Ee eee BRIDGE METHODSCera cea . Bridges for Measurement of Resistance, Inductance & Capacitance Alternating current bridge methods are important for measurement of inductance, capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc.The a.c. bridge is natural out growth of Wheatstone Bridge. ts basic form Consist of fourarms, a source of excitation(ae source), a balance detector. GENERAL EQUATION FOR BRIDGE BALANCE, For balance of bridge the condition required is no current through the detectori.e. the potential difference between points 6 and d should be zero. Thisis possible when, e1=%064121 = i222 ‘Also at balance, fy =i = ad = Substitute ean.(2) and eqn.(3) oives, Au = 4% This isthe baste equation for balanced ac bridge Consider the polar form, the impedance can be witien as,z ‘complex impedance. Hence. (21.261)(24404) Forbalance,=,24/(0, +) 22£82)(25£8s) 22232(02 +95) 226. z represents magnitude ana represents the phase angle ofMEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE MAXWELL'S INDUCTANCE BRIDGE: q This bridge is used to measure self-inductance by comparison with a variable standard selfinductance. Th connection of bridge and phasor diagram for balanced circuit is shown. ; Ly inductancs o be measured nin resistance Fy Favanate wowace Re-vanstie esatace Eh lsh pals Eke WIR he Reh‘The balanced condition is that 242, — zpzy oF, (Ri + july) Ry Equating real and imaginary part of both sides, (Ro Ry Re= pure ress jula)Rs RyRy = PoRy Bak i 1,R,= LR, Lak Lh=% Hence the unknown resistance can be measured in terms of known inductance and two resistors And the whole process are independent of frequency. This bridge ts used for measurement of iton losses of transformer at audio frequency,M LS INDUCTANCE CAPACITANCE BRIDGE: lere, an inductance is measured by comparison with standard capacitance. The connection of bridge and phasor diagram for balanced circuit is shown. Her, ne macianeso oe messes wi esac I, RoR Res ae noun pe restance Ceevable sanders capacioe Non: % = (+ Sola) 2 Ra 2B Ri i ‘Tebmiarces conan 1 a em ae (2.40) (scm) Re RR, + ful Ry — RyRy + jwRyRsCyRy Equatng ea ara magnary par of bot ies.s bridge is a modification of Maxwell's bridge with a series res tead of resistance parallel with capacitor. Let Ty> wavcionce tobe measured wi resstance Ry Zo Ry + jobs; By = By; RR Re=are own pur resistance ao ea The balanced condition is that, a) (Ra che) = Rahs RR, + & = RaRy i = Rae Hence for calculation of unknown j inductance we should know the frequenc) of supply. hy = 2c Fa Foe the feqvency term which is same as he trequency of souce o Uppy.ERSON'S BRIDGE: This bridge is modification of the maxwell's inductance capacitance bridge. Here self inductance is meas in terms of standard capacitor over a wide range of values. = the self-inductance to be measured =resistance connected in series with self- inductor 1,Rp,Rs,Ry= are known pure resistance C= fixed standard capacttor. Atbalance, h=h h=I,+h TR = Ix 35 T, = I jwCR; Writing the other balance eqations + gus) = T2Pe + Ter 4+ jol,) —IpRz + TyjoCRor Phasor lagram ot Anderson's bridge1 (Ry + jul, ~ jwCRgr and (r TjsCRy (r+ I, jwCRs) Ry I, (uC Ryr + Ry + JoCRgRy) ~ ly Ry 2) From equation (1) ana (2) we ge I, (fC Ryr + Ry + JoCRsRy) x + July — eC Ryn) x oh Equatig real and imaginary part Balt R= Ly = FE ir(Ra+ Ro) + Ray] ‘This method is used for measurement over 2 wide range of values from few mlcro_henrys to several henrys.Pee I'S BRIDGE: The circuit diagram of this bridge is shown. Here also unknown inductance is measured in terms of fesistance and capacitance.From figure Balance condition is, 12x Lalu a5 (Ra + jun) = Ra (Re — ‘By separating real and maginares, ve gotCrrcopator tobe means (Cyrastanaracapactor Ri, Re tonsneucve ress Byranig etme Ry or Ry Let I1 be current through Rt and¢2 ana be curentnousn Rana ‘A batanced condo, R= LR neh Frome to equttons we get(Cyscaprtor tobe measnes Cyra stants capactor Re nonnaucivereseter Reesor nos neve resto Carve capacor (r+ 3) (rise) ~ mes (ra sig) Ra = ep + ea) tquating real and imaginary Fart,MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY WIEN'S BRIDGE: ‘Tne btge cleus shown Ag. The usal balanced rlatineip ges Ri(Ri- a) = (Geen) ‘Separatng real and imaginay par, RyRy + Ral = RoPy Gh Rm hi Reh \wern's bnage also nad applications on auaio and HF osciators as ne requency determinng device.Heaviside Bridge Circuit We use standard mutual inductor in finding out the the value of unknown mutual inductor in various circuits. Mutual inductor is used in various circuits as main component in determining the value of self inductance, capacitance and frequency etc. Such that the magnetic fields are additive, the resultant inductor of these two can be calculated as Where, L, is the self inductor of first coil L, is the self inductor of second coil, Mis the mutual inductor of these two coils. Now if the connections of any one of the coils is reversed thenwehave 1, -1 On solving these two equations we have (a)eat Ae Thus the mutual inductor of the two coils connected in series is given by one-fourth of the difference between the measured value of self inductor when taking the direction of field in the same direction and value of self inductor when the direction of field is reversed. However, one needs to have