Chapter INTRODUCTION The scope ofthe staly is to ambse and study the IV chuactrstics canes of PN junction dine, Zener diode ant LED. Though thi: projet we wil know ant kam about diferent aspects and priviples imohed in corsnuction, working and behuviour of diferent cements. We wil try sty the input and culpa behuvbur ofthese ckments and how input factuations alfet the ouput Figure 1.1. PN junction ApparatusChapter-2 PN JUNCTION DIODE 2.1 INTRODUCTION Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carries), This region ghes rise toa potential barrier Vy called Cut- in Volage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts conducting The P-N junction can conduct beyond this Potential The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If'+ve terminal of the input supply i connected to anode (P-side) and —ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the junction is Iwered by an amount equal to given forward biasing vokage. Both the holes from p-side and eketrons from nside ross the junction simultaneously and constitute a forward curent (injected minority current — due to holes crossing the junction and entering N-side 13of the diode, duc to cketrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the diode), Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch. If ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier at the junction, Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away fiom the junction thereby increasing the deplcted region. However, the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to thermally generated carriers. Assuming curent flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch, ‘The volt-ampere characteristics ofa diode exphiined by following equation: T= 1o(ExtV/ nVT-1) Iecurent flowing in the diode lomreverse saturation currentVevoltage applied to the diode VT=vol-cquivalent of temperature=kT/q=T/11,60026mV(@ room temp). 17-1 (for Ge) and 2 (for Si) Itis observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse saturation curent in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon dinde. 2.2 EQUILIBRIUM Ina p-n junction, without an extemal applisd voltage, an equilbrium condition is reached in which potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential difference is called build in potential After joining p-type and retype semiconductors, ekctrons from the n region near the p-n imerface tend to diffuse into the p region kaving behind positively charged ions in the n region and being recombined with holes, forming negatively charged ions in the p region. Likewise, hoks from the p-type region near the p-n interfice begin to diffuse into the n-type region, leaving behind negatively charged ions in the p region and recombining with electrons, forming positive ions in the n region. The regions near the p-n interfice lose their neutrality and most of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A), rear rgan Erte te nL eee ee Etta force on holes Se Efi Hern on eects Figure 2.1 A p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied.Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red ines, respectively. Grey regions are charge-neutral Light-red zone is positively changed. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The cketric fell is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffision tends to move ekctrons and holes. (The log concentration curves shouk! actually be smoother with slope varying with feck! strength.) The eketric fell created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both ekctrons and hols. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric fiell generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffision. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure ‘A with blue and red lines. Akko shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilbrium. Figure 2.2. A p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied,Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric fiekl, and the voage are reported. ‘The space charge region & a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the yraxis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depkted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the p-n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and B). 2.3 FORWARD BIAS In forward bits, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is comected with the negative terminal PN junction operation in forwand-bias mode, showing reducing depletion with The panels show energy band diagram, electric field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped at a LelSiem3 (0.00016C/cm') doping level leading to buil-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking charge profile, as fewer dopants are exposed with increasing forward bias. Observe the different quisifermi kvek for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red curves) With a battery connected this way, the hoks in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type regon are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its ‘width, The positive potential applied to the p-type muterial repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the zone’s electric fickl cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p-n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance, The electrons that cross the p-n junction into the p-type material (or hoks that cross ito the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffision in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode,Only mjorty carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of ekctrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them ffom the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the p-type material However, they do not continue 10 flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it energetically favourable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called the diffasion length, and it is typically on the order of micrometres.! Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type muterial, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation woukl cause charge buikl-up over time (this is Kirchhoff’s. current law). The flow of holes fom the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and vohages are reversed), ‘Therefore, the mucroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves cketrons flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction, The electrons and hols travel in opposite directions, but they ako hive opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction ‘on both sides of the diode, as required. ‘The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p-n junction outside the avakinche (reverse-biased conducting) region.2.4 REVERSE BIAS Figure2.3 A silicon p-n junction in reverse bias, Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at the anode, Therefore, very litle curent will flow Until the diode breaks down, The connections are ilksstrated in the adjacent diagram. Because the p-type material is now connected 10 the negative terminal of the power supply, the ‘holes’ in the p-type materia! are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region 's connected 10 the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with simibrr effect. This increases the vokage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric curent to cross the p-n junction. The increase in resistance of the p-n junction resus in the junction behaving as an insulator. ‘The strength of the depletion zone ekctric fick! increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric fick! intensity increases beyond a critical level the p-n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avakinche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of curent flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage. This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown volage. A standard value for breakdown volage is for instance $.6 V, This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the ‘anode (although there is a slight rise with curent), because the diode will break down — andtherefore conduct ~ if the volage gets any higher. This in effect limits the vokage over the diode. Another application of reverse biasing is Varicap diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode 2.5 CURRENT ACROSS DEPLETION REGION The Shockley ideal diode equation characterves the current across a p-n junction as a finction of extemal vohage and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the dinde’s builtin potential gradient at equilirium. © Forward Current © Diffusion Current © Reverse Current * Fick! Current © Generation Current 2.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 2.6.1 FORWARD BIAS Figure 2.4 Circuit diagram of forward bias.2.8.2 REVERSE BIASED CONDITION 1, Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias ic; anode is connected to negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply 2. For various vahes of reverse volage (Vr) note down the corresponding vahes of reverse ‘current (Ir). 2.9 GRAPH |, Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the centre of the graph sheet. 2. Now mark +ve x-axis as VE ve Xeaxis as Vr 4ve yeanis as If ve eaxis as Ir. 3. Mark the readings tabulated for diode forward biased condition in first Quadrant and diode reverse biased condition in third Quadrant. Tama) V{volts) V4 (volts) Figure 2.6 Graph of forward & reverse biased condition2.10 CALCULATION FROM GRAPH Static forward Resistance Rde = VEIf O Dynamic forward Resistance rac = AVOAIE Static Reverse Resistance Rde =Veilr Q Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac = AVe/Alr Q 2.11 APPLICATION OF PN JUNCTION DIODE LPN junction in reverse biased configuration is sensitive (generates an electron-hole pair) to light from 400-1000nm which inches VISIBLE Light (400nm to 700nm). So allimost of the sensors involving capturing light information will use a photodiode. PN junction in reverse biased configuration is the most widely used sensor compared to any other sensor. For example, all the digital cameras use an array of photodiodes to capture ght and produce an image & Solar Cells 2. PN junction (which has direct energy bandgap) in forward biased condition produces light when biased with a current, All LED lighting uses a PN junction diode, Vokage across PN junction biased ata constant current has a negative temperature coefficient. Difference between the PN junction voltages of two differently biased diodes has a positive temperature coefficient, ‘These properties are used 10 create Temperature Sensors, Reference vokages (Bandgap). Various circuits tke Rectifiers, Reactors for Volage Controlled Oscillators (VCO) ete.Chapter-3 ZENER DIODE ‘The diode is one of the basic components in electronic circuits. When you want to know about voltage considerations you shoukl know about the diodes. The diode is basically made up of semiconductors which have two characteristics, “P* type and ‘N’ type. The “P'type and ‘N* type semiconductors represent positne and negate type _semiconductors."P* type semiconductor will have excess amount of hokss in configuration and *N’ type semiconductor will have excess amount of electrons. If both types of characteristics present in a singk crystal, then it can be termed as a diode. The positive terminal of the battery connects with the “P’ side and the negative side i connected with the “N’ side. Let's discuss about Zener diode working, itis nothing but a simple diode connecting in reverse bias. won A cee Figure 3.1 Symbol of Zener diode It is mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special type of equipment. The person named Clearance Zener invented this property of the diode that's why it is named affer him as a remembrance, The special property of the diode is that there will be a breakdown in the circuit if the voltage applied across a reversely biased circuit. This does not allow the current to flow across it. When the voltage across the diode is increased, temperature also increases and the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all these keads to the breakdown of the depletion layer, The kyer at the junction of *P* type and *N" type, When the applied voltage exceeds an specific amount Zener breakdown takes place.Figure 3.2 Zener diode & its characteristics Zener diode is nothing but a singe diode comected in a reverse bias mode and Zener diode can be connected in reverse bits positive in a circuit as shown as picture, We can connect it for different applications. 