ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST.

Vo•,. XVI. JANUARY, i92i. No. i

THE LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA.

HENRY G. FERGUS0N.1

INTRODUCTION.

Mostof theoredeposits
c•ftheManhattan
district
aregold-
bearingveinsof a simpletype and presentno unusualfeatures,
but other oresinclosedin a singlethin bed of limestoneoffer in-
terestingproblems.
Manhattanis situatedin the southernpart of the northeasterly
trending Toquima Range, about 35 miles north of Tonopah.
The Toquima Range is one of the lessprominentof the many
narrow, isolated mountain ranges which are such notable fea-
turesof the Great Basin topography. The range is borderedby
desert'valleys--RalstonValley and Monitor Valley on the east
and Big SmokyValley on the west. On both sides,but particu-
larly on the west, the boundarybetweenrock in placeand valley
fill is irregular, in marked contrastto the sharp lines of demar-
cation on the easternfront of the Toyabe Range, which borders
Big Smoky Valley on the west.
The district was first visited by the writer in the summerof
x9x5- At that time lodemininghad suffereda collapseand little
could be seenof the ore deposits. Work, therefore, was chiefly
directedto a study6f the complexitiesof the geologicstructure
x Published by permission of the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
I
 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

and observations
on the placers? The district was revisitedin'
x9x9 and the geologyof the principaldepositsstudiedin some
detail;anothershorl•visit madein June,x9zo. The writer de-
siresto acknowledge the courtesiesextendedto him by all the
miningmenof the district. The detailedgeologic mapsof the
surfacegeologyand undergroundworkingsof the White Caps
mine,madeby Messrs.O. McCraneyand J. L. Dynan,were of
•specialvalue. The writer gratefully acknowledges the assist-
ancein criticismsand helpful suggestionsfrom his colleagues,
particularly A. C. Spencerand W. T. Schaller.
The ore depositsof the presentManhattan district date from
April, x9o5, when "specimenore" was discoveredby John C.
Humphreyon April Fool Hill. An old mine about4 milessouth
of the presenttown of Manhattanhad, however,beenworked
in the late sixties. The discoveries of rich surface ore with
plentiful free gold were madewithin a few hundredfeet of the
road leadingwest from the old campat Belmont. That such
ore shouldbe passedunnoticedfor 40 years must be attributed
to the inconspicuous croppingswhich characterizethe later dis-
covereddeposits.
During x9o6 the districtwas in a stateof excitementand rich
discoverieswere constantlybeing reposed. •The 'winter of
x9o7-8 was markedby depression followingthe deflationof the
boom,but the hard times,which led to temporarycessationof
quartz mining, turned the attentionof the minersto the placers
of Manhattan Gulch. For severalyears lode mining was con-
ductedspasmodically, and generallythe placeroutputexceeded
that of the lode mines. The best placer ground has, however,
been exhaustedsince x9x5, and sincethat time the lode output
has beenthe more important. In x9x7 the discoveryof rich
ore in the lower levelsof the White Caps mine led to another
boom,which, thoughshort lived, led to a considerable amount
of exploratorywork. At the presenttime a small amountof
2 Ferguson. H. G., "Placer Deposits of the Man.hattan District, Nevada,"
U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 640, pp. •63-x93, x9•7.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 3

explorationwork is being carried on, but the productionis prin-

cipally from the shallowsurfaceworkings of lessees.
GENERAL GEOLOGY.

The rocksof the southernportionof the Toquima Rangein-

clude Paleozoicsediments,intrusive granodioritemassesof Cre-

F•c. z. Geologic map of the southern part of t'he T'oquima Range.

taceousor Eoceneage and Tertiary lavas and sedimentsand in-

trusives. In the productiveportion of the Manhattan district
 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

(fig. 2) the older sedimentsare of Cambrianor Ordovicianage,

intenselyfolded,cut by many faults and everywheremore or less
metamorphosed.
Paleozoic Sediments.--The Cambrian sediments, in which are
the productiveore bodies,consistprincipallyof micaceousschists.
Lenticular beds of white quartzite and dark fine-grainedsand-
stone are common. There are also several limestone beds, of
which three in the lower part of the formation, and two near its
top are sufficiently well defined to be traced on the surface.
Other smaller beds are less persistent. Since many of the de-
positsoccur as replacementsin limestone,thesebeds have been
well exposedby prospecting,and consequently the structureof
this part of the district couldbe worked out in detail.
The threelowerbedsare but slightlyalteredand consist
of
blue-grayor white, fine-grainedcrystallinelimestone. The low-
est, locally known as the Pine Nut limestone,is about •o feet
thick and is the only one which showsany developmentof sili-
cate minerals, and that only in scatterednodules. The next,
known as the Morning Glory limestone, is •5 to 20 feet thick
and consistsof pure crystallinelimestone. The third bed, the
White Capslimestone,is 30 to 35 feet thick and forms the wall
rockof someof the most.importantdepositsof the region. Ex-
ceptwherealteredby mineraliz!ngsolutions,
it is a purecrystal-
line limestone, light blue in color and essentially free from
silicates. The two limestonesin the upper part of the Cambrian
terrane, on the other hand, show a considerabledevelopmentof
silicatesand range from white crystalline limestonesto rocks
consistingessentiallyof diopside. The total thicknessof Cam-
brian sedimentsexposedin the district probably exceeds3,00o
feet.
Above the Cambrian and tentatively assignedto the Ordo-
vician is a fine-graineddark schist,about 400 feet thick. Above
the dark schists-isa seriescomposedprincipally of a dark-gray
thin-beddedlimestone,associatedwith which are varying amounts
of black jasper. This seriesis probablylessthan 400 feet thick.
The first fossiliferous horizon is found above this dark lime-
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 5

stone. There are lenticularbedsof dark quartzite, overlain by

a few feet of slatescarryingwell-preservedgraptolites,indicat-
ing a horizonequivalentto a part of the upperPogonipforma-
tion of the Eureka district s and to the Palmetto formation of
the Silver Peak quadrangle.
4 Abovethis is a dark jasperylime-
stone,a few feet ir• thickness,
identicalin character
with that
below the quartzite. Above this is a considerable thicknessof
chloriticschistsimilar to that found directlyabovethe Cambrian,
but here diversifiedby occasionalbeds of impure brown lime-
stoneand dark blockyslate.
An isolatedoutcropof Carboniferous(Pennsylvanian)sand-
stone was found about a mile northwest of Manhattan. The rela-
tions to the other sediments are undetermined.
Granitic Rocks.--Large massesof granitic rocks occupy a
considerablearea in the Toquima range. The rock is in general
coarselyporhpyritic,with numerousorthoclasephenocrysts, up
to a coupleof inchesin length. Microscopicexaminationshows
that it rangesin compositionfrom a soda-graniteto a granodi-
orite, more commonlythe latter. There are also many dikesof
very fine-grainedaplite. Theseconsistessentially
of quartzand
orthoclase
with varyingdmounts
of muscovite
and 'a small
amountof pyrite, apparentlyoriginal. In placesquartzosesegre-
gationsin the aplitesform a connecting
link with the .quartz
veins. Spurr• describesan occurrencein the nearby Belmont
district,in whichan aplitedikegradesinto a metalliferous
quartz
vein.
Thenearest
largeexposure
of granitic
rockliesabout2 miles
to the south of the productivemines. But it is probablethat
there is a nearergranitemassto the north, beneaththe Tertiary
lavas,sincepebblesof graniteare commonin the lower rhyolite
8 Walcott, C. D., Mon. U.S. Geol. Survey,vol. 8, p. 284, •884.
Hague, A., Mon. U.S. Geol. Survey, vol. 20, p. 58, I892.
Spurt, J. E., Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey No. 208, p. 9I, I9O3.
4 Turner, H. W., "A Sketch of the Historical Geology of Esmeralda
County, Nev.," Amer. Geologist,vol. 29, p. 265, 19o2.
• Spurt, J. E., "Quartz Muscovi,teRock from Belmont,Nevada," Am. ]our.
Sci., 4th Set., vol. •o, p. 35•, t9oo.
6 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