the two series coils on the same axis in order to get most accurate result, Let us consider the circuit of Heaviside mutual inductor bridge, given below, om oh eee : 5 = or jut Es poh = rabrat jute he i ( & y — 6 z and mutual inductor is given by, rile rlCODEUNAVAILABLE Letus corsider some special case, When, ry — re Inthis case the mutual inductors reduced to el Now let us consider the circuit of Campbell's Heaviside bridge given below This is the modified Heaviside bridge. This bridge is used to measure the unknown value of self inductor in terms of us q mutual inductance. The modification is due to addition of Mt ‘ balancing coil |, and Rin arm 1 - 4.and also electrical 1 resistance ris included in arm 1-2. Short circuit switching is connected across r, and I, in order tohave two sets of x readings one while short circuiting r,and|, and other while open circuiting, and |, A | : Balancing CotNow let us derive the expression for self inductor for this modified Heaviside bridge. Also let us assume that the value of M and r with switch open be M 1, M and 12 with switch closed. For open switch, we have at balance point, Mi(ra +r) ee ee ee? and with dosed switch we can write , _ Ab(ry tra) + rith (ay Thus we final expression for self inductor lasRe Campbell's Bridge Definition: The bridge which measures the unknown mutiialinductance regarding mutual inductance such type of bridge isknownas the Campbell bridge. The mutual inductance is the phenomenon in which the variation of current in one coil induces the current in the nearer coil, The bridge also used for measuring the frequency by adjusting the mutual inductance until the null point b is not obtained. evans ie Faure pantech auslioasetenee L, - self-inductance of secondary of mutual inductance M M, - variable standard mutual inductance L, - self-inductance of secondary of mutual inductance M, R,,R»RyR, ~ Non-inductive resistan Campbell's Bridge cuit obas E z E tc a if a Coat eee cr fre ced position of the bridge ‘d’ The circuit behaves like a simple self- for obtaining the balanced position of a ‘The two steps are required for obtaining the balan 4, The detectors connected between points’b’ and, inductance commercial bridge. The condition requires bridge is The bridge is in balanced condition by adjustment the R; or R, and R, and Ry, 2. The detector is connected between the b’ and d’. Along with the step-1 adjustment if the mutual inductance M, is varied, then the balance point is obtained MR; M, Ry M2Rs RyCoe nec Kelvin Bridge Definition: The Kelvin bridge or Thompson bridge is used for measuring the unknown resistances having a value less than 10. It is the modified form of the Wheatstone Bridge. What is the need of Kelvin Bridge? Wheatstone bridge use for measuring the resistance from a few ohmsto several kilo-ohms. But error occurs in. the result when itis used for measuring the low resistance. This is the reason because of which the Wheatstone bridge is modified, and the Kelvin bridge obtains. The Kelvin bridge is suitable for measuring the low resistance. Modification of Wheatstone Bridge In Wheatstone Bridge, while measuring the low-value resistance, the resistance of their lead and contacts increases the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily be understood with the help of the circuit diagram. lll Priniple of Kevin's BrdgeThe ris the resistance of the contacts that connect the unknown resistance R to the standard resistance S, The ‘m’ and 'n’ show the range between which the galvanometer is connected for obtaining null point. When the galvanometer is connected to point'm, the lead resistance r is added to the standard resistance S. Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the galvanometer is connected topoint n then the r adds to the R, andhence the high value of unknown resistance is obtained. Thus, at pointn and m either very high or very low value of unknown resistance is obtained So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any intermediate point say d where the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts, i.e.,r, andr equ(1) » @ The presence of r, causes no errorin the measurement of unknown resistanceCor Nea ee: The above equation shows that f the galvanometer connects at point d then the resistance of lead will not affect their results The above mention process is practically not possible to implement. For obtaining the desired result, the actual resistance of exact ratio connects between the point m and n and the galvanometer connects at the junction of the resistor.Pai roy, Kelvin Double Bridge Circuit The ratio of the arms p and qare used to connect the galvanometer at the right place between the point jand k. The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The Pand Q is the first ratio of the arm and p and qis the secondarm ratio. The galvanometer is connected between the arms p and q at a point d. The point d places at the centre of the resistance r between the point m and n for removing the effect of the connecting lead resistance which is placed between the unknown resistance R and standard resistance S. The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q. Under balance condition zero current flows through the galvanometer. The potential difference between the point a and bis