,
early signs of seizure of a packing, a pillow block or a thrust bearing.
By monitoring the performance of a machine, and particularly its efficiency data, it is

possible to monitor the condition of the internal parts of the machine while it is in operation.
Other measurements and other information are obviously essential (vibration level, axial
displacements, oil overheating, résulats des anlyses d’huiles, etc.), in order to determine
the mechanical condition of the compressor.
6.1. CAUSES OF PROBLEMS ON CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Trouble Probable causes
Compressor not up to speed
Excessive compressor inlet temperature
Low discharge pressure Low inlet pressure
Leak in discharge piping
Excessive system demand from compressor
Inadequate flow through the compressor
Change in system resistance due to obstruction in the

Compressor surge
discharge piping or improper valve position
Deposit buildup on rotor or diffusers restricting gas flow

Compressors
Faulty lube oil pressure gauge or switch
Low level in oil reservoir
Oil pump suction plugged
Leak in oil pump suction piping
Clogged oil strainers or filters
Failure of both main and auxiliairy oil pumps

Low lube oil pressure
Opearation at a low speed without the auxiliairy oil pump
running (if main oil pump is shaft driven)
Relief valve improperly set or stuck open
Leaks in the oil system
Incorrect pressure control valve setting or operation
Bearing lube oil orifices missing or plugged
Condensation in oil reservoir

Water in lube oil
Leak in lube oil cooler tubes or tube-sheet
Piping strain
Warped bed-plate compressor or driver
Shaft misalignment Warped foundation
Loose or broken foundation bolts
Defective grouting

Compressors
Inadequate or restricted flow of lube oil to bearings
Poor conditions of lube oil or dirt or gummy deposits in

bearings
Inadequate cooling water flow lube oil cooler

High bearing oil
temperature Fouled lube oil cooler
(Lube oil temperature leaving Wiped bearing

bearings should never be
permitted to exceed 82 °C) High oil viscosity
Excessive vibration
Water in lube oil
Rough journal surface
Improperly assembled parts
Loose or broken bolting
Piping strain
Shaft misalignment
Excessive vibration
Worn or damaged coupling
(Vibration may be transmitted
from the coupled machine. To
localise vibration, disconnect Dry coupling (if continuously lubricated type is used)
coupling and operate driver
alone. This should help to Warped shaft caused by uneven heating or cooling
indicate whether driver is
causing vibrations)
Damaged rotor or bend shaft
Unbalanced rotor or warped shaft due to severe rubbing
Excessibe bearing clearance
Operating near critical speed
Table 2: Possible causes of operating problems of centrifugal compressors

Compressors
6.2. CAUSES OF PROBLEMS ON RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Power supply failure.
Switchgear or starting panel.

Compressor Will Not
Start
Low oil pressure shut down switch.
Control panel.
Low voltage.
Excessive starting torque.

Motor Will Not
Synchronize
Incorrect power factor.
Excitation voltage failure
Oil pump failure.
Oil foaming from counter weights striking oil surface.
Cold oil.
Dirty oil filter.
Interior frame oil leaks.
Low Oil Pressure Excessive leakage at bearing shim tabs and/or bearings.
Improper low oil pressure switch setting.
Low gear oil pump by-pass/relief valve setting.
Defective pressure gauge.
Plugged oil sump stainer.
Defective oil relief valve

Compressors
Lubrication failure.
Packing Over-Heating Improper lobe oil and/or insufficient lube rate.
Insufficient cooling
Excessive lube oil.
Improper lube oil (too light, high carbon residue).
Excessive carbon on Oil carryover from inlet system or previous stage.

valves
Broken or leaking valves causing high temperature.
Excessive temperature due to high pressure ratio across

cylinder.
Faulty relief valve.
Leaking suction valves or rings on next higher stage.

Relief Valve Popping
Obstruction (foreign material, rags), blind or valve closed in
discharge line.
Loose piston.
Piston hitting outer head or frame end cylinder.
Loose crosshead lock nut.
Noise in Cylinder Broken or leaking valve(s)
Worn or broken piston rings or expanders.
Valve improperly seated/damaged seat gasket.
Free air unloader plunger chattering

Compressors
Worm packing rings.
Improper lube oil and/or insufficient lube rate (blue rings).
Dirt in packing.
Excessive rate of pressure increase.