breccias,and the Ordovicianlimestoneson SalisburyHill just

south of the lava-covered area and show intense contact meta-
morphism. There is, however, a small dike of coarsemuscovite
granite grading into aplite, about 1,5oo feet northeastof the
White Caps mine, and two small massesof a much altered
apliticrockhavebeencutonthe8oo-footlevelof theWhite Caps:
The age of the granodioriteis probably late Cretaceousor
early Tertiary, though no conclusivedata can be obtained in
this range. Although the granitic intrusion probably closely
followed the mountain-buildingmovementswhich producedthe
intense folding, there is no evidenceof any direct association.
The major folds had been developedbefore the rise of the in-
trusive to the level of the presentsurface,for the granodiorite
cuts the folded rocks at all anglesand showsno sign of any
gneissicstructureor even of important shearing. There is no
evidenceof doming of the sedimentsby the intrusive.
The rim of intensemetamorphismsurroundingthe granite
is narrow. The limestonescloseto the contactare epidotized
and abundantbiotite is developedin the schists. The more dis-
tant effects are shown in the developmentof silicate.minerals,
particularlydiopside,in someof the limestonesand the presence
of small knots of silicates in the Ordovician schists.
Tertiary Rocks.--The Tertiary rocks lie to the north of the
productivepart of the districtand consistpredominantlyof rhyo-
lite. The earliestis a brecciacomposedof angular fragmentsof
the older rockswithout volcanicmaterial. Rhyolite bracciascon-
taining fragmentsof the underlyingsedimentsform a large part
of the effusive rocks. The lower brecciasare cut by irregular
intrusionsof a fine-grainedrhyolite. Near the top of the Ter-
tiary seriesis a considerable
thicknessof shale,fine-grainedsand-
stone, water-laid tuff, and conglomerate. The finer grained
phasesof this resemblevery closelythe Siebert tuffs of the
Tonopahdistrict consideredto be of late Mioceneage. Above
this comesanother seriesof rhyolite breccias. Following this
there was intruded a considerable mass of rather coarse andesite
porphyry. The principalbody of this rock lies about2 milesto
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 7

the northeast of the White Caps mine and numeroussmaller

massesand dikes occur throughoutthe region. The principal
intrusivemassappearsto be laccolithicin nature and has tilted
and wedgedapart the tuffs and brecciaswhich it intrudes.
$tructure.--The Paleozoic rocks are compressedinto close
folds in part overturnedtoward the north. The axes of the
major foldstrend a few degreesto westof north, at right angles
to the presenttrend of the Toquima range. The principal anti-
cline is cut off obliquelyon its northern side by an overthrust
fault which brings the Cambrian above the Ordovician schists
and limestone. The overthrustdips to the southand southwest
at from 360 to 7ø0, and wasundoubtedlyformedat the time of
folding of the sedimentsthrough the irregularitiesof its plane
maybeinpartduetolaterfaulting'and
tilting.A normal
fault
alongthe southernborderof the Cambrianschistsmay alsodate
from this period,sinceit is cut by later faults trendingin an
oppositedirection.
As may be seenfrom the detailedgeologicmaps(Figs. 2 and
3), the productivepart of the regionis cut by a largenumberof
smallnormalfaults. Thesecouldbe mappedwith certaintyonly
in the portion of the territory traversedby the Cambrianlime-
stone. In oneinstance,a smalldike of alaskiteappearsto occupy
a fault plane. Two of the faults were traced to the northward
acrossSalisburyMountain. On the northernslopeof the moun-
tain the contactbetweenthe Ordovicianand the Tertiary breccia
follows the strike of one of thesefaults, so it is to be presumed
that faulting was of Tertiary age. The field relations,however,
do not precludethe possibilitythat the brecciawas deposited
against a pre-Tertiary fault scarp. The faults are roughly
parallel, for the mostpart varying in strike from a few degrees
eastof north to abouteast-northeast, and there is a tendencyfor
thoseof more northerly strike to be cut off by thosetrendingto
the eastward. This intense normal faulting is confinedto the
productiveportion of the district. Numeroussmall faults are,
however,observablein the vicinity of the prospectsin the lavas
on Bald Mountain,3 milesto the north. There are alsonormal
8 HENRY G. FERGUSON.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 9

faults of considerable magnitudewhich in placescut the lavas

but do not appearto extend to the sedimentsof the Manhattan
district. These appearto be youngerthan the intrusionof the
andesiteprophyryandprobablyowe their origin to the readjust-
ments following this intrusion. There is likewiseevidenceof a
periodof faulting in the lavasprior to the andesiteintrusion.
Erosion.--The lava-coveredregion was eroded until an ex-
tremely mature topography,approachingthe peneplainstage,
was reached. The topographywas fairly generalover this por-
tion of the Great Basinregion, for Ball6 mentionsthe existence
of similar old topographicforms on other rangesto the south,
and Meinzer7 has found a similar mature topographyon the
Toyabe Range. Ball considersthis mature land surfaceto be
latePliocene
in age,as it is laterthanthe "later rhyolite"of
early P!ioceneage and older than the later tuffs and older al-
luvium which mark the transition from Pliocene to Pleistocene.
Hencethe major portionat leastof the mountain-building
move-
mentsmust have been confinedto the early Pleistocene,for at
the periodmarkedby the Pleistocene lakesa topographyap-
proachingthe presenthad beenattained.
The easternface of the Toyabe Range, a few miles west of
Manhattan,presentsa well-markedfault scarp. Faulting has
continued until recent times, for Meinzer8 reports that fault
scarpscut the alluvialfansat the canyonmouths.
Smallpatchesof Pleistocene graveloccurhereandtherealong
the bordersof Manhattan Gulch, and the deep gravels of the
gulchcontainfragmentsof bonesof Pleistocene mammals.
It is evidentthat a topographywhichat leastin its main out-
lines resembled the present,has beendeveloped in Pleistocene
time. Duringa periodof milderclimatethanthe present,pre-
o Ball, S. H., "A Geologic Reconnaissancein SouthwesternNevada and
Eastern California," U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 308, pp. I6-I7, 99, ZI9, •6•,
•02, •907.
* Meinzer, O. E., "Ground Water in Big Smoky, Clayton and Alkali Val-
leys, Nev.," U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 423, p. 2•, I9•7..
o Meinzer, O. E., op. cit., p. 22.
I0 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

sumably contemporaneous
with the Pleistocenelakes Bonneville
and Lahontan,two lakesexistedin Big Smoky Valley?

ORE DEPOSITS.

VEINS.

The ores of the Manhattan district occur in veins and as re-

placementdepositsin limestone. Two typesof vein depositsare
present,an unimportantolder group, connectedin origin with
the intrusive grandiorite massesof the region, and a younger
groupwhichis regardedashavingbeenformedduringthe period
of Tertiary volcanism,althoughthe productivedepositsare in-
closedin the Cambriansediments. The replacementdepositsin
the Cambrianlimestones are allied mineralogicallywith the Ter-
tiary veins, and, though the evidenceis inconclusive,they are
regardedas of contemporaneous origin.
Older Veins.--Veinsof the oldergroupshavenot beenprofit-
ably workedin the ManhattanDistrict,thoughelsewhere in the
regiondepositsgenetically
connectedwith the granodiorite
and
showingmineral associationscharacteristic
of a more deep-
seatedoriginthanthe Tertiaryveinshavesupportedworkable
silver mines,as at Belmont,I5 milesto the northwestof Man-
hattan,and Barcelona,near the crestof the rangebetweenBel-
mont and Round Mountain. In the Manhattan District the veins
representingthis epochof mineralization
are characteristically
narrowandof nogreatcontinuity.Theyarecomposed of white
glassyquartzwithminoramounts of calciteandhereandthere
containpatchesof coarsely
crystalline
sulphides,
including
pyrite,
galena,tetrahedrite,
and chalcopyrite.The tenorin precious
metalsis low andthe silvercontentis commonlygreaterthan the
gold. Tourmaline occurs asa minorgangue mineralin a few
veinsof thistype. In oneveina little feldspar(orthoclaseor
albite) is present,thus forminga connecting link with the
quartzose segregations
of the aplitedikes.
TertiaryVeins.--Thevolcanic rocks,including the andesite
o Meinzer, O. E., op. cit., p. 30.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. II