equivalent to the voltage drop between the points Ean Kelvin Double BridgeEan Pro" @+4)r ptatr Pp ((+a)r ee abrer| Fa = [7] equ(2) Be |e+s ee For zero galvanometer deflection, E See B pr Ppl oot prarrlea R ‘As we known, PIQ= pl then above equation becomes The above equation is the working equations of the Kelvins bridge. The equation shows that the result obtains from the Kelvin double bridge is free from the impact of the connecting lead resistance. For obtaining the appropriate result, itis very essentials that the ratio of their arms is equal. The unequal arm ratio causes the error in the result. Also, the value of resistance r should be kept minimum for obtaining the exact result The thermo-electric EMF induces in the bridge during the reading, This effect canbe reduced by measuring the resistance with the reverse battery connection. The real value of the resistance obtains by takings the means of the two.Limitations of Kelvins Bridge 1.The sensitive galvanometer is used for detecting the balance condition 2.The high measurement current is required for obtaining the good sensitivity Nowadays the kelvins bridge is replaced by the Kelvin Bridge Ohmmeter.Price Guard Wire Method Some form of Price Guard Wire Method is generally usedto eliminate the errors caused by leakage currents over insulation. Fig.1 illustrates the operation of This Method. In fig 1.(@), high resistance mounted ona piece of insulating material is measured by the ammeter voltmeter method. *The micro-ammeter measures the sum of the current through the resistor (IR) and the current through the leakage path around the resistor “The measured value of resistance computed from the readings indicated on the voltmeter and the microammeter, will not be a true value but will be in error. +Coates Figure .1 Application of guard circuit for measurement of high resistance In ig, .1 (b), the guard terminal has been added to the resistance terminal block. “The guard terminal surrounds the resistance terminal entirely and is connected to the battery side of the micro-ammeter. *The leakage current IL now bypasses the micro-ammeter which then indicates the current IR through the resistor and thus allows the correct determination of the resistance value from the reading of the voltmeter and micro-ammeter. “The guard terminal and resistance terminal are almost at the same potential and thus there will be no flow of current between them.CoPa UNAS Loss of Charge Method In this method we utilize the equation of voltage across a discharging capacitor to find the value of unknown resistance R. Figure below shows the circuit diagram and the equations involved are- WWW a mI AAW ‘ Loss of Charge Method v=Vew! oasis ClogV/eEy However the above case assumes no leakage resistance of the capacitor. Hence to account for it we use the circuit shown in the figure below. R; is the leakage resistance of C and Ris the unknownresistance We follow the same procedure but first with switch S, closed the first case we get itch S, open. For oagaxt R ~ G logo je Where, R aa RR For second case with switch open we get py _0stsse T tog0¥ Using R, from above equation in equation for R' we can find RWagner Earthing Device Definition: The Wagner earthing device is used for removing the earth capacitance from the bridges. Itis a type of voltage divider circuit used to reduces the error which occurs because of stray capacitance. The Wagner Earth device provides high accuracy to the bridge Athigh frequency, stray capacitance is induced between the bridge elements, ground and between the arms of the bridge. This stray element causes the error in the measurement. One of the way, of controlling these capacitances is too enclosed the bridge elements into the shield. Another way of eliminating these stray capacitance is to places the Wagner Earth device between the elements of the bridge. Construction of Wagner Earthing Device The circuit diagram of the Wagner Earth Device is shown in the figure below. Consider the Z,, Z» and Z, are the impedances arm of the bridge. The Z; and the Z,, are the two variable impedances of the Wegner Earth Device. The centre point of the Wagner earth device Is earthed. The impedance of Wagner device armsis similar to the arms of the bridge. The impedance of the arm consists the resistance and capacitances.The Wagner impedance placed in such away so that they make the bridge balance with Z,,2, andZ, Z,. The C,, CC, and C, show the stray capacitances of the bridges. The Dis the detector of the bridge. The bridge comes in the balance condition by adjusting the impedances of arms Z, and Z,, The stray capacitance prevents bridge to comes in the balanced condition. When the S is not thrown ‘on‘e' then the Dis connected between the point p and q. But when Sis thrown on ‘e’ then the detector D is connected between the terminal and earth The impedance Z, and Z, are adjusted until the minimum sound is ‘obtained. The headphones again connected between the point b and ¢ for obtaining the minimum sound, The headphones are reconnected between the point b and d, Z, and Z, are adjusted for obtaining the minimum sound. The process is continuously repeated for obtaining the silent sound. The point b, d, and e all are in the same potential. And the capacitance C,, C,, C,, C, all are eliminated