Udupi Group of Institution

Subject: Environmental Studies

Class: II semester
Teacher’s Name: Samita Sen
Unit -1.2
Ecosystem – Concept, Structure, Function, Food Chain, Pond’s Ecosystem,
Forest ecosystem, Food Webs, Concept of ecological succession

Introduction:- Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because
the latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction
between a biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-
sufficient unit which is known as an ecosystem.

The terms ecosystems is most preferred, where ‘eco’ implies the environment, and ‘system’
implies an interacting, inter-dependent complex.

In this way, it can be said that any unit that includes all the organisms i.e. the communities in
a given area, interact with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly
defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material cycle (i.e. exchange of materials between
living and non-living components) within the system, is known as an ecological system or eco-
system.

An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living
organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic) environment that interact to form a
stable self-supporting system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common
examples of ecosystems.

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components: (1) Abiotic and (2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components: The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem form the abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure,
distribution, behaviour and inter-relationship of organisms. Abiotic components are mainly of
two types:

(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

(2) Biotic Components: The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms
(Bacteria and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into three
main groups:

(A) Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy
and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely
water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants
manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder)

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

(B) Consumers: The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros = other, trophos = feeder) The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores: These are the animals which
feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer, goat,
cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores: The animals
which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes, snakes
etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers: These are the large carnivores which feed on
the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores: These are the largest
carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animal.
Examples are lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers: Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the
dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release
to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of
their metabolisms.
 These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of materials
between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers
are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).

Structure of the Ecosystem

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Function of the Ecosystem

1. Energy Flow:- The transformation of energy between the different components of an

ecosystem is known as ‘energy flow’. This is very important, as it determines the density and
diversity of organisms as well as their development and functional status. The energy flow in an
ecosystem is always uni-directional in nature.

To prepare food and to store it in the form of chemical energy, green plants, with the help of
their green pigments known as ‘chlorophyll’, trap solar energy and convert carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O) into complex food materials with the help of other nutrients. This is
done through the process of photosynthesis and is referred to as primary production.

Living organisms can use energy in several forms, both radiant and fixed energy. Radiant
energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves, such as light. Fixed energy is potential and
chemical energy bound in various organic substances that can be broken down in order to
release their energy content.

1.The autotrophs convert the radiant energy of the sun into chemical energy by photosynthesis
and store it in the bonds of the sugar molecules.
2.A part of this chemical energy is immediately used for metabolic activities (growth,
maintenance and reproduction) by the process of respiration. Some energy is lost in the form of
heat.

3.The autotrophs become the food and energy source for the herbivores (consumers) for their
metabolic activities including movement. Energy is again lost as heat and in the form of
compounds such as urea and uric acid, which still contains usable energy.

4.The Secondary consumers (carnivores) consume herbivores and use them as a source of energy
with the same result as in the above level.

5.Tertiary consumers consume secondary consumers the same purpose and with the same result as
above.

6.Decomposers consume dead bodies of plants and animals and also their waste products.
Decomposition occurs' in several steps. The end products are without any energy They are
returned to the a biotic environment and are used again by plants as nutrients.

As a result of the six processes described above energy passes continuously in an ecosystem
(and matter is recycled again and again). Hence the radiant energy "fixed" by the autotrophs is
ultimately source of energy in the biosphere. At each step between the various level of
consumers, energy is lost as heat. That is, the transfer of energy is not 100% efficient and some
energy is always wasted.

Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

Trophic Level- The Flow of energy at successive stage is an ecosystem is known as “trophic
level”. In ecology trophic relates to “feeding or nutrition”. Grouping of different trophic levels
within an ecosystem is known as “tropic structure”. Trophic levels are different stages of
feeding position in a food chain such as primary producers and consumers of different types.
Organisms in a food chain are categorized under different groups called trophic levels. They are
as follows. Producers (First Trophic Level) – Plants --------- Primary Consumers / herbivores -
Deer, turtle, --------- Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) / carnivores / omnivores –
Bird, Fishes, -------- Fourth Trophic Level- Lion, tiger, Man

Procedure and consumer ecosystems can be arranged in several feeding groups, each group as
trophic level . An ecosystem is known as trophic structure of the ecosystem. In an ecosystem,
producers (P) represent the first trophic level {T1,}, herbivores (C1) represent the second
trophic level T1 )' Primary carnivores (C2) represent the third trophic level (T2) and top
carnivores (C3) represent the last level (T4). Typically an ecosystem has 3 to 4 trophic levels
through which energy flows.