Excessive Packing
Packing rings assembled incorrectly.
Leakage
Improper ring side or end gap clearance.
Plugged packing vent system.
Scored piston rod.
Excessive piston rod Run-out.
Faulty seal installation.

Crankshaft Oil Seal
Leaks
Clogged drain hole.
Excessive ratio on cylinder due to leaking valves or rings on

next higher stage.
Fouled crosshead bearings.
High Discharge Leaking discharge valves for piston rings.

Temperature
High inlet temperature.
Fouled water jackets on cylinder.
Improper lube oil and/or lube rate.

Compressors
Loose crosshead pin, pin caps or crosshead shoes.
Loose/worn main, crankpin or crosshead bearings.
Low oil pressure.

Frame knocks
Cold oil.
Incorrect oil.
Knock is actually from cylinder end.
Worn scraper rings.
Scrapers incorrectly assembled.

Piston Rod Oil Scraper
Leaks
Worn/scored rod
Improper fit of rings to rod/side clearance.
Table 3: Possible causes of operating problems of reciprocating compressors

Compressors
7. CONCLUSION
Like with pumps, there are several methods of driving compressors:
By electric motor: usually of the asynchronous type. In this case, the rotation
speed of the compressor is imposed by the electric motor. These motors are
equipped with thermal cut-outs to protect them against overloading.
Internal combustion engines.
Gas or steam turbines.
On compressors (and on all of the other equipment), makeshift repairs must be generally
prohibited:
If you have any clever ideas, sell them to the manufacturer.
Never tighten or loosen a leaking assembly when the installation is under

pressure.
After each maintenance operation, all safety devices and protection systems
must be put back into place, in good operating condition.
Here are a few definitions used in "compressor" language:
Normal cubic metres (Nm3): real flow-rate corrected to standard conditions

0 °C and 1 bar absolute.
Cs: Specific energy consumption (Wh/Nm3): specific energy consumption

represents the energy required to supply the real flow-rate. It must be expressed
by the ratio between the electrical energy drawn by the compressor and the air
flow-rate actually discharged after its output flange.
ESV (electronic speed variator): with different technologies used according to

the types of electric motors with which they are associated, electronic speed
variators enable the speed or torque of these motors to be monitored and
controlled whatever the load. Today, on asynchronous motors, which are the
most widely used in the industry, frequency converters are mainly used, and
incorporate electronic control functions that are increasingly sought after. They
ensure considerable gains in energy and are very versatile to use.
Concerning the alignment of compressors with their drive systems, refer to the course on
pumps (SM110), where an explanation of alignment is given. You will also find an
explanation concerning seal packings.