3.1 UNBIASED SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE In normal conditions, holes from the p side tend to diffise to a low concentration region and the same thing happens for electrons from n-side. Thus the bok diffise to the n-side and the eketrons diffise to the p-side. This resus in accumulttion of charges around the junction, forming a depletion region.Figure 3.3 Characteristics of unbiased semiconductor diode An eketric polarity or electric dipole is formed across the junction, causing flow of thx from n side to p side, This resuits in varying negative electric field intensity, generating an electric potential across the junction, This ekeetric potential is actually the threshold voltage ofthe diode and is around 0.6V for silicon and 0.2V for Germanium. This acts as a potential barrier for flow of majority change carriers and the device does not conduct. Now when a normal diode is biased such that a negative voltage is applied to the n side and positive voltage to the p side, the diode is said to be in forward biasing condition, This applied voltage tends to decrease the potential barrier after it goes beyond the threshok! vokage,AL this point and aferwards, the majority carriers cross the potential harrier and the device starts conducting with flow ofeurrent through it When the diode is biased in reverse condition to above, the applied voltage is such that it adds to the potential barrisr and hinders the flow of majority carriers. However, i does allow the flow of minority carriers (holes in n type and electrons in p type). As this reverse bias voltage increases, the reverse current tends to increase gradually Atacertain point, this voltage is such that it causes breakdown of the depletion region, causing a massive increase in the flow of curent, This is where the Zener diode working comes into phy. 3.2 PRINCIPLE & WORKING OPERATION 3.2.1 ZENER BRAEKDOWN This type of breakdown occurs for a reverse bias vohage between 2 to 8V. Even at this low voltage, the eketric Bek! intensity is strong enough to exert a force on the vakence electrons of the atom such that they are separated from the micki, This results in formation of mobile electron hole pairs, increasing the flow of current across the device. Approximate value of this fick! is about 2*10°7 Vim, This type of break down occurs normally for highly doped diode with low breakdown voltage and larger eketric fell, As temperature increases, the valence eketrons gin more enengy to disrupt from the covalent bond and kess amount of extemal voltage is required. Thus Zener breakdown voltage decreases with temperature. AAs stated above the basic principle behind the working of'a Zener diode bes in the cause of breakdown for a diode in reverse biased condition. Normally there are two types of breakdown- Zener and Avalanche,| . a 790 Jf @~o Q \ ” ao ~o @ 1 breakdown Forward voltage bias Is ‘ v Reverse = Unregulated Regulated _ oc oc * © - @ Figure 3.4 Working &Operation of Zener diode 3.3 EXPERIMENT 3.3.1 FORWARD BIASED CONDITION 1. Comect the Zener diode in forward bias ie; anode is connected to positive of the power supply and cathode i connected to negative of the power supply as in circuit2, Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 1k. 3. For various values of forward vollage (Vi) note down the corresponding vakies of forward current(If). 3.3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Forward Bias 0 Figure 3.5 Forward bias of Zener diode 3.3, REVERSE BIAS CONDITION 1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias Le; anode is connected to negative of the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit. 2. For various vakes of reverse voltage (Vr) note down the corresponding values of reverse current (Ir).0 Figure 3.6 Reverse bias of Zener diode 3.4 CHARACTERISTICS MODEL V(volts) Vt (volts) 14m) Figure 3.7 Charneteristies ModetCakulations ffom graph Cut in voltage Break down voltage = -~ -(v) 3S APPLICATION OF ZENER DIODE 3.5.1 ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE Ina DC circuit, Zener diode can be used as a vohage regulator or to provide voltage reference. ‘The main use of Zener diode hes in the fact that the voltage across a Zener diode remains constant for a irger change in current. This makes it possible to use a Zener diode asa constant voltage device ora voltage reguistor. In any power supply circuit, a regulator is used to provide a constant output (load) voltage irrespective of variation in input voltage or variation in Joad current, The variation in input voltage is called line regulation, whereas the variation in Joad current is called load regulttion, Figure 3.8 Zener Diode as voltage regulator A simple circuit involving Zener diode as a regulator requires a resistor of low value connected in series with the input voltage source. ‘The low value is required so as to allow the maximum flow of curent through the diode, connected in parallel However, the only constraint being, the current through Zener diode should not be less than minimum Zener diode current. SimplyPut, for a minimum input vokage and a maximum load current, the Zener diode current should ahvays. be Lavin While designing a vohage reguitor using Zener diode, the latter is chosen with respect to its maximum power rating. In other words, the maximum current through the device should be: = Ina = Power’Zener Vokage Since the input voltage and the required output vokage is known, it i easier to choose a Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage, ie. Vz ~=Vo. ‘The vale of the series resistor is chosen to be Reo(Vio~ Vidlemin + 1), where I © Load Volage/Load resistance. Note that for oad vokages up to 8V, a singk Zener diode can be wed, However, for load volages beyond 8V, requiring Zener voluges of higher volage val, it is advisable to use a forward biased diode in series with the Zener diode. This is because the Zener diode at higher voltage follows the avakinche breakdown principle, having a positive temperate of coefficient, Hence a negative temperature coefficient diode is used for compensation, Of course, these days, practical temperature compensated Zener diodes are used. 3.5.2, ZENER DIODE AS A REFERENCE VOLTAGE Rt Vref= Vz Vin 02 5V Figure 3.9 Zener diode as voltage referenceIn power supplies and many other circuits, Zener diode finds its application as a constant voltage provider ora voltage reference. The only conditions are that the input voltage should be greater than Zener voltage and the series resistor should have a minimum value such that the maximum current flows through the device, 3.5.3. ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE CLAMPER Ina circuit involving AC input source, different from the normal PN diode chimping circuit, a Zener diode can ako be used. The diode can be used to limit the peak of the output vokage 10 Zener voltage at one side and to about OV at other side of the sinusoidal waveform. Figure 3.10 Zener diode as voltage clamper In the above circuit, during positive half cycle, once the input volage is such that the Zener diode i reverse biased, the output vokage & constant for a certain amount of time ll the voltage starts decreasing Now during the negative half cycle, the Zener diode is in forward biased connection. As the negative volage increases til forward threshok! voltage, the diode starts conducting and the negative side of the output voltage is limited to the threshold vokageChapter-4 4.1 INTRODUCTION Epoxy lensicase Wire bond Retiective cavity Semiconductor aie nwt fat} enatrame Flat spot Figure 4.1 Structure of LED A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are wed as indicator amps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in. 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modem versions are availble across the vile, ulraviolet and infiared wavelengths, with very high brighiness. ‘The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily fom the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—clectrons and holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different volages. When an electron meets a hol, it fills into a lower energy evel and releases energy inthe form of a photon, ‘The wavelength ofthe light emitted, and thus its colour depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In siicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-nidiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these aresilkon and germanium semiconductor are not direct gap semiconductor rather these are indirect gap semiconductor. In indirect. gap semiconductor the maximum energy level of valence band and minimum energy level of conduction band do not occur at same momenta of elvetrons. Hence during recombination’s of electrons and holes that is migration of electrons from conduction band to valence band the momentum of electrons would be changed. ‘The photons originated from these electrons will be mostly utiized for the electron momentum. In direct gap semiconductor the maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction band ‘occur at same electron momenta, Hence, there will be no change of momentum of electrons during migration from conduction band to vaknce band so the photons originated duc that migration have not 10 provide momentum to elvetrons, As a result, the photons are emitted from the surfice of semiconductor crystal There is some special type of specially alloyed direct energy gap semiconductors whose energy gap between condition and valence band are such that the electromagnetic radiation emitted during recombination’s has wavelengths within our visible range. That means in these special semiconductors when recombination’s between electrons and holes occur, there will be emissions of light, This is how a light emitting diode works. The wave length of output optical signals depends upon the band gap energy. The ousput wave length can be engineered within certain limits by using compound semiconductors, so that a particular colour can be observed, provided the output is in visible range, Application of LED or Light Emitting Diode Today almost everywhere LEDs lights are used and the application of LED is huge. First we are going to see through the lst, then we will categorize the application of these, In motorcycle and bicycle fights. In traffic lights and signals. In message displaying boards. In light bulbs and many more,Figure 4.2 Energy diagram of LED Now, practically if we sit to Ist all the applications it will be a non-ending list. So, bere we are ccassifying the use in to some parts. Indicators and Signs: -These are mainly used in traffic signals, exit signs, light weight message, disphaying box ete. Lighting: - Light Emiting Diode lamps have become highly popubir and as the energy consumption i very low for them, they are ako being mde by LED s. In 2001, the Italian vilhge Tarrasa was the first phice to convert all its lighting to LED. In tekvision and computer/aptop displaying, LEDs are used. Non Visual Application: Communication, sensor are the main area of non-visual_ application of LEDs. 4.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Forward BiasRPS (0- 30V) Figure 4.3 Circuit diagram of forward bias REVERSE BIAS. 330u (0-30) oe LED @)'o- nv mA jose ae Figure 4.4 Circuit diagram of reverse bias 4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 1. Gie the comection as per the ciuit: dixgam, 2. Vary the input volages atthe RPS and me down the comesponting curent fir te volages, 3. Repeat the procedure fir reverse bins condition and tububte the comeponding volages and curens, 4, Phot the graph between yolage and curent for forward bias and reverse bins,4.5 CHARACTERISTICS CURVE OF LED ma v vot ae wi Ama Figure 4.5 Characteristics of LED 4.6 APPLICATIONS OF LED Today almost everywhere LEDS lights are used and the application of LED is huge. First we are going to see through the list, then we will categorize the application of these. In motorcycle and bicycle lights. In traffic lights and signals. In message displaying boards. In ight bulbs and many more. Now, practically if we sit to fist all the applications it will be a non-ending list, So, here we are classifying the use in to some parts. 1. Indicators and Signs: - These are mainly used in trafic signals, exit signs, light weight message, displying box tc. 2. Lighting: ~ Light Emitting Diode lamps have become highly popular and as the energy consumption is very low for them, they are also being mde by LED s. In 2001, the Italian Vilage Terrace was the first pce to convert all its lighting to LED. In tekvision and computerfaptop dsphying, LEDs are wsed. 3. Non Visual Applcation:- Communication, sensor are the main area of non-visual_ application of LEDs.CONCIUSION In the experiment, the main objective was fulfilled ie. obtain the IV characteristics of P-N junction diode for forward bins and reverse bias circuit, Two graphs were mde ie. I versus for verification purpose, In the end, IV characteristics of P-N Junction were discussed.