Food Chain

A food chain shows the movement of food energy through an ecosystem. The organisms
belonging to each category of autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs are related to each other
in terms of food. For example, green plants are consumed by herbivores, which are eaten by
carnivores. This simply forms a food chain through the eater and eaten relationship.

In the ecosystem, green plants alone are able to trap solar energy and convert it into enemies!
energy. The chemical energy is locked up in the various organic compounds, such as
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, present in the green plants. Since virtually all other living
organisms depend upon green plants for their energy, the efficiency of plants in any given area
in capturing solar sets the upper limit to long-term energy flow and biological activity in the
community. The food manufactured by the green plants is utilized by themselves and also by
herbivores. Animals feed repeatedly. Herbivores fall prey to some carnivorous animals. In this
way one form of life supports the other form. Thus food from one trophic level reaches to the
other trophic levels and a chain is established known as food chain.

It can be defend as" Transfer of energy and nutrients through a succession of organisms through
repeated process of eating and being eaten." In food chain initial link is green plants or
producers which produce chemical energy available for consumers.

Example. Marsh grass------- Grass hopper ---------Frog / Snake----- Hawk/Eagle.

Explanation:

1. Producers (grass) is always the first link in the food chain. These produce the ffod by
using sunlight.
2. Herbivores (Grass hooper) that feeds on plant or plant parts is the second link in the food
chain.
3. Ththird link in the food chain is the tertiary consumer which is also a carnivore (frog).
4. The fourth link in the food chain is the tertiary consumer which is also a carnivores.

Basically, Food chains are of two types

1- Grazing food chain (GFC)

2- Detritus food chain (DFC)
 1- The GFC begings with green plants, going to grazing herbivores (primary consumers), to
primary carnivores (Secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores (tertiary
consumers) and so on.

Grass------------------- Goat -------------------------- Lion

(Producers) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer)