porphyry,whichis post-Siebert
(Miocene)in age,containsmall
veins, apparentlynot continuousover long distances,which
usually follow joint cracksor minor faults in the lava. The ore
of theseconsists
of minuteveinsof combyiron-stained quartz,
with minoramounts of tabularcalcite,whichis largelyreplaced
by quartz,and rarely fluoriteand adularia. Pyrite has been
presentbut is now completelyoxidized to limonite. 3Iere and
there minute specksof free gold can be seenon the surfaceof
the grainsof oxidizedpyrite.
The veinsof Tertiary age in the Cambrianschistshavebeen
the largestproducersof the Manhattan district: Theseare con-
finedto the vicinityof Gold Hill, just westof the town. The
oresare of relativelysimpletype. At the Reilly Fraction,Big
Pine and Big Four minesthe schists are traversedby innumer-
ablelittle veinlets,for the mostpart followingthe beddingand
jointing. Thesestringers containfree goldin a gangueconsist-
ingchieflyof combyquartz,butin places containing quartzpseu-
domorphicafter tabularcalcitetogetherwith clustersof adularia
crystals. The enclosing schistsare pyritizedin places,but this
pyrite is saidto bepracticallybarren. The zoneof workableore
is fairly well definedand is about 50 feet wide and 800 feet
long. In the Big Four minethe ore is stopedto a depthof 300
feet, about xoo feet abovepermanentwater level, but most of
the productionfrom the three mines has come from less than
too feet depth.
Thegroupof mineswestof thesummitof GoldHill, including
the Stray Dog, Jumping.•ack, Union lq'o. 9, and Little Gray,
showsthe same type of mineralization,but here the veins are
better defined and follow faults. There has been later movement
along many of the veins and also along planesintersectingthe
veinsat small angles. Where this has occurred,gold, probably
of secondary
derivation,is foundin association
with crushed
vein material and gougy manganeseoxide.
The mineralogicalcharacterof the schistores,particularlythe
presence
of abundant
adulariaandlamellarcalcitereplaced
by
quartz,indicatesthat they belongto the classof veinsformed
12 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

undernear-surface conditions.The similarityof vein fillingto

thatof theunproductive veinsin thelavassuggestsverystrongly
that both setsare of contemporaryorigin.

DEPOSITS IN LIMESTONE.

The ore depositsin the limestonebedsof the Cambrianshow

most complexmineralizationand a wide variety of minerals.
Productivemineralization is almostentirelyconfinedto a single
limestonebed, the upperof the three lower limestones, locally
known as the White Caps limestone. This bed has beentraced
from a point abouta mile eastof the White Capsmine through
Litigation Hill to the summitof April Fool Hill, where it is cut
off against the overthrust fault.' Throughout its courseit is
brokenby closelyspacednormal faults, mostlyof small throw.
This faultingappearsto be mostintenseand complicated in the
region betweenthe White Caps and ManhattanConsolidated
shafts. A detailed study of this region was made by Messrs.
McCraney and Dynan of the White Caps Companyin connec-
tion with ihe White Caps-Morning
Glorylitigationin I917, and
throughthe courtesyof the officialsof the White CapsCompany,
their map,with slightchangesby the writer, is here reproduced
(Fig. 3). The regionwestof theConsolidated shaftwasmapped
by the writer on a muchsmallerscale,whichadmitsof showing
only the more importantof the faults.
Occasionalreversefaults strike in the samegeneraldirection
as the limestoneand are shownby the repititionof the limestone
on the 3oo-footlevel'of the MahhattanConsolidated, and on
the 6oo-foot level of the Union Amalgamated.
The different mines in the limestone,althoughnear neighbors,
show sucha wide diversityin their mineralizationthat a short
descriptionof each will be given before the theoreticalside of
the ore depositionis discussed.
V?hite Caps Mine.--The White Caps mine appearsto mark
the easternlimit of profitablemineralizationof the limestone.
The Zanzibar,White CapsExtension
andRed Capsprospects
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 13

have exploredthe limestonebed to the east,but so far without

success.

The White Capsmine is developed

by sevenlevels,the lowest
of which is 80o feet below the collar of the shaft. The limestone
is herecut by threemajor faultswhichstrikenortheasterly
and
dip southeast.Theseare knownas the East Fault, White Caps

Fro. 3. Geologicmap of area betweenthe White Caps and Manhattan Con-

solidated mines, by O. McCraney and J. L. Dynan, with minor modifications
by H. G. Ferguson.

Fault and West Fault. There are also a numberof smallnorth-

erly faults whosehorizontaldisplacement
in most casesdoes
not exceed5 or •o feet. There has beenmore recentmovement
on the threemain faults than on the minor faults, sincethey cut
the earlier seriesand containroundedfragmentsof ore. The
earlier faults precededthe ore depositionand apparentlyto a
largeextentcontrolledit. They are cementedby ore and almost
losetheir identity in the ore bodies.
14 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

The ore bodiesoccuras large replacements in the limestone.

It is rare that mineralizationextendscompletelyacrossthe bed
but usuallyfollowsonewall, more commonlythe footwall. The
areasin which the small faults are mostnumerousappearto be
best mineralized. It is not uncommon for the ore and associated
mineralized limestone to have a horizontal section of as much as
•oo by 3ø feet. Two main zonesof mineralizationhave been
developed,the east ore body which has yielded ore from the

Pz...t•, o,• ,310voo.r z.l•v•x,

Fro. 4. Section through White Caps shaft, looking north; and plan of 310-
foot level. (Mineralized areas shaded.)

surfaceto the 8oo-foot level, and the zone containingthe West

and Shaft ore bodies,which has been productivefrom near the
xoo-footlevel to the 55o-foot level. The easternore bodyhas a
steepeasterlypitch,whichbringsit in contactwith the eastfault
betweenthe 550 and 8oo-foot levels. The westernbody is in
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 15

contactwith the White Capsfault betweenthe 45o and 55o-foot

levels.
The gangue minerals of the White Caps mine are calcite,
'quartz, and less commonlydolomite, fluorite, and leverrierite.
The metallicmineralsincludearsenopyrite,pyrite, stibnite,real-
gar and orpiment. Cinnabaris reportedto have beenpresentin
the ore found above the 2oo-foot level.• The arsenopyrite,
realgar, and orpiment are auriferous, but visible gold is com-
pletely lacking even in the oxidized ore. Oxidized minerals,
presentonly in minor amount and confinedto the two upper
levels, include limonite melanteriteand oxidation productsof
stibnite such as valentinite and stibioconite.
The followinganalysisof ore from the 3oo-footlevelis quoted
from Dynan'spaper
StOa. AI•02. CaO. Fe S. Sb. As. Mgo. H•O. CCh. Total.
55.8 x.8 7.2 8.9 8.2 0.7 x.5 3.2 0.8 9.2 97.3

Dynan has calculatedfrom this the following mineral com-

position:
Pyrite ............................................... x3.8%
Arsenopyrite ......................................... 3.3
Stibnite .............................................. x.o
Calcite ............................................... x9.6
Quartz ............................................... 52.0
(Ca, Fe, A1) Silicates ................................ 7.4
97.•

Ore from the lower levelsof the easternore body showsa

muchhigherpercentage
of'arsenic.
The earliest of the minerals associated with the ore is white
calcite. Huge rhombs are often observedin large irregular
shrinkage cavities. The mineral is coarsely crystalline, and
cleavagefaces8 inchesacrossare frequently seen. The altera-
tion of limestoneto coarsecalcitecommonlyfollows the bedding
and joint planesof the limestone. These replacementsvary in
xxDynan, J. L., "The White Caps Mine, Manhattan, Nev.," Mining and
Scientific Pre&r, vol. x3, p. 885, Dec. I6. x916.
x2Dynan, J. L., lac. cit., p. 884.
16 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

size from small lensesan inch or two acrossto large massesex-

tending nearly acrossthe limestonebed. The calcite is usually
glaringwhitein color,exceptwherethe presence
of finely
dividedrealgarimpartsa pinkishtinge. In a few places,how-
ever, small pieceshave been obtainedapproximatingIceland
sparin clearnessandtransparency.As far asknown,the calcite
itself is everywherebarrenand is mostplentifulnear the outer
edgesof the orebodies. In partsof the minesomecoarsewhite

F•s. 5 and 6. Calcite replacing limestone, 4o0 foot level, White Caps mine.