Compressors
8. FIGURES
Figure 1: An air compressor.................................................................................................5
Figure 2: Gas compressor ...................................................................................................6
Figure 3: Different pressures ...............................................................................................8
Figure 4: Effect of volume on pressure and temperature ...................................................10
Figure 5: Air passing ..........................................................................................................10
Figure 6: Types of flow.......................................................................................................11
Figure 7: Typical system ....................................................................................................12
Figure 8: Compression of air..............................................................................................13
Figure 9: Centrifugal compressor and axial compressor....................................................13
Figure 10: Piston-type reciprocating compressors.............................................................14
Figure 11: Screw compressor, vane compressor and liquid ring compressor....................14
Figure 12: Different compressors.......................................................................................14
Figure 13: Air reservoir ......................................................................................................15
Figure 14: Air drier .............................................................................................................15
Figure 15: Operation of the adsorption type drier ..............................................................16
Figure 16: Adsorption type drier.........................................................................................16
Figure 17: Diagram of an adsorption type air drier.............................................................17
Figure 18: Single-column drier...........................................................................................17
Figure 19: Refrigeration type air drier ................................................................................18
Figure 20: Operation of a refrigeration type drier ...............................................................18
Figure 21: Functional diagram of a refrigeration type drier ................................................19
Figure 22: Filtration methods .............................................................................................20
Figure 23: Different types of solid particle filter ..................................................................20
Figure 24: Oil and water filter element ...............................................................................21
Figure 25: Detailed view of the filter...................................................................................21
Figure 26: Float-type bleed valve with regulated level and time-delayed control ...............21
Figure 27: Oil separator .....................................................................................................22
Figure 28: Another type of separator .................................................................................22
Figure 29: Location of contaminants..................................................................................23
Figure 30: Spiral compressor.............................................................................................24
Figure 31: Operation of the spiral compressor...................................................................24
Figure 32: Example of an installation with a screw-type compressor.................................25
Figure 33: Details of an oil-free screw-type compressor ....................................................25
Figure 34: Choice criteria...................................................................................................26
Figure 35: Diagrams of single-effect compressors.............................................................28
Figure 36: Diagram of a double-effect compressor............................................................29
Figure 37: Reciprocating volumetric compressor...............................................................30
Figure 38: Piston / cylinder / valve system.........................................................................30
Figure 39: Connecting rod / crankshaft system..................................................................31
Figure 40: Piston position ..................................................................................................31
Figure 41: Taking up the clearance ...................................................................................32
Figure 42: Clearance between piston and liner..................................................................33
Figure 43: A valve..............................................................................................................34
Figure 44: Exploded view of the valves .............................................................................35
Figure 45: Operation of a basic compressor – intake phase..............................................36
Figure 46: Operation of a basic compressor – discharge phase........................................37
Compressors
Figure 47: Compression cycles..........................................................................................38

Figure 48: Compression ratio.............................................................................................40
Figure 49: Multi-stage compressor ....................................................................................43
Figure 50: Principle of an air cooler ...................................................................................47
Figure 51: Example of temperature and pressure variation ...............................................47
Figure 52: Natural air cooling.............................................................................................48
Figure 53: Example of a compressor with forced air cooling..............................................48
Figure 54: Air-cooled piston compressors..........................................................................49
Figure 55: "Water" cooling .................................................................................................49
Figure 56: Operation of a diaphragm type compressor......................................................50
Figure 57: Helical compressor ...........................................................................................51
Figure 58: Cutaway and internal view of a lubricated screw compressor ..........................52
Figure 59: The two types of screw compressor .................................................................53
Figure 60: Symmetrical and asymmetrical profiles ............................................................54
Figure 61: Dual rotor compressor ......................................................................................55
Figure 62: Screw compressor ............................................................................................55
Figure 63: Opposite directions of rotation ..........................................................................56
Figure 64: Principe of compression ...................................................................................56
Figure 65: No detrimental space........................................................................................57
Figure 66: Screw compressor sizing ..................................................................................57
Figure 67: Lobes................................................................................................................58
Figure 68: Operation of a lobe compressor........................................................................58
Figure 69: Details of a vane compressor ...........................................................................59
Figure 70: Operation of a vane compressor.......................................................................60
Figure 71: Constitution of a liquid ring compressor............................................................61
Figure 72: Operation of a liquid ring compressor ...............................................................61
Figure 73: Different configurations for a liquid ring compressor.........................................62
Figure 74: Cylindrical spirals..............................................................................................62
Figure 75: Scroll Compressor ............................................................................................63
Figure 76: Centrifugal compressor wheel ..........................................................................64
Figure 77: Axial compressor wheel....................................................................................64
Figure 78: Difference between an axial compressor and an centrifugal compressor.........65
Figure 79: Centrifugal compressor.....................................................................................66
Figure 80: Centrifugal compressor.....................................................................................66
Figure 81: Diagram of a single-stage centrifugal compressor............................................67
Figure 82: Impeller .............................................................................................................68
Figure 83: Different wheels ................................................................................................68
Figure 84: Wheel and shaft key .........................................................................................68
Figure 85: A diffuser ..........................................................................................................69
Figure 86: Centrifugal compressor with vertical mating face (Barrel).................................70
Figure 87: Two-stage centrifugal compressor with horizontal mating face.........................71
Figure 88: Demonstration of centrifugal force ....................................................................71
Figure 89: Centrifugal force ...............................................................................................72
Figure 90: Centripetal force ...............................................................................................72
Figure 91: Example of variable intake vanes .....................................................................73
Figure 92: Rotating vanes..................................................................................................73
Figure 93: Transformation of energy..................................................................................73
Figure 94: Examples of single-stage centrifugal compressors...........................................74