2- The Detritus Food Chain is also called as saprophytic food chain. The dead organic
remains including tabolic waste and excreta's derived from grazing food chain 01
generally termed as "Detritus." The energy contained in Detritus is not lost in
ecosystem as a whole, rather it serves as source of energy for a group of organism's
called as detrivores that are separate from the grazing food chain. The food chain so
formed is called detritus food chain. It starts with debris or decaying organic matter, of
plant and animal bodies leading to larger organisms of a food chain.
Detritus --------- Earth worms------------------ Frogs --------------------- Snake
(Producer) (Primary consumer) (Secondary consumer) (Tertiary consumer)
2. Biogeochemical Cycles:- Biogeochemical Cycles are cyclical passage of
Biogeochemical like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur between the living
components, the earth (geo) of the biosphere so that what is provided by earth to return
back to it.
Broadly, there are two types
1- Gaseous cycle- like Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle etc
2- Sedimentary cycle – like Phosphorus cycle, Sulphur cycle etc.
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Aquatic Ecosystem
The seas are characterized by constancy and lands by variability. The seas have always
existed and been connected. At one time or another nearly every bit of land had been covered
by sea. Even areas where we now find great mountain ranges were once under water. For
example, the deposits comprising the Himalaya mountains were once, many millions of years
ago, the floor of an eastward continuation of the Mediterranean.
Water maintains link between the five biomes and it makes up the largest part of the
biosphere, covering nearly 75% of the Earth's surface. Aquatic regions house numerous
species of plants and animals, both large and small. In fact, this is where life began billions
of years ago when amino acids first started to come together. Without water, most life forms
would be unable to sustain themselves and the Earth would be a barren, desert like place.
Although water temperatures vary widely, aquatic areas tend to be more humid and the air
temperature is cool side. The aquatic biome is classified into two basic regions, i. Freshwater
(ponds and rivers) and ii. Marine (oceans and estuaries).
The pond ecosystem is an example for aquatic ecosystem.
i. Fresh water Ecosystem
Freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from pollution. Runoff containing fertilizer and
other wastes and industrial dumping enter into rivers, ponds, and lakes and tend to promote
abnormally rapid algae growth. When these algae die, dead organic matter accumulates in the
water. This makes the water-unusable and it kills many of the organisms living in the habitat
Stricter laws have helped to slow down this thoughtless pollution Freshwater has low salt
concentration (less than 1 per cent) therefore, the plants and animals living in freshwater
adjust themselves with low salt content and unable to survive in areas of high salt
concentration (Ocean). Following are the freshwater regions – Lentic zone (example ponds,
Lake) & Lotic zone (example River, streams).
ii. Marine water ecosystem
Marine regions cover about three fourths of the Earth's surfaces and include oceans, coral
reefs, and estuaries. Marine algae supply much of the world's oxygen supplier and take in a
huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The evaporation of the seawater provides
rainwater for the land.
The oceans, which cover 70 percent of the earth's surface, constitute one of the greatest
reservoirs of living things and of le essential nutrients needed by both land and marine
organisms. The average depths of the oceans are roughly a 1600 meters. Since the organisms
are found throughout the depths of the oceans, the actual space available for marine life is
about 300 times as great as the space available for terrestrial life. As in other ecosystems, the
life in the ocean also depends upon light. With light the ocean becomes a factory for life. The
energy of tight is stored in carbon compounds, which are used for the substances and energy
of all organisms. The life in the ocean is affected by important physical factors like currents,
tides, depth, temperature, light penetration, salinity and pressure etc.
Ponds and Lakes Ecosystem
All standing fresh water habitats such as ponds, lakes are example of lentic ecosystem. Fresh
water ecosystems have low percentage of dissolve salts. Two major components are Biotic
and Abiotic component. Biotic components present in wetlands are the following;
i. Producers:- They are two types of producers . (a) the rooted or large floating plants
like ocellatoria, Chara, Hydrilla, Azola, Utricularia, Vallisnaria Lamnea,
Ceratophyllum, etc., and (b) phytoplankton including Volvox, Euglena, Green algae
etc. Sometimes in certain of the ponds the rooted plants remain absent, thus
phytoplanktons are distributed throughout the pond as deep as light penetrates. They
play a significant role in the production of food.
ii. Consumers:- In pond ecosystem the primary consumers or herbivores remain
dependent upon the living green plants or the plant remains. The herbivores are
 further divided into three categories : (a) the primary consumers that are bottom
dwellers like molluscs and certain insects, and Zooplanktons. (b) The secondary
consumers or the carnivores which feed on the primary consumers may be fishes
(Catla, Labeo, Barbus, Chela, etc.), frogs, insects and larger carnivorous fishes. (c)
Tertiary consumers feed the secondary consumer. Example Cat fish, water snakes etc.