calciteoccursunaccompanied by ore, and is also found here and

there throughoutthe district, even in the dark Ordovician lime-
stone,though it is 'bestdevelopedin the ore-bearinglimestone.
The calciteis persistentin depth. The bestore of the mine con-
sistsof a dark, fine-grainedquartz, in placesso denseas to have
the appearance of blackjasper. This occursas a replacement of
the limestone and, to a less extent, of the coarse calcite. The
quartz is closelyconfinedto the ore bodiesand doesnot showthe
wide distribution characteristic of the barren calcite. The re-
placementof limestoneby quartz has involveda considerableloss
of volume,indicatedby numerousdrusycavities,usuallyelongate
with the beddingof the limestone. In thesemineralsof later age
--dolomite, stibnite,realgar,and orpiment,have beendeposited.
In placesthis reductionof volume,possiblyassistedby the ab-
stractionof the arsenopyriteby later solutions,has beensufficient
to permit collapseand local brecciationof the quartz, following
later movementalong the major faults.
 LIMESTONEORESOF MANHATTAN,
NEVADA. 17

The hand lens disclosesoccasionalminutespecksof pyrite in

the quartz. Under the high power of the microscope,however,
the dark coloris seento be dueto the presence of carbonaceous
matter and minute crystalsof a gray metallic mineral. These
range from the lower limit of visibility to a maximum of 0.05
mm., but most of them are lessthan 0.22 mm. in diameter. Many
of these
littlecrystals
aresotwinned'as
to resemble
minutejack-
stones. Qualitative tests indicate.that the metallic mineral is
arsenopyrite. Evidently it is highly auriferous for assaysex-
ceeding$200 per ton have beenobtainedfrom this type of ore.
No goldcanbe seenunderthe microscope and noneis obtainable
by amalgamation. Palmer,xahowever,found that this dark ore,
concentratedby panningand treated with nitric acid, yielded
minutespecksof free gold.
A little muscovite was observed in some of the thin sections
of the dark quartz. It. is not certain whether this is contem-
poraneouswith the inclosingquartz or is residualfrom the lime-
stone,thoughno muscovite
was foundin the few sections
of'the
limestone examined.
The replacement ore depositsare later than the first periodof
faulting, sinceboth quartz and calcite,but especiallythe quartz,
are foundrecementing the shatteredzoneswherethe minor faults
enter the limestone. On the other hand, they are clearly older
than the last movementon the larger faults for these contain
rounded fragmentsof the quartz.
Dolomite, stibnite, realgar and orpiment,with minor lever-
rierite and rarely fluorite, are clearly youngerthan the quartz
and calcitesincethey were depositedin openspacesof the cellular
and brecciatedquartz. The realgar and orpiment,at least,are
subsequent to the secondperiodof faulting sincesmall crystals
occurin the fault gouge.
Stibniteis foundthroughoutthe deposit,but is more prominent
in the westernpart of the mine. Small crystalsare frequently
found in the vugsof the dark quartz. Its mostusualoccurrence
xaPalmer, W. S., "Occurrence of Gold in Sulphide Ore," Eng. Min. iour.,
vol. Io7, pp. 923-924, May 24, I919.
18 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

is in roughlyradiatecrystallinemasses,in placesseveralinches
in diameter, which replacethe limestoneor coarsecalcite, or
more rarely the dark quartz. In placessmall "sunbursts"of
stibnitecrystalsoccuralong cleavageplanesof the coarsecalcite
and small needleswere found in the fault gouge of the later
faults. In all thesepositions,particularlyin the easternore body,
stibnite may be closelyintergrown with realgar. A rare occur-
renceof stibniteis in the form of delicatehair-like crystalsfound
in cavitiesin the calciteand rarely in the quartz. Orpiment is
found in this samehabit and association,but not realgar. Al-
thoughthe stibniteis practicallybarrenof gold it is confinedto
the ore bodies. Only rarely do smallclustersof stibnitecrystals
occur ouside of the mineralized areas.
Realgar occursin large amountsin the easternore body but
only sparinglyin the westernpart of the mine. In the stopeabove
the 665-foot level and on the 4oo-footlevel realgarwas present
in such large massesthat it was smeltedas an ore of arsenic.
The mode of occurrenceis very similar to that of the stibnite.
It is found as a-replacementof the coarsecalcite,in crystalline
masses whoseboundariesfollow the cleavageplanesof the calcite,
in narrow streaksfollowing the cleavages;it is also commonas
a filling of the numerouscavitiesin the dark quartz. A stope
abovethe 665-foot level showsrealgar and dark quartz in irregu-
lar bandsup to severalinchesacross. In placesblocksof prac-
tically pure realgar a couple of feet in diameter have been
obtained. The realgar is gold-bearing,though, as far as the
writer is aware,doesnot yield suchhigh assaysas are sometimes
obtainedfrom the dark quartz. Smelter shipmentsof 3o per
cent. arsenic,carried $2o to the ton in gold.
In the vicinity of the ore, but outsidethe ore bodies,realgar is
more widely distributedthan the other nfinerals. It is the only
ore mineral found outside the limestone and occurs in the foot
and hangingwall slatesin smallveinletsand impregnationsfor.
distancesof a few feet from the limestone. Realgar, in small
scatteredcrystals,is found in placesin the fault gougeof the
faults of the most recentseries,particularlythe White Caps
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 19

fault. In generalrealgarshowsthe sameassociations

and mode
of occurrence as the stibnite, and the two minerals are often
found closelyintergrown. In one specimenrealgar was found
in a clusterof little radiating rods, as if replacingstibnite.
Realgar occursin quantity throughoutthe easternore body
from the 3oo-footlevel to the 665-foot level. Aboveand below
this it is presentonly in minor amount.
Orpiment also occursin the easternore body but only above
the 4oo-foot level. It is clearly an alteration product of the
realgar. All stagesof the alterationprocesscan be observed,
beginningwith threadsof the orpiment in the realgar, through
specimensshowingcoresof realgar surroundedby orpimentto
pure orpiment. Only very rarely doesorpimentoccur,whichis
not clearly the result'of alteration of realgar in place. In a few
of the rugs in the coarsecalcitethere are delicateclustersof
hair-like orpimentcrystals.
The changefrom realgar to orpimentdid not free any of the
gold containedin the realgar. The orpiment is said to have
about the same tenor as the realgat.
Later pyrite is found, particularlyin the upper levels. This,
like the stibniteand realgar, occursin drusy openspacesin the
dark quartz or morerarely alongthe cleavagefacesof the white
calcite. It is inconspicuous in amountcomparedto the stibnite
and realgar. Marcasitehasbeenreported,but its presencecould
not be definitelyproved.
Among the later mineralsof the depositsare minor amounts
of quartz and calciteof a secondgeneration,and rarely lever-
rierite. Small crystalsof fluorite on projectingquartz crystals
of oneof the drusesin the fine-grainedquartzwere observedon
the 2oo-foot level.
Oxide minerals are nearly absent even in the upper levels.
In the lower levels the waters flowing from the mineralized
limestoneare depositing
stalactites
and sludgymassesof limonite
which contains arsenic, but whether as an arsenate or oxide is
not known. In someof the stibnitespecimenscollectedfrom
the Ioo and2oo-footlevelsthereis a partialalterationto valenti-
20 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

nite and stibiconite.Microscopic

crystalsof a transparent
mineralwith high refractiveindexwhichmay be arsenolitewere
observedin places,and pharmacoliteis probablyalsopresentin
small amount.