Compressors
Figure 95: Horizontal envelope ..........................................................................................74

Figure 96: Vertical envelope ..............................................................................................74
Figure 97: Sealing of envelopes ........................................................................................75
Figure 98: Location of diaphragms ....................................................................................75
Figure 99: Cooling of diaphragms......................................................................................76
Figure 100: Balancing drum...............................................................................................76
Figure 101: Details of labyrinths ........................................................................................77
Figure 102: Tandem dry packing .......................................................................................78
Figure 103: Compressor lubrication...................................................................................80
Figure 104: Possible configurations...................................................................................80
Figure 105: BARREL compressor......................................................................................81
Figure 106: SPLIT compressor ..........................................................................................82
Figure 107: Compressor stage ..........................................................................................83
Figure 108: Axial compressor ............................................................................................84
Figure 109: Flow of air .......................................................................................................84
Figure 110: Details of blades and volume..........................................................................85
Figure 111: Attachment of the blade onto the compressor shaft........................................85
Figure 112: Anti-surge system ...........................................................................................87

Compressors
9. TABLES
Table 1: Example of a 3-stage compressor with τ = 6 .......................................................44

Table 2: Possible causes of operating problems of centrifugal compressors.....................94
Table 3: Possible causes of operating problems of reciprocating compressors.................98


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MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE

4.1.3.5. Production of oil .........................................................................................45

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

At a microscopic level, a gas is described as a number of molecules with very weak

From a macroscopic point of view, matter in gaseous state is characterised by the

A gas does not have a shape of its

A gas does not have a volume of its

Any pure matter can be in three different states

Figure 1: An air compressor

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

Service air: Operating pressure 7 to 10 bars, de-oiled and partially de-

Compressed gases are often

Figure 2: Gas compressor

2.1. GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING AIR

The density of air is 1.293 kg/m3

Air is present in our environment in unlimited quantities.

Compressed air is easy to convey through pipes.

It is relatively insensitive to changes in temperature.

Air outlets and leaks generate very little pollution.

It is ideal for use in explosive environments.

Its compressibility property is close to that of perfect gases: P.v/t = constant

Air is characterised by three factors:

Pressure is the ratio between a force and a defined surface.

Pabs = Patm + Prel

Pabs: absolute pressure

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

Figure 3: Different pressures

The following formula enables temperature values in kelvins to be obtained from

T: absolute temperature (K)

For 50 °F, the calculation is > 50 – 32 = 18, then 18 / 1.8 = 10, so 50 °F = 10 °C

In these units, water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F.

Conversion from To Formula

Fahrenheit Celsius °C = (°F − 32) / 1.8

Celsius Fahrenheit °F = °C × 1.8 + 32

Fahrenheit Kelvin K = (°F − 32) / 1.8 + 273.15

Kelvin Fahrenheit °F = (K − 273.15) × 1.8 + 32

Kelvin Celsius °C = (K - 273.15)

2.1.3. Relative humidity

The percentage of relative humidity is the ratio between:

The quantity of water vapour contained in a certain volume of air.

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

2.2. THE BASIC LAWS OF COMPRESSED AIR

2.2.1. Fundamental law

P: absolute pressure (Pa)

Figure 4: Effect of volume on pressure and temperature

2.2.2. Air flow-rate

Figure 5: Air passing

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

2.2.3. Pressure losses

Figure 6: Types of flow

The Reynolds number is the most important dimensionless quantity in fluid

Compressed air in pipework is subject to the turbulent regime.

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

2.3. PRODUCTION OF COMPRESSED AIR

First of all, here is a typical representation of a compressed air installation.

Figure 7: Typical system

2.3.1. What happens when air is compressed?

Compressed air is clean, safe, simple and efficient.

It is an energy source that is not combustible and does not pollute.

Air has an atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. When it is mechanically compressed by a

Training Manual: EXP-MN-SM120-FR

(P1 V1) / T1 = (P2 V2) / T2