iii. Decomposers:- In pond ecosystem bacteria, flagellates and fungi serve as

decomposers. These are distributed throughout the pond but are abundant in the mud.
Under favourable conditions, the decomposition occurs rapidly in water and their
broken pieces are consumed by the combined action of detritus feeding animals and
microorganisms. Their nutrients are released for reuse.
Abiotic Components:- It is also non-living components. They are sun light, water. Water
contains dissolved salt of calcium, potassium, sodium. Dissolve gases like oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide. The climatic factors like temperature is also an important abiotic factor.
Functional aspect of Pond ecosystem:- Producers by photosynthesis synthesis food. It
consists of aquatic bacteria and fungi. They decompose the dead bodies. This helps in
recycling the minerals in the pond ecosystem. This recycling is essential for stability of the
ecosystem. All the different components of the ecosystem interact and influence each other.
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Forest Ecosystem
Introduction:- Forests are community of plants structurally defined by its trees, shrubs,
climbers and ground cover. Forests occupy about 40 per cent of land and in India, it is about
one tenth of the total land area. The forest ecosystems consist of two components: the abiotic
component and biotic component.
Abiotic component: The type of forests depends upon the abiotic conditions at the
site. The type of forests depending on the abiotic factors such as climate and soil
characteristics can be coniferous forests, evergreen forests, deciduous forests, mangrove
forests, etc. The abiotic components are both inorganic as well as organic substances present
in the soil and in the atmosphere. The inorganic substances are CO2, water, oxygen, nitrogen
and inorganic salts of calcium and magnesium such as their phosphates, sulphates and
nitrates. There are trace elements like iron, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, etc. present in the
soil; the organic components are the carbohydrates, proteins, lipids found in the dead organic
debris which form a part of the soil. The physical components are sunlight, heat, rainfall, pH
of the soil, etc.
Biotic component: The living organism or the biotic components are (i) producers (ii)
consumers and (iii) decomposers.
(i) Producers: They are mainly trees which show much species diversity and
greater degree of stratification especially in tropical moist deciduous forests. The diversity of
tree depends upon the climatic condition of the site. Besides trees there are shrubs, climbers,
epiphytes and ground vegetation. In India, the coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan
Mountain Region where temperature is low. The trees have needle like leaves and downward
sloping branches. The evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall regions. The trees overlap
with each other and form continuous canopy. The forests are rich in orchids and ferns.
Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall. These
forests have a thick undergrowth as light penetrates easily. Thorn forests are found in the
semi-arid regions. Thorny plants called xerophytes species are found here. The mangrove
forests grow along the coast especially in the river deltas.
(ii) Consumers: Consumers are of three types:
(a) Primary consumers: These are herbivores such as ants, flies, bugs feeding on
tree leaves, larger animals grazing on shoots and fruits of producers, such as elephant, nilgai,
deer, squirrel, flying fox, mongoose, etc.
(b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores feeding on herbivores. Some
common examples are snakes, birds, frogs, lizards, etc.
(c) Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivores like lion, tiger, hyena, etc.
(iii) Decomposers: These are wide variety of microorganisms including fungi
(species of coprinus, polyporus, fusarium, etc.) bacteria (species of bacillus, clostridium,
angiococcus, etc.) and actinomytes like species of Streptomyces. These microorganisms
actively participate in bio-geo-chemical nutrients cycling.
Functions of Forest Ecosystem
The functions of the forest ecosystem are very crucial to life on earth. Let us have a
look at the important functions served by the forests.
The biggest utility of forests for the environment is its function as a lifeline. Forests
induced life into lifeless rock. The new area of land is first colonized by a few plants which
were very strong and could live on bare rock. Slowly other plants and animals followed. Then
the trees and forest develop.
The forests ecosystem has a very important function in the production of the soil. The
soil on the land is nothing but the remains of the old broken-down rock mixed with the dead
plants of the forest. The resultant soil supports many life forms including many small animals
and bacteria and plants. Not only do forests aid the production of soil but also protects the
soil though its roots. If heavy rains come and there are no trees, soil erosion will take place as
the soil will get muddy and wash away, polluting streams, rivers and the sea.
The forest shelters the gardens against erosions. When strong winds and heavy rains
 come the trees protect the gardens by acting like an anchor. Strong winds can hurt crops and
dry out the soil. Near the coast, salt spray can poison the soil or harm the crops without the
shelter of trees. The forests also help protect homes and villages from strong winds by acting
as a natural boundary.
The forest holds water. This storage function is beneficial in times of little or no rain.
The forest controls the flow of water over the land too by trapping the water in the soil during
heavy rains. They hold water in their branches, trunks, roots and leaves. The greenery of the
forests helps in preventing the land from going dry and barren.
When the wind blows over the land it moves through the trees and the interaction
between the wind and the trees help in the release of water into the wind. When the wind goes
through the trees, the trees also put excess heat from the sun into the wind. The heated, wet
air then lifts up because hot air rises. When the hot, wet air hits the cooler wind above the
land, it becomes clouds. Thereby, helping in further regulating the temperature.
The forest also helps in providing material benefits through products like wood for
construction of homes, creation of tools, boats, carvings and wood as a fuel for cooking. The
forest also houses many plants which are of great economic value. Not just trees, forests also
are important for products like foods, spices and medicines.
The forests have universal as well as local value, they form a part of the heritage for local
people. They provide plenty of benefits for humans and we must do the same by protecting it.
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Concept of Ecological Succession:-
Meaning of Succession :- Biotic communities are not static. Instead they change through
time. This change can be understood on several levels. The simplest level is the growth,
interaction and death of individual organisms as they pass through their life cycles, affected by
the cycles of seasons and other natural phenomena. Some other levels of community change
act over longer time spans and that account for much larger changes in community
composition and structure. These include ecological succession and community evolution.
It is evident from the above said that the term succession denotes a sequence of changes in the
species composition of a community, which is generally associated with a sequence of
changes in its structural and functional properties. The term is generally used for temporal
sequence (in terms of years, decades or centuries) of vegetation on a site; although only
short term changes can be observed directly and the long term ones are inferred from
spatial sequences.
The changes associated with succession are usually progressive or directional. This fact
enables one to predict which species are likely to replace other in the course of a succession.
Sucession tends to continue until the species combinations best suited to the regional climate
and the particular site are established.
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