No free gold has beenfoundin the White Capsmine. The

bullion obtainedfrom the cyanideprocesscontainsalmostno
silver,havinga valueof over $20 an ounce. The ratio of gold
to silveris saidto be about 17 to I. The gold is clearlyasso-
ciatedwith the arsenicalminerals,particularlythe arsenopyrite.
Possiblythis explainsits abnormalpurity since arsenopyrite,
realgar, and orpimentall tend to precipitategold rather than
silver from solutions.
Manhattan Consolidated.--The Manhattan Consolidated has
beendevelopedby five levelsto a depthof 5oo feet. The IOO-
foot and 5oo-foot levels were not accessibleat the time of the
writer'.svisit. The shaft cutsthe overthrustfault belowthe 4oo-
foot level. A normal fault of large throw, known as the Mud
Fault, cutsthe workingsin a northeasterlydirectionand dipsto
the southeast.
The limestonebed is repeatedon the 3oo-footlevel, possibly
by a reversefault nearly parallel to the strike, and small faults
of nearly northerly strike and small displacement are frequent.
These are older than the faults of the northeast series, such as
the Mud Fault. Motion parallel to the bedding is shown in
gouge streaks along the top of the limestone.
The ore west of the fault is similar to that of the easternpart
of the White Capsmine. The ore bodyis formedby the replace-
ment of limestoneon both sidesof a small northerly fault.
Coarsewhite calciteis prominent,particularlynear the edgesof
the mineralizedarea. The best ore is a dark quartz much like
that of the White Caps but containingonly a little microscopic
arsenopyriteand more pyrite. S't•bniteis present in ismall
amount,in drusy cavitiesin the dark quartz and in the limestone
and calcite. Realgar is occasionallyfound. Small realgat crys-
tals occur in the gougealong the Mud Fault, particularly near
the surface.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA.

The ore differs from that of the White Capsmine in that there
is a considerable proportionof silver associatedwith the gold.
Bullion from the easternore body is said to have a finenessof
about 620.
The ore west of the Mud Fault differsmarkedlyfrom that of
the east ore body. Insteadof a large replacement body, miner-
alizationis closelyassociated with smallfault fissures,givingthe
so-called"vein deposits." Four of thesehave beenexploited;
two follow northeasterlyfaults of smallthrow; another,lesswell
defined,a fault nearly parallel to the strike of the limestone;and
the fourth rather irregular mineralizationalong the top of the
limestone. The mineralization does not extend for more than
a few feei from the controllingfissure,and the ore shootsare
small and irregular. Both coarsecalciteand fine-grainedquartz
are present. These occur as replacementsalong the beddingof
the limestone,thinning out away from the fissure. The quartz
resemblesthat of the White Caps in texture, but is lighter in
color, bluish gray rather than black. Pyrite is present,but
arsenopyriteis lacking.
Irregular solutionchannels,in placesfollowingthe dip of the
limestonefor 30o feet or more, are commonin the limestone
near the fissures. These containdepositsof muddy material,
apparentlychieflylimonite and manganeseoxide, in which wire
gold occurs.
Fluoriteis plentifulin the ore westof the fault, in the larger
cavitiesin the fine-grainedquartz. Stibniteand realgar are
absentin the westernpart of the mine.
Other Mines.--The samelimestonebed outcropsto the west-
ward from the ManhattanConsolidated alongthe crestandnorth
sideof LitigationHill. The principaldevelopmenthasbeendone
from the Bathand Earle shafts,and the Union No. 4 (Kane
shaft). The deepestof theseis the Earle shaft, whichhas fol-
lowedthe dip of the limestonefor a distanceof 7o0 feet. The
mineralizationis similarto that of the westernpart of the Man-
hattan Consolidated and is dependentupon the sametypesof
smallnortherlyfaults. The northeasterly faultsof largerthr.ow
22 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

seemto be later than the periodof mineralizationmarkedby the

coarsecalciteand fine-grainedquartz. The ore shootsare small
and irregular, and it is said that no importantbodiesof workable
ore were foundat a depthgreaterthan 3o0 feet on the incline.
Coarselycrystallinewhite calcite,fine-grainedbluish quartz,
and fluorite, and a little leverrierite,are the principalgangme
minerals. The fluorite and leverrierite occur in cavities of the
quartz. The quartz carriesmore or lesspyrite, in grainsbarely
visibleto the nakedeye,but apparentlyno arsenopyrite. Micro-
scopicstudy revealedrare grains of adularia. The gold is con-
tained in the fine-grainedquartz, presumablyin the pyrite, and
also occursas minute specksof free gold in the oxidized ore.
The samelimestonefollows the crest of April Fool hill until
it is cut off by the overthrustfault. The limestoneis extensively
mineralizedand has beenmined for nearly the whole length of
the outcrop. The high-gradeore, which gavethe hill its fame in
the early daysof the camp,was apparentlya near-surfacephe-
nomenon; most of the ore appearsto have been taken out at
depthsof lessthan 3o feet, and no stopingextendedbelow IOO
feet.
The ore occursalong small faults which offset the limestone
a few feet. Coarsecalciteand fine-grainedquartz appearas re-
placementsof the limestonefollowing the beddingplans irregu-
larly for short distancesfrom the fissures. The valuable ore,
however,seemsto be containedin small veinlets following these
fissures. These consistchiefly of quartz and fluorite with a
little calcite. The quartz carriesfree gold in places,and minute
pyrite grains. Most of the coarsegoldwas foundalongthe walls
of the veinletsbetweenthe calciteand the wall rock. In places
small rhombiccrystalsof adularia occurwith the quartz.
On the northern side of the hill the limestone has been de-
velopedby severaltunnels,the lowestbeingabout I4O feet below
the highestpoint of the outcrop. Here the ore is of different
character. The rich ore of the surfaceworkingsis lacking,and
that extractedhasseldomyieldedover $20 per ton. The miner-
alizationtakesthe form of an irregularreplacementof limestone
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 23

extending outward from small fissures. For the most part the
ore is similar to that of the mineson Litigation Hill, 'exceptfor
a higher proportion of fluorite. In places,particularly in the
lowesttunnel, there are large, irregular cavernsin the limestone,
whichmay be linedwith largefluoritecrystals. Commonly,how-
ever, the roof and walls show large numbersof white inverted
domes,up to about6 inchesin diameter. Theseconsistof alter-
nate layers of fine-grainedwhite quartz and white clayey ma-
terial of sericiticappearance,the opticalpropertiesof which cor-
respond
to leverrierite,
a hydrous
aluminum
silicate.The]ever-
rierite layersare rarely pure and commonlycontainlarge num-
bersof little grainsof quartz and chalcedony scatteredthrough
them. More rarely crystalsof fluoriteare inclosedin the lever-
tierite. A few pseudomorphs of limoniteafter pyritealsooccur
in the leverrierite. This materialcarriesa smallamountof gold,
saidto be about$4 per ton.
Upper LimestoneOres.--The upperlimestonebeds,near the
top of the Cambrian,have beenprospected extensivelybut con-
tain ore only on the Mustangclaimcloseto the overthrustfault.
The limestonehere shows the effects of contact metamorphism
and is largely alteredto diopside. Gold has beenobtainedclose
to the surface from little fissures,similar to the veinletswhich
yieldedthe rich surfaceore on April Fool Hill, and small re-
placement veinletscarryingquartzand fluorite. Small flakesof
barite were also found in the concentrates from this ore. Most
of the production,however,has comefrom peculiarpipe-like
ore shootswhich follow the dip of the limestone,usuallyalong
the intersectionof a beddingplanewith a well-developed joint
planeor small fault. Thesepipesare nearly circularin cross
section and from 8 inches to 2 feet in diameter. Around each
is a rim of fine-grained
white quartz,a coupleof inchesthick.
The interiorof the pipesis composed of a soft white material,
with the samesilkylustercharacteristicof sericite.The optical
properties,however, werefoundto agreemorenearlywith the
mineralleverrierite,a hydrot,s aluminumsilicate,with the for-
24 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

mala AI•Oa.2SiO•.2•H•O. TM The following partial analysis,

made by R. K. Bailey, of the U.S. GeologicalSurvey, confirmed
this determination.

Per Cent.

H•O -- I00 ............................ '. ............. 4.56

H•O + IOO .......................................... •6.I5
K.•O ................................................ o.3I

Small grains of quartz occurintimatelymixed with the lever-

rierite, and it was found impossibleto separatesufficientlypure
materialto warrahta complete
analysis.Specks
of limonite
scatteredirregularly through the pipe representoriginal pyrite.
Free gold occursthroughoutthe leverrierite,in sufficientamount
to have yieldedover $4o,oooin a distanceof about IOOfeet along
the pipe. The gold is mostly very fine, but occasionallyoccurs
as round pelletswhich look like small shot. As far as couldbe
determined
frommicroscopic
examination,
thegoldis in/tll cases
surroundedby the leverrieriteand has apparentlyno closeasso-
ciation either with the oxidized pyrite or disseminatedquartz.
The principal pipe has been followed down the dip of the
limestonefor about IOO feet. Several smallerpipesbranching
upwardsfrom the mainpipewereencountered but not developed.
The richestspotswere saidto havebeenat the intersections of
the main pipe with its branches. The lower workingswere not
accessibleat the time of the writer's visit, but it is said that at
depththe pipesbecamelesswell definedand difficultto follow.