from the bridge circuit along with the impedances Z,and Z, Wagner Earth DeviceSA Megger What is a Megger? The word "Megaer” which is derived from the words “megohms" and ‘teste of Evershed & Vignola's Ltd. The megohmmeter is generally called a mega} is an exclusive Trade Mark Few questions may arise such as Why ohmmeters are not called megohmmeters? What is the difference between the typical ohmmeter and a megge An ohmmeter measures low values of resistance and a megohmmeter several megohms by passing high voltage into it If we want to measure insulation resistance in the order of 1 M battery that powers the circuit when you set the knob to measure the resistance of the I= V/R, |= 9/1000000 = 0.000009 amps {tis not possible to measure such a small current which will not be able to deflect the galvanometer coll vill measure a higher range of .gohm with a multimeter, it has a 9v uit inside the multimeter. Thus it is impractical. ‘A meggeris used to measure insulation resistance and its powered by a inbuilt DC generator or battery of a higher voltage range, itis called Megohmmeter.Principle Megger works on the principle of electromagnetic attraction. When a primary coil that is carrying current is placed under the vicinity of a magnetic field it experiences a force This kind of force generates a torque that is made to deflect the pointer of the device which gives some reading Why perform an insulation resistance test? The insulation resistance is a quality of an electrical system that reduces with time environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, moisture, and dust particles. So it becomes necessary to check the insulation resistance of the equipment at regular intervals to avoid any major electrical shock, which could be deadly. This could be a symptom that the insulation got damagedConstruction of Megger The megger consists of a DC generator, its armature is hand-driven to generate a voltage. A clutch mechanism is used to slip after reaching a certain determined speed. Resistance R1, R2 nected in series with two coils, Coil A and 8 which constitute one instrument to which an indicating pointer is attached Permanent magnets having North, South poles produce a magnetic field to deflect the pointer. Test terminals at X and Y are used to measure insulation resistance. Ponte Dc generator rm . ° eee | j Ri Testn cil Tera — fi tJ |e] Coit ' R2 @ Scale el . Y Y= Zero Crank HandleOperation of Megger The megger is designed in such a way that the needle floats freely tll the generator is operated. When the generator is not operating, the needle may come to rest at any point on its scale. The meggeris neasure a high quantity of insulation resi The high resistance may be between the windings of a transformer or motor or between the conductor in a cable and the conduit ‘or sheath enclosing the cable. Ifthe test leads connected to the line and earth terminals are oper-circuited and a hand-cranked generator is operated, the needle movesto infinity. Infinity resistance means that itis too high for the: instrument to measure Ifthe test leads are connected to each other while the hand crank is turned, the pointer will defect to zero, indicating no resistance between the test leads ‘zero deflection in the above-mentioned test can mean that the conductor under sheath or conduit surround it touching theTypes of Megger sHand operated “Electronic with test button Electronic meager is provided by a battery. Scale indication is available both in Analog and Digital displays. andsrnen mec Mana na even agper ‘erences thes pu baton) Messe sale oxen pushbutton nage Cts 10K5 mae ras: co ‘Manual Hand driven Megger Electronic Megger (with Test push button)Procedure for Testing Insulation Resistance The motor has three windings, Red(R), blue (B), and Yellow (Y), and body. Connect the probe of Megger one to the Line(R), and the other to the ground. After connecting the probes press the electronic megger TEST push button or by cranking the manual megger. If there is no problem Meagger should indicate infinite insulation resistance value. If it indicates Zero, it means that insulation resistance cannot withstand heavy currents. Repeat the process by connecting the probes to the other lines Blue (B) and then Yellow (Y). Check the insulation resistance value so that we can know whether the winding insulation resistance is good or not.Advantages *Frequent meagering makes to understand the insulation resistance of electrical equipment such as motor, transformer, etc. theraby we come to know their healthiness Physical damages can be identified, which may lead to el due to leakages. Disadvantages +Hand driven meggeris less preferred over electronic megger because it requirestwo persons. One for cranking and the other for testing. *Accuracy varies with cranking the megger. Precautions *Never touch the leads while operating, keep a safe distance ‘Isolate the electrical equipment before performinga test “Avoid using Megger if any part of itis damaged, asit is unsafe to use. “Turing the Megger off, and manually discharging circuits on completion of tests is recommended, before touching any connection or circuit. Test leads including Crocodie clips must be in a good condition. Applications *Continuity test ‘Insulation test Earth or ground test