MINERALOGY.

Distributionand Paragenesis.---Thefollowing table illustrates

the principalvariationsof the perplexingvariety of limestone
ores encountered as one crosssesthe district from east to west,
alonga distanceof about2 miles.. For comparison
the oresof
the schists have also been included:
x• Larsen, E. S., and Wherry, E. T., "Leverrierite from Colorado,"lour.
Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 7, PP. 208-217, I917.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 25

TABLE SHOWING PRINCIPAL MINERALS PRESENT IN THE LIMESTONE ORES.

Bold face and parenthesesindicate relative importanceor scarcity,respectively.

White
Caps {Western
Easternpart.
part. X (X)
X (X)(X) X X (X) XX X
X (X) X (X) i
Manhattan.J
Con. Easternpart.
[Westernpart X (X) X
X X (X) X X X
X X
X (X
X)
LitigationHill ........... X X X X X i X (X) i
April Fool Hill ........... X X X X X X X

Mustang
................
Schi,tosX (X) __ XX(X)
..............X.Xi(X)
Sunsetprospect..........
Ix
X
I x,
X
'1 !
X (X) X

The paragenesisof the principal minerals of the limestone

minesappearsto be as follows: (•) Coarselycrystallinewhite
calcite,(2) fine-grained quartzcontaining, in the White Caps
mine, contemporaneous arsenopyriteand elsewherepyrite. In
somedepositsa little adulariaappearsto have crystallizedcon-
temporaneously with the quartz. (3) Fluorite and leverrierite
andrareadularia,foundchieflyin theeasterndeposits.In places
quartzandleverrieriteare closelyintergrown. (4) Stibniteand
realgarare of distinctlylater date, togetherwith later pyrite,
quartzand calcite. All the oresof the first groupthoughlater
than the first periodof faulting, and are older than the mostre-
centmovement .alongthemajor faults. The realgarandpossibly
the stibniteon the otherhandwere introduced subsequentlyto
the secondperiodof faulting. It appearsthereforethat in the
White Capsand the easternpart of the Manhattan Consolidated
mines,at least,thereis a superposition of two or moreperiods
of mineralizationof widely separatedages.
The oresshowgreatvariancein characteralongthe samebed
of limestone. Leverrieriteis prominenton April Fool Hill and
in the higherlimestoneon 'MustangHill, and is nearlylacking
at the easternend of Litigation Hill; fluorite also decreases to
the eastward,thoughit is found in the Manhattan Consolidated.
26 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

andveryrarelyin the White Caps. The fine-grained quartz,on

the otherhand,is moreprominentin the easternmines. Arseno-
pyriteis largelyconfined to the White Caps,thoughit may be
presentin smallamountin the'darkquartzof theManhattanCon-
solidated. Pyrite is persistent
throughout,but is lessprominent
in the White Caps than the other mines. The coarsecalcite
occursthroughoutand indeedis not confinedto the vicinity of
the ores,but seemsto occursporadicallyin all the limestones,
particularly where fissured.
The differencein the oresalongsosh. ort a distanceis probably
duein largemeasureto changingcharacterof the solutionsalong
the strike. It may be also to someextent, due to differencesin
original vertical position. The larger faults have their down-
throw sidesto the eastward,henceat the time of the deposition
of the first seriesof mineralsthe White Capsstoodhighest,fol-
lowedby the easternpart of the Consolidated and the Litigation
Hill mines,and lastly April Fool Hill, which was much lower
than the White Capsat the time of the ore depositi.on, though
there is no way of determininghow much of the displacementis
due to post-mineral faulting.
The stibnite of the limestone mines is believed to be of later
date. That stibnite should be confined to the limestone and no-
where presentin the neighboringschistis probablydue to the
influenceof the country rock, sincethe waters passingthrough
the limestonewouldcontainbicarbonate, whichwould precipitate
stibnite from an alkaline solution.
Realgar: Occurrence and Origin.--Realgar is found in notable
amountonly in the White Capsmine, whereit occursin the same
generalmanner as stibnite. It is, however, rather more migra-
tory in its distribution,sinceit is found in the schistat somedis-
tance from the limestone,and small crystals of realgar have
formed in the gougeaccompanyingthe later seriesof faults,
whereasstibniteis rarely found in thesepositions. Realgar and
stibniteare in placesfound closelyintergrown,and it is believed
that they are approximatelycontemporaneous, althoughin one
specimenrealgar appearsto have replacedstibnite. Realgar is
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 27

foundonlywherethedarkquartzcarriesarsenopyrite
andnotin
those
mines
inwhich
pyriteistheprincipal
metallic
miner;t[It
occursin quantityin the White Capsmine,only downas far as
the665-footlevel. Belowthistheore consists
of very cavernous
dark quartz,brecciated
andcrumblyin places, with occasional
ßpatches
andscatteredcrystals
of realgar. Dynan•5hassuggested
that the realgaris a secondarymineralderivedfrom the arseno-
pyrite. The fact that realgar is confinedto the White Caps
mine,whichis the only mine in which arsenopyriteis presentin
notable amount, rendersthis suppositionextremely probable.
Normally, under the action of oxidizing waters, scoroditeor
pharmacosiderite shouldbe the endpointof oxidationof arseno-
pyrite.•6 There appearto be numerousinstances, however,in
which realgar is a secondarysulphide, •7 and LindgrenTMeven
says:

"Realgar and orpimentare probablyalways supergenesulphidesbut

they are not found in the secondaryzonesof copperdeposits. They are
rather more characteristic of the oxidized zone, and often are derived
from arsenopyrite. The chemistryof their depositionis uncertain."
It is possiblethat the methodof formationof supergene real-
gar from arsenopyriteis analagousto the formationof sulphur
in the first stagesof the oxidationof pyrite. Stokes•ø givesthe
following equation:
FeS• + Fe.o
(SO4) a• 3FeSO4+ 2S.
The equivalentreactionin the caseof arsenopyritewould be:
FeAsS-• Fe2(SO4)a= 3FeSO4-• g•sS.
Stokes, however, did not obtain arsenic sulphide when arseno-
pyrite was treatedwith ferric solutions.
•ø
a5Dynan, op. cit., p. 885.
;o Lindgren, W., "Mineral Deposits,"p. 898, New York, I919.
;* Emmons, W. H., "The Enrichment of Ore Deposits," Bull. U.S. G. S.
No. 625, p. 466, I917.
•8 Loc. cit., p. 899.
•9 Stokes, H. N., "On Pyrite and Marcasite," U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. I86,
p. I5, I9OI.
2oLoc. cit., p. 33.
28 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

In this case,moreover,the realgar is not confinedto the zone

in which oxides occur but is found to the lowest depth yet
explored,thoughonlyprominent
abovethe 665-footlevel.
The similar mode of occurrenceof the realgar and stibnite
suggests
anotherpossible
explanation.If, as appearsto be the
case,the stibniteis distinctlylater tl•an the quartz and arseno-
pyriteit is possible
that thehypogenesolutions,presumably de-
ficientin oxygen,whichdepositedthe stibnitealsoattackedthe
arsenopyrite.The arsenicthusdissolved wouldbe deposited as
realgarin the zonewherethe ascendingwatersbeganto be con-
taminatedwith the bicarbonateof the supergenewaters of the
limestone.
The fact that sibniteis barren and the realgat gold bearingis
perhapsadditionalevidence of the secondaryoriginof the real-
gar. For if the realgarwere derivedfrom the arsenopyritethe
gold presentin the arsenopyrite
wouldtend to migratewith the
arsenicto the realgar,while if both stibniteand realgar were of
hypogene originand contemporaneous, it wouldnot be expected
that the gold wouldbe presentin only one of the two minerals.
On the other hand realgar has often been found in hot spring
deposits,and there is no .inherentreasonwhy it shouldnot be
found as a primary mineral in ore depositsformed at shallow
depth. In the microscopicexaminationof the White Caps ore,
the writer has not been able to find any clear evidenceof altera-
tion in place of arsenopyriteto realgar. The large amount of
realgarfoundbet,ween
the4ooand66o-footlevelswouldrequire
the alteration of an enormousamount of arsenopyrite,and there .
is no evidenceof any markedleachingof the arsenopyritein the
upperlevels. There is a smallamountof later pyrite, apparently
contemporaneous
withtherealgar
andstibnite
butnotat allcom-
parablein volumeto the realgar. 'It may be, however,that an
iron-rich gossanhas been eroded.
OxidizedMinerals.--The amountof oxidation,particularlyin
the depositsin the limestone, is comparatively small. In the
White Capsand 'ManhattanConsolidated minesslightlyoxidized
stibniteoccursin the surfaceworkings. The oxidized antimony
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 29

mineralsare inconspicuous and cannoteverywherebe certainly

identified. The principalonesappearto be valentiniteand stibi-
conire. The latter appearsto have formed both directly from
the sfibniteand as an alterationproductof the valenfinite. Pal-
mer•x recordsthepresence of kermesite
aswell. Exceptfor rare
minutegrainsof what may be arsenolite in ore from the upper
levelsof the White Capsand the presence of arsenicin the
limoniticmaterial depositedon the walls of the drifts, no oxi-
dizedarsenical mineralhasbeenrecognized. In thepyrite-bear-
ingoresof theschists, ontheotherhand,thepyritehasin places
beenalteredto limohireto depthsof 300 feetor more.
Orpirnent:Occurrence andOrigin.--Orpiment, whichis found
in theupper400feetof theeastern orebodyof theWhiteCaps,
is clearlyderivedfromrealgar,presumably by theactionof oxi-
dizingwaters.Specimens canbecoll.
ectedwhichshowall stages
of alteration,
fromthefirstdevelopment of threadsof orpiment
alonglittlecracks in therealgarthroughcoresof realgar,sur-
roundedby orpiment,to pureorpiment. It is difficultto under-
standwhy the changefrom realgarshouldbe to a mineralwith
highersulphur content(AsSto A%Sa),withouttheformation
of oxidized arsenicalmineralsat the sametime. In the lower
levels
of themine,however,
below
thezonein which
theorpi-
meritoccurs,the minewatersflowingfrom fissures
nearthe ore
aredeposfing
a limonific
sludge
onthewallsofthedrifts. Quali-
tative testsshowthe presence
of considerable
arsenicin this
material.Apparently
orpiment
isthestable
sulphide
undersur-
faceconditions,
andthealteration
takes
placethrough
oxidation
ofa partofthearsenic
oftherealgar
rather
thanofthesulphur.
Thisissoon
redeposited
in association
withironoxide;whether
as oxideor an ironarsenate
hasnotyet beendetermined.
An
analogous
reaction
isthatbywhich
chalcocite
changes
byoxida-
tion to corellite. 22

The alteration
of therealgarto orpiment
takesplacewith
2xPalmer,W. S., "Formationof Quicklimein RoastingOres from Man-
hattan,
Nev.,"MiningandEngineering
Journal,
vol.xo4,p.525,Sept.22,I9X7.
2• Lindgren,W., op. cit., p. 859.
30 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

comparativerapidity in the sunlight. Fragmentsof realgat left

on the mine dump soon lose their bright red color due to the
formation of a thin coating of orpiment. A small amount of
pure realgar was placedunder glassin the sunlight. Incipient
alteration was noticedwithin a few days and in a few weeksthe
transformationto orpimentwaswell advanced.No recognizable
arsenicoxideswere found, thoughaccordingto Dana"a realgar
alters in the light to orpimentand arsenolite.
To testthe probabilityof the alterationof realgarto orpiment
by oxidizing waters small amountsof realgar were placed in a
dilute solutionof ferric sulphateand gentlyheated. The realgat
was in part alteredto orpimentand arsenicoxide.
The hair-like crystalsof stibnite and orpiment, which are
sometimesfound, suggestsupergenesulphide deposition. C.
Doelter"4 statesthat stibnite at 8oø is slightly solublein water
and that recrystallizationis also perceptible.
Gold.MAt least a part of the gold in the rich surfaceores is
due to secondarydeposition. No free gold has been found in
the White Capsor easternore body of the Manhattan Consoli-
dated. In the White Caps,and p•obably to someextent in the
Consolidatedalso,the gold is presentin the minutearsenopyrite
crystalsscattered throughthedark quartz. The stibniteis barren,
but the realgarand orpimentare bothgold bearing,so it is ap-
parent that in whateverform the gold is presentin the arseno-
pyrite, it has remainedwith the arsenicthroughthe succcessive
changesfrom arsenopyriteto realgar and thenceto orpiment.
In the westernpart of the ManhattanConsolidated and in the
LitigationHill mines,free goldoccursas smallflakesin sandy
material consistingof minute fragmentsof quartz and calcite
with manganese and iron oxidesin irregular solutionchannels
in the limestone.This wasprobablyderivedfrom the pyriteof
the massivequartzand deposited by supergenewaters. The rich
2aDana, E. S., "System of Mineralogy,"p. 34, •895.
24Min. pet. Mitt., vol. •, •89o,p. 3i•2,citedby F. W. Clarke,"Data of
Geochemistry,"
U.S. Geol.SurveyBull. No. 616,p. 689, I9•6.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 31

surfaceores of the workingson April F0ol Hill, in which the

gold occursin closeassociation with calcite,are apparentlydue
to secondary enrichment.Thesewerevery rich closeto the sur-
face, but nearly barren at shallowdepth. Gold carriedin acid
surfacewaters would be quickly depositedin contactwith cal-
cite and superficialenrichmentcouldnot extend to any appreci-
able depth.
Secondaryenrichmentappearsto have played a much more
importantpart in the oresof the schiststhan in thoseof the lime-
stones. In thesedepositsthe richestore is commonlyfound at
the intersectionof the principalvein wi-th small fissuresrich in
manganese oxide. Sincecalciteis lackingin thesedepositsthe
lowerlimit of enrichment
is at a greaterdepththan in the ores
of the limestone,but rich ore doesnot seemto have beenmined
belowabout2oo feet. In the schistminessuchas the Big Pine,
wherethe gold occursin a multitudeof small stringersin the
schist,there is little manganeseoxide and no clear evidenceof
secondaryenrichment.

RELATION OF ORE DEPOSITION TO FAULTING.

The productiveminesof the districtall lie in a belt extending

about IO,OOOfeet from east to west and less than 2,ooo feet
from north to south. The overthrust fault marks the northern
limit of productivemineralization. This fault is older than the
numerousnormal faults which cut the ore-bearinglimestonesand
is undoubtedlycontemporaneous with the intensefolding which
precededthe intrusion of the granodiorite.
Movement on the normal faults may have begun at the time
of the granodioriteintrusionfor an alaskitedike seemsto follow
one of the faults. The major normal faulting, however, prob-
ably did not take placeuntil late Tertiary time, subsequentto the
intrusionof the andesiteporphyry.
Productive ore depositsoccur only close to the overthrust
fault, and along the southernor hanging wall side. Although
the actual fault plane is nowheremineralized,it is believedthat
32 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

the presence of this major fault was the determiningfactor in

the localizationof the deposits. The minesare all on the hang-
ing-wall sideof the overthrustand for the mostpart associated
with the small normal faults of later date. It may be that the
overthrust fault with its narrow zone of comparativelyim-
perviousgougeacted as a dam to prevent important migration
of the solutions
northof the fault, analthat the intersection
of
theoverthrustwith theminornormalfaultsdetermined theprin-
cipal channelsfollowed by the ascendingsolutions. This fur-
nishesa possibleexplanationfor the localizationof mineraliza-
tion in the White Caps limestone,to the exclusionof the two
similar beds at slightly lower horizons. The limestonesat the
White Capsmine and on Litigation Hill, while approximately
parallelwith the overthrustin strike,havea slightlysteeperdip.
Thus the White Capslimestone wouldbe cut by the fault plane
at a lower levelthan the two lower bedsand uprisingsolutions
controlled to the north by the overthrust would tend to be
divertedalong the first solublebed.

AOE OF T•E ORES.

Ores of deep origin and those characterizedby minerals in-

dicativeof depositionat shallowdepth are both representedin
the Manhattandistrict. The former are repr½sen•dby the small
glassyquartz veinsfound here and there throughoutthe district.
These veins seemto be dearly associatedwith the granodiorite
intrusion,probablymostcloselywith the final phasewhichpro-
ducedthe apllte dikes. Productivedepositsof the sameepoch
have been mined within a few miles of Manhattan.
The small veins of the lavas and the veins in the schists of
Gold Hill, on the other hand, show certain characteristics of
veins formed at shallowdepths,suchas adularia and quartz
pseudomorphic after lamellar calcite. Sinceores of this type
occurin the post-Siebert
andesite,theseveinscan be assignedto
a period betweenthe late Miocene and the formation of the late
Plioceneerosionsurface. Presumably
this periodof ore deposi-
tion is geneticallyconnectedwith the andesiteintrusion.
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 33

The oresof thelimestone

aremorecomplex andlackminerals
or mineralassociations
clearlydiagnostic
of eitherof the above
groups,
andit is likelythatmorethanoneperiodof mineraliza-
tion is represented.
Dynan2• corlsiders
that the oreof the White Capsmineowes
its originto solutions
emanating from the intrusivegranite.
Outcropsof graniticrocksoccurmuchnearerthe minesthan
do the Tertiary igneousrocks. On the hill north of Litigation
Hill there are two small dikesof a coarse-grained
alaskite,and
severalsmall aplite dikes cut the sedimentsa short distanceto
the south. Two small massesof a much sericitizedigneousrock,
probablyan aplite,have beenencountered in the lowestlevel of
the White Caps.
The coarse calcite, usually associatedwith some valuable
mineralization,occursin placescloseto the granodioriteand
Dynan mentions 2øspecimens of coarsecalciteand garnet from
the granodioritecontactwhich assayed0.03 oz. gold per ton.
Similar coarsecalcitein the silver-leaddepositsof the Darwin
district, California, has been describedby Knopf?7 There it
seemsto be directlyconnectedwith an intrusionof granodiorite.
On the otherhand,thistypeof calciteis not presentin limestones
of the Belmont and Barcelona districts where the occurrence of
the ore is clearlyrelatedto the presence
of the granodiorite.
Leverierriteis presentin all of the ore depositsin the lime-
stone. This mineralis uncommonin ore depositsbut was found
by Larsenand Wherry•8 in quartzveinswith manganese oxide.
Racewinitefrom the HighlandBoymineof Bingham,Utah, de-
scribedby A. N. WinchelF9 appearsto be identicalwith lever-
. rierite. 8ø Here it occurs in ores associated with a monzonite
porphyry intrusion.
25Loc. cit., p. 885. 2oIdem, p. 885.
2, Knopf, A., "The Darwin Silver-Lead Mining District, California," Bull.
580, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 7, •9•5.
28Larsen, E. S., and Wherry, E. T., loc. cit., p. •7.
20Winchell, A. N., "Racewinite, A Peculiar Mineral from Ore Deposits
Utah," Ecoa. Gm•.., vol. •3, PP. 6•-6•5, •9•8.
s0Butler, B. S., "Ore Depositsof Utah," Prof. Paper No. •, LI. S. Geol.
Survey, p. •3, •92o.
34 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

It is believed,however,that the weightof the evidencefavors

theprobability
thattheseoredeposits
wereformedfairly close
to the surfaceand are of Tertiary age. The deposits
are abso-
lutelyunlikethoseof BelmontandBarcelona, in whichthepri-
maryore consists of sulphidessuchas galena,sphalerite,
tetra-
hedrite,andchalcopyritein a quartz-calcite
gangue,nor is there
any similaritybetween theseandthe smallunproductive veins
of deep-seatedoriginfoundhereandtherethroughout theMan-
hattan district. The large amountof fluoritelikewiseis con-
sideredindicativeof depositsof the shallowratherthanof the
deepveinzone. Moreover,thepresence of a littleadulariainter-
grown with the fine-grainedquartz is believedto form a con-
nectinglink with thequartzadulariaveinlets of GoldHill which
clearlybelongto the classof veinsformedat shallowdepth.
Alsothefine-grained drusyquartzsuggests depositionnearerthe
surfacethan the coarselycrystallinequartzand sulphides of the
ores of Belmont.
The principalmineralsof the limestonedeposits, quartz,flu-
orite, leverrierite,arsenopyrite,
appearto hawebeendeposited
prior to the mostrecentmovementalongthe larger faults. The
stibniteand realgar, on the other hand, are youngerthan the
latestfaultingandappearto representa still later periodof Ter-
tiary ore deposition.It is probablethat therewere two periods
of late Tertiary mineralization,probablyboth subsequent to the
intrusionof the andesitcporphyry. It is possible, however,that
the coarselycrystallinecalcitemay be a representative of the
mineralizationfollowing the granodioriteintrusion.

CONCLUSIONS.

The productiveminesof the ManhattanDistrict occurclose

to large overthrustfault and are all in the upper or overthrust
block. Althoughno ore depositionoccurredin the fault plane
itself, the presenceof this fault is believedto havebeenthe con-
trolling factor in localizingore deposition. Particularly favor-
ablesituationsappearto be in localitieswherelate normal faults
 LIMESTONE ORES OF MANHATTAN, NEVADA. 35

displacethe overthrust. Two seriesof normal faults are recog-

nized,the first, characterizedby smallthrow, steepdip, and gen-
eral directionaboutnorth-northeast,and the other with generally
larger throw, flatter dip and lessaccordantstrike. While the
two seriesmay be of cont, emporaneousorigin, there has been
more recent movementalong the faults of the secondgroup.
The faults of the first group may have beeninitiated by the in-
trusion of the granodioritebatholith, but the more important
faulting is tentativelycorrelatedwith the intrusionof a massof
andesite
porphyry
.oflateMiocene
or Pliocene
age.
The ore depositsshowa wide variety. Small quartz veinsin
the schists,with pyrite, chalcopyrite,tetrahedrite, and galena,
have not proved workable. These are clearly of deep-seated
origin and may be correlatedwith the granodioriteintrusionand
are presumablylate Cretaceous or early Eocenein age. The ores
of the Cambrian schists show a mineral association characteristic
of shallowzone depositionand may be geneticallyconnected
with the andesireporphyry. The characteristicmineralsof these
ores are quartz, in small comby veinlets,and pseudomorphic
after tabularcalcite,adularia,pyrite and free gold.
A bed of crystallinelimestoneoccurringin the lower part of
the Cambrianis heavily mineralizedand showsa complexasso-
ciationof minerals. At the easternpart of the districtthe prin-
cipal ganguemineralsare coarsecalciteand fine-grainedquartz,
and the metallicmineralsarsenopyrite,pyrite, stibnite,realgar
and orpiment. The ore occursin large replacement depositsin
the limestoneclosely connectedwith the faults in the earlier
series. Stibnite,realgar,and orpiment,however,are later than
the secondseriesof faults. It is believedthat the depositionof
stibnitewasdueto a laterperiodof oredeposition,
andthatthe
realgaris secondaryand derivedfrom the arsenopyrite,
though
possiblythroughtheactionof hypogenesolutions.The orpiment
hasbeenderivedfrom the realgarthroughthe oxidationof a
part of the arsenic.
Thecharacterof theorechangesgreatlyto thewestward along
thestrikeof thelimestonebed. Arsenopyrite is not present
in
36 HENRY G. FERGUSON.

the quartz,and realgarand orpimentare no longerfound. Stib-

nite is presentonly in one other deposit. Free gold, lackingin
the White Capsore, is found farther to the westward,fluorite
and leverrieritebecomeincreasinglyimportantgangueminerals,
and minor adularia is present.
It is possiblethat three periodsof mineralizationare repre-
sentedin the limestoneores; one marked by coarselycrystalline
white calcite,which may have followed the granodioriteintru-
sion,and if so is of late Cretaceousor early Eoceneage; the sec-
ond,whichintroduced the quartz,arsenopyrit.e, pyriteand gold,
togetherwith the fluorite and leverrierite,is of later date, but
prior to the most recentfaulting; and the thii'd, characterizedby
the stibniteand the realgarof the easternpart of the district, is
still younger.
U.S. GEOLOGICAl'.
SURVEY,
WASaINGTON,